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6.1.1 Solid angles

Recall that an angle 0 in a circle is defined by dividing the arc length s
which the angle subtends by the radius r (see Fig. 6.2), so that

(6.3)

The angle is measured in radians. The angle subtended by the whole

circle at its centre is then
ZTT
27. (6.4)
By analogy, a solid angle N in a sphere (see Fig. 6.3) is defined by
dividing the surface area A which the solid angle subtends by the radius
squared, so that
Fig. 6.2 The definition of angle 0 in
- (6.5) terms of the arc length.

The solid angle is neasured in steradians. The solid angle subtended

by a whole sphere at its centre is then

4Tr
4T. (6.6)

6.1.2 The number of molecules travelling in a

certain direction at a certain speed
If all molecules are equally likely to be travelling in any direction, the
fraction whose trajectories lie in an elemental solid angle dsQ is

d2
4T
(6.7)
Fig. 6.3 The definition of solid angle
S = A / r where r is the radius of the
If we choose a particular direction, then the solid angle d corresponding sphere nnd A is the surface aren ove
to molecules travelling at angles between 6 and 6+dé to that direction is the region of the sphere indicated.

58 Pressure

equal to the area of the annular region shown shaded in the unit-radius
sphere of Fig. 6.4 which is given by
d2 = 2T sin 0 de, (6.8)
ticular
direction
that
dS2 sin 6de. (6.9)
4T
Therefore, a number of molecules per unit volume given by

n fo) de sin Odo (6.10)

Fig. 6.4 The area of the shaded region
on this sphere of unit radius is equalto
the circumference of a circle of radius
sin multiplied by the width d0 and is
hence given by 2T sin 6 de.
have speeds between v and v+dv and are travelling at angles between 6
to the chosen direction, where f(o) is the speed distribution
function.

6.1.3 The number of molecules hitting a wall

We now let our particular direction, up until now arbitarily chosen, lie
perpendicular to a wall of area A (see Fig. 6.5). In a small time dt, the
molecules travelling at angle 6 to the normal to the wall sweep out a
volume
Avdt cos 0. 6.11
Multiplying this volumme by the number in expression 6.10 implies that
in time dt, the number of molecules hitting a wall of area A is
dt
Avdt
cos0n f)du , sinOd0. (6.12)
A Hence, the number of molecules hitting unit area of wall in unit time,
and having speeds between v and v+du and travelling at angles between
and +d6, is given by

vcOsn fv) do j sin @de. (6.13)

Fig. 6.5 Molecules hit a region of wall

(of cros-sectionalarea A/ xA/=
A) at an angle 6. The number hit-
ting in time dt is the volumne of the
shaded region (A vdt cos 0) multiplied
by n f(v) du sin 6.
The angle 6 runs from 0 to T for all
c e s , owever, in the integral we
only consider molecCules with Irom 0
t o T/2 becalise these are the ones whicth
will hit the wall. Those with 7/2 < 6 .
6.2 The ideal gas law
We are now in a position to calculate the pressure of a gas on its con-
tainer. Each molecule hitting the wall of the container has a momentum
change of 2mv cos 6, which is perpendicular to the wall. This change of
momentum is equivalent to an impulse. Hence, if we multiply 2mv cos6
(the momentum change arising from one molecule hitting the container
walls) by the number of molecules hitting unit area per unit time, and
having speeds between v and v +dv and angles between 6 and 6 +d6
(which we derived in eqn 6.13), and then integrating over 8 and v, we
should get the pressure p. Thus
(2mv cos 0) vcos n f(v) du , sin 6 do

T are travelling away from the wall.

-

mnd f 0sin0de, (6.14)

 7.1 Flux
The concept of ffux is a very important one in thermal physics. It
of
quantiies the fow particles the flowisoftheemergy
momentum. Of relevance to this
or or even the flow of
chapter molecular fux, d, which

7.1 Flu 65

defined to be the umber of molecules striking unit

is
Thus
area per second.

molecular flux =
number of molecules
area x time
(7.3)
The units of molecular flux are therefore m-*s. We can also define
heat fiux using
amount of heat
heat fHuX= area x time
(7.4)
The units of heat flux are therefore J m s . In Section 9.1, we will
also come across a flux of momentum.
Returning to the effusion problem, we note that the flux of molecules
in a gas can be evaluated by integrating expression 6.13 over all v and
In the integral we only consider
0, so that molecules with b from 0 to m/2 because
these are the ones which will contribute
vcos n f(v) dv ; sin 0 de to the flux through a particular area.
Those with r/2 < 8 <T are travelling
away trom the area.
T/2
devo)do cos 0sin 0 (7.5) We have used
(Hint: substitute u
de cos sin 6
sin 6, du
=
=

==

the integral becomes

so that de, so
cosudu that
Jo =
2)
-n(v). e-11 . mo
(7.6)
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