ME 5129 - Principles of Thermal Energy Conversion

Lecture - X

Review of thermodynamics, fluid flow and heat transfer.

Prof. Sarit Kumar Das

Institute Professor
Heat Transfer &Thermal Power Lab.
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute Of Technology Madras
skdas@iitm.ac.in
 Basic modes of Heat Transfer
 The basic three modes of heat transfer are conduction, convection and radiation.
𝑑𝑇
 The rate of heat transfer by Conduction is, 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = −𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑥
 In heat conduction, the direction of heat transfer and that of temperature gradient
are always opposite. That is the reason for the negative sign. Unit of Thermal
conductivity (k) is W/mK.
 In convection, rate of heat transfer depends on the temperature difference between
the wall and the fluid. 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑓 )

 Here, h is the heat transfer coefficient (W/m2K) and A is the wall area.
 Radiative heat transfer depends on the 4th power of temperature.
𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝜎𝜖𝐴 𝑇𝑤4 − 𝑇∞4
2
 Heat Conduction
 The equation for steady conduction heat transfer in the presence of a heat source is,
𝑘𝛻 2 𝑇 + 𝑄′′′ = 0
 For one dimensional heat transfer across a rectangular slab in x direction is,
𝑑2 𝑇
𝑘 2 + 𝑄 = 0 Where, Q is heat source.
𝑑𝑥
Temperature
𝑥2 profile
 The temperature solution is given as 𝑇 𝑥 = −𝑄 + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
2𝑘

𝑇−𝑇0 𝑥
 When 𝑄 = 0, 𝑇 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 →
′′
=
𝑇1 −𝑇0 𝐿

 For radial conduction in cylindrical geometry,

𝑇 𝑟 = 𝑎 ln 𝑟 + 𝑏
 For radial conduction in spherical geometry, A slab with constant A slab with
heat flux and convective uniform heat
𝑎 generation
𝑇 𝑟 = +𝑏 boundary conditions 3
𝑟
 One dimensional Heat Conduction
 Conduction heat transfer can be written as a resistance network,
 Where, Q heat rate is the current and ∆𝑇 is the voltage difference.
𝑇1 − 𝑇0 𝑇0 − 𝑇1 ∆𝑇
𝑄 = −𝑘𝐴 = =
𝐿 𝐿 𝑅𝑡ℎ
𝑘𝐴
𝐿
 The thermal resistance is defined as 𝑅𝑡ℎ =
𝑘𝐴

 If composite slabs with temperature differences Tf2 and Tf1

across them, the heat transfer can be calculated as

Tf 1  Tf 2 Tf 1  Tf 2
Qx  
Rtot 1 l1 l2 l3 1
   
h1 A k1 A k2 A k3 A h2 A
4
 Heat Conduction in a Cylinder
d 2T 1 dT q
2
  0
dr r dr k
q
 After integration, T = C1 ln r + C2 + r2
4k
T  T1 ln(ri / r)
=
 When q‘’ = 0, T2  T1 ln (ri / ro )

 The heat flux can be calculated by remembering that

the area at a given radius r is given by 2 πrl where l is
dT
the length of the tube. Qr =  k (2rl )
dr
dT T1  T2 T1  T2 T1  T2
dr
= 1
ln ( ro / ri )
Qr = 1

R
2kl ln ( ro / ri )
2kl
ln(𝑟𝑜−𝑟𝑖)
 The thermal resistance for cylinder is 𝑅𝑡ℎ = 5
2π𝑘𝑙
 Heat Conduction in a composite Cylinder
T fi  T fo
QR 
1  1 ln(r1 / ri ) ln(r2 / r1 ) ln(ro / r2 ) 1 
   
2l  ri hi k1 k2 k3 ro ho 

 A special case of this is a tube with internal and external convection. In this case
T fi  T fo
only one layer is there and hence the equation reduces it QR 
1 l n (ro / ri ) 1
 
2lri hi k 2lro ho
 This is an extensively used equation for heat exchangers where the equation is
written in the form QR =U (2πrol) (Tfi - Tfo)

 U is known as the overall heat transfer coefficient given by,

1 1 ln(lro / ri ) 1
  
U (2rol ) 2lrh
i i k 2lro ho
6
 Critical thickness of insulation
 The heat loss from the insulation is given by the resistance form of
heat transfer equation
Ti  T f
Qr= ln(r / r ) 1
o i

2kl 2rol ho
 Qr will be maximum when the denominator is minimum with
respect to ro. Thus, the condition reduces to
d  ln ro / ri 1  1  1 1 

dro  2kl
 
2rolho 
or    =0
2l  kro ro2 ho 

 This results in a unique value of ro at which Qr is maximum

k
ro,opt=
ho
7
 Heat Transfer in Extended surface or Fins
qxA = qx+dxA + dqconv
dqx
qx+dx = qx  dx
dx
dqconv=h P dx (T - T∞)
 Where, q is the conducting flux at a particular x co-ordinate and the dqconv is the heat loss
from the surface of the fin element by convection. A is the cross section area of the fin which
is constant in this case.

d 2T hP hP
2
 (T  T ) = 0 m=
dx Ak Ak
d 2
2
 m2 =0
dx
ϴ(x)=C1emx + C2e-mx 8
 Convection heat transfer
 Consider a lumped mass system (without any temperature variation) within the
object. Let V be the volume, A be the area , C be the specific Heat and r be the
density. If the system is losing heat convectively to the surrounding fluid at Tf , then
heat balance gives:
𝑑𝑇
−𝜌𝐶𝑉 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑓 )
𝑑𝑡
The above equation can be integrated with time to get:
ℎ𝐴 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑓 𝑡
𝑇 𝑡 = 𝑇𝑓 + 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑓 × 𝑒𝑥𝑝 − 𝑡 → = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −
𝜌𝑉𝐶 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑓 𝜏

Here, Ti is the initial temperature of the system. The time

𝜌𝑉𝐶
constant 𝜏 =
ℎ𝐴
 Convective Heat Transfer
Uo
Uo
d

Tw x
 Consider a uniform flow of velocity Uo which approaches a flat plate,
parallel to the plate.
 When the flow comes into contact with the plate, fluid velocity becomes
zero on the plate due to no slip condition.
 A laminar boundary layer develops on the plate, whose thickness is
denoted by ‘d’.
 Laminar Boundary layer growth
 The momentum boundary layer grows as a consequence of diffusion of

momentum due to viscous effects.

 For any diffusion process, the depth of penetration is given by 𝛿 ≈ 𝜗𝑡

𝑥
 The residence time needed by the flow to travel a distance of ‘x’ is 𝑡 = .
𝑈0

 Substituting for time ‘t’ , the boundary layer thicknessat an axial distance of x is,

𝜗𝑥 𝜗 𝑥
𝛿≈ =𝑥 =
𝑈0 𝑥𝑈0 𝑅𝑒𝑥
 Laminar Thermal Boundary Layer
 A laminar thermal boundary layer with
Tf
wall temperature of Tw and fluid Uo, Tf
dth
temperature of Tf is shown in the figure.
Tw

 For thermal boundary layer thickness, the Prandtl number Pr plays an important
𝜗
role. Prandtl number is defined as Pr = where 𝜗and 𝛼 are the momentum and
𝛼

thermal diffusivities.

𝜇 𝑘
 Also, 𝜗 = and 𝛼 = . For Pr > 1, the velocity boundary layer is thicker than
𝜌 𝜌𝐶𝑝

thermal boundary layer and Pr <1, the thermal boundary layer is thicker than
velocity boundary layer. For viscous oils, Pr > 1 and for liquid metals Pr <<1.
 Laminar Thermal Boundary Layer
 Approximating the wall heat transfer (by conduction), we can obtain an estimate
for the heat transfer coefficient. Thus,
𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑓
𝑄 ≈ 𝑘𝑓 𝐴 ≈ ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑓 )
𝛿
𝑘𝑓 1
Thus, h ≈ . Since 𝛿 𝛼 𝑥 , h varies as 𝑥 −0.5 .
2
𝛿

ℎ𝑥
The non-dimensional number Nux =
𝑘𝑓

 For laminar flow over a flat plate, the Nusselt number correlation is,
ℎ𝑥
𝑁𝑢𝑥 = = 0.332 𝑅𝑒𝑥0.5 𝑃𝑟 0.33
𝑘𝑓
 Nusselt number correlations
 Integrating the heat transfer coefficient across the boundary layer for x = 0 to x =
l, the average Nusselt number for laminar flow over a flat plate is,
ℎ𝐿
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = = 0.664 𝑅𝑒𝐿0.5 𝑃𝑟 0.33
𝑘𝑓

ℎ𝐷
 For laminar flow over a sphere 𝑁𝑢𝐷 = = 2.0 + 0.6𝑅𝑒𝐷0.5 𝑃𝑟 0.33
𝑘𝑓

 For turbulent flow over a flat plate, 𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 0.029 𝑅𝑒𝐿0.8 𝑃𝑟 0.33 .

 For turbulent flow in a tube, 𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 0.023 𝑅𝑒𝐷0.8 𝑃𝑟 0.33

 Natural Convection Heat Transfer
 For natural convection, equating inertial force to buoyancy, we get
𝜌𝑉 2 ≈ 𝜌𝑔𝛽∆𝑇𝐿 → 𝑉 2 ≈ 𝑔𝛽∆𝑇𝐿

 Based on this velocity estimate, we define

dth
𝑔𝛽∆𝑇𝐿3
𝐺𝑟 = Where Grashof number Gr is like Re2 .
𝜗2
 For natural convection over a sphere

Tw
NuD = 2.0 + 0.6 GrD0.25 Pr 0.33

Tf
 For natural convection over a vertical plate
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 0.59 𝑅𝑎𝐿0.25 Where Ra = Gr.Pr
Here, Ra is Rayleigh number.
 Introductory Remarks
 Recall – Conduction & convection heat transfer
 Requires temperature gradient in a media – gas, liquid, solid.
 Now consider interaction of an object with its surrounding in vacuum

At t = 0, Ts > Tsur
What will happen after a finite time ??

 Radiation from the object

 Radiation from the surrounding
 Net heat transfer until,
Ts = Tsur - equilibrium
Radiation takes place even in the absence of a material medium
 Introductory Remarks
 Presence of a medium tends to reduce radiation !

 All forms of matter at non-zero temperature (T > 0K) emit radiations

• Gases – emission all over the material. Volumetric Phenomenon
• Solids & Liquids – Radiations from interior molecules strongly absorbed by
surrounding molecules. Surface Phenomenon
 What is the nature of transport ?
• Classical theory – Electromagnetic waves
• Quantum theory – Photons
Wave properties – frequency n, wavelength l
n x l = c (speed of light in the medium)
2.998 x 108 m/s in vacuum
 Introductory Remarks
Electromagnetic Spectrum

Thermal Radiation ~ 0.1 – 100mm

Violet – 0.4mm Red – 0.7mm

Practical Applications
 Blackbody Radiation
Blackbody is an ideal surface in radiation:

 Absorbs all incident radiation – every wavelength & direction

 Diffuse emitter – I l, e (l, T, q, f) = f (q, f)
 I l, b (l, T)
 At any l & T no surface can emit more energy than a blackbody

 No surface has precisely the properties of a blackbody

 Some practical surfaces closely approximates blackbody
 Closest approximation – cavity with uniform inner surface
temperature
 Blackbody Radiation
Spectral intensity distribution of Blackbody emission given by Planck

2 h c02
I, b  5
 exp h c0 /  k T  1
h = Planck’s constant = 6.6256 x 10-34 J.s
k = Boltzmann constant = 1.3805 x 10-23 J/K
c0 = Speed of light in vacuum = 2.998 x 108 m/s

Spectral emissive power of Blackbody – diffuse emitter

C1
E , b  , T    I  , b  , T   5
 exp  C2 /  T  1

C1 = 2  h c02 = 3.742 x 108 W mm4/m2

C2 = h c0 / k = 1.439 x 104 mm K
Blackbody Radiation
• E , b (, T)

• Notice – spectral
distribution max – @
 max
• max T = 2898 mm.K
- Wein’s Displacement
Law

• How does the real

surface behave?
 Kirchhoff’s Law
In the most generic form – As both are inherent surface property.
Independent of spectral & directional
e,  a,  distributions of emitted and incident radiation

For practical problems we want to find out

e  a ?? & e  a ??
2  / 2

  e   cos sin  d d
, Conditions for e  a
e   , T   0 0
2  / 2

  cos sin  d d Either the surface is diffuse, i.e.,

0
2  / 2
0 e,  & a,  are independent of , 
 a  I , ,i cos sin  d d
Or the irradiation is diffuse, i.e., I, i
a     0 0
2  / 2
is independent of , 
  I
0 0
,i cos sin  d d
 Kirchhoff’s Law
Conditions for e  a
 

 e  E  , T  d
,b  a  G   d
e T   0 a 0

Eb T 


 G   d
0

Either of the first two needs to be satisfied. Diffuse surface or diffuse

irradiation, so that e  a

In addition
Either The surface is gray, i.e., e & a are independent of 

Or the irradiation is due to emission from a blackbody, i.e., G ) = E,b

(, T) & G = Eb (T)
 Kirchhoff’s Law
For practical problems a gray surface need not be gray over the entire
spectrum !

Surface is gray in the range of 1

to 2 !!
Radiation Exchange Between Surfaces
Assumptions:

• Surfaces are isothermal

• Opaque, diffuse & gray
• Non-participating medium

Net radiation at a surface

Qi = Ai (Ji – = Ai (Ei – ai
Gi) Gi)
Ji = ei Ebi + ri Gi = ei Ebi + (1 – ei)
Gi
Ebi  J i
Qi 
1 e i  / e i Ai
Radiation Exchange Between Surfaces
Radiation exchange between surfaces

Ai Gi  A1 J1 F1i  A2 J 2 F2i  ......

N N
  A j J j F ji   Ai J j Fij
j 1 j 1

 N  N
Qi  Ai  J i  Gi   Ai   Fij J i   Fij J j    Ai Fij J i  J j 
N

 j 1 j 1  j 1
Ebi  J i N Ji  J j
Qi  
1 e i  / e i Ai j 1 Ai Fij 1
1 e i  N Ji  J j
 Ti  J i 
4

e i Ai
 A F 
j 1
1
i ij
28