Chapter 11: Blood Formed Elements

Functions of Blood 1. Erythrocytes (RBC)

1. Transport of gases, nutrients, and waste products— ● disk-shaped w/ thick edges (biconcave)
Transport medium: oxygen enters the blood in the ● nucleus—lost through dvpt.
lungs to the cells; carbon dioxide is produced by ● live for 120 days in M; 110 in F
cells and is carried to the blood to the lungs where it ● transport O2 from the lungs to tissues & CO2
is expelled. fr. tissues to lungs
2. Transport of processed molecules Hemoglobin
3. Transport of regulatory molecules ● main comp. of RBCs
4. Regulation of pH and osmosis—blood’s pH 7.35- ● transports oxygen
7.45; osmotic composition—critical for maintaining ● each globin protein is attached to a heme
normal fluid & ion balance. molecule
● each heme mol. has 1 iron atom
5. Maintenance of body temp—heat generated by ● O2 binds to iron—necessary for normal
metabolism warms the blood; Warm blood is trans. hemoglobin functions
from the interior of the body to the surface where ● Oxyhemoglobin: hemoglobin w/ an oxygen
heat from the blood is released. attached
6. Protection against foreign substances. ● 4 protein chains (globin—bound to 1 heme)
and 4 heme groups
7. Clot formation—prevents excessive blood loss and
is the first step in tissue repair. RBC Production

Composition of Blood 1. Decreased blood oxygen levels cause kidneys to

increase prod. of erythropoietin.
● 8% of total body weight
2. Increased prod of erythropoietin stimulates red
● connective tissue
bone marrow (RBM) to prod erythrocytes.
● made of liquid (plasma) and cells & cell
fragments (formed elements) 3. Increased RBC causes an increase in blood oxygen
levels.
Plasma (58% of blood volume)
Fate of Old Erythrocytes & Hemoglobin
● pale yellow; surrounds cells
● 91% water, 7% proteins, 2% ions, nutrients, Old RBCs – removed from blood by macrophages in
gases spleen & liver.

Formed Elements (45%) Hemoglobin – broken down after phagocytosis.

● erythrocytes (95%) 700x > WBCs & 17x > Globin – broken down into amino acids.
Platelets
Hemoglobin’s iron is converted to bilirubin – end
● leukocytes
product of RBC breakdown.
● thrombocytes (platelets)
2. Leukocytes (WBC)
Plasma Proteins
● lack hemoglobin & spherical in shape
● Albumin (58%)—water balance
● with nucleus
● Globulins (35%)—immune system
● fight infections & remove dead cells & debris
● Fibrinogen (4%)—clot formation
by phagocytosis
Hematopoiesis: process of formed elements
2 Types of WBCs
formation (In fetus: occurs even in tissues; after birth
is only exclusive in the red bone marrow.) I. Granulocytes
Stem cells (hemocytoblasts) a. Neutrophils (most common)

● origin of all formed elements ● stay for 10-12 hrs. then move to the tissues
● differentiate to give rise to diff. cell lines, each ● phagocytize microorgs.
ends w/ formation of a particular formed ● multi-lobed nucleus
element ● pale red & blue cytoplasmic granules

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b. Eosinophils
● reduce inflammation
● destroys worm parasites
● bi-lobed nucleus
c. Basophils (least common)
● release histamine and heparin (an
anticoagulant—prevents clot formation)
II. Agranulocytes
a. Monocytes (largest WBCs)
● kidney-shaped nucleus
● becomes macrophages—ingest micro-orgs
& cellular debris
b. Lymphocytes (faintly blue-stained cytoplasm)
● antibody prod & other immune responses
● T (thymus) cells [cell-mediated immunity] &
B (bone marrow) cells
3. Platelets (thrombocytes)
● minute cell fragments, each has a small
amount of cytoplasm surrounded by a cell
membrane
● prod in the RBM from large cells—
megakaryocytes
● small fragments break off fr. the
megakaryocytes and enter blood & platelets
Blood loss
● damaged blood vessels leak to other tissues
and disrupt normal functions
● lost blood is replaced by prod of new blood
or by transfusion
Prevention of Blood Loss
1. Vascular spasm—tempo constriction of blood
vessels; results from injury (decreased blood flow)
2. Platelet plug formation—seals up small breaks in
blood vessels; adhere to collagen; releases ATP &
thromboxane (activates platelets to connect to each
other with fibrinogen)
3. Blood clotting (coagulation)—liquid to gel
Clot/Fibrin
● network of thread-like proteins (fibrins)—
traps blood cells, platelets, and fluid
● formation depends on the # of protein found
within plasma—clotting factors
Clotting Factors
● proteins in plasma which are only activated
ff. injury
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● made in the liver
● requires vitamin K for synthesis
● ex. Von Willebrand (VIIIth CF)
● ex. fibrinogen (Ist CF)
Steps in Clot Formation
1. Inactive clotting factors in the plasma are activated
by exposure to CT or by chemicals released from
tissues. The activated clotting factors form
prothrombinase.
2. Prothrombinase converts prothrombin to
thrombin.
3. Thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin (clot).
Clot Formation Control—needed as to not spreading
throughout the body
Anticoagulants – prevent clot formation
Injury causes enough clotting factors to be activated
that anticoagulants can’t work in that particular area
of the body.
Thrombus: attached clot (not moving)
Embolus (heart, brain, lungs): break loose thrombus
Clot Retraction & Fibrinolysis
Clot Retraction
● clot condenses
● serum (in plasma)—squeezed out of the clot
● serum (plasma protein with no clotting
factors)
● enhances healing
Fibrinolysis
● dissolves clot
● plasminogen (plasma protein) breaks down
clot (fibrin)
Blood Grouping
Injury/surgery: can lead to blood transfusion
Transfusion Reactions/Agglutination – bad clumping
of blood cells
Antigens: molecules on surfaces of erythrocytes
(recognized as foreign)
Antibodies: bind to antigen and is very specific (1
antibody : 1 antigen); proteins in plasma
Blood groups—named acc. to antigents (ABO)
ABO Blood Groups
● 2 types of antigens that may appear on
surfaces of RBCs
● Type O—neither A or B antigens
 ● genetically determined WBC Differential Count
● antibodies against antigens—present in
plasma of blood ● 5 types of leukocytes
● plasma from type B blood contains anti-A ● neutrophils (60-70%)
antibodies w/c act against type A antigens Leukopenia
● Type AB—no antibody (univ recipients) | Type
O—no antigen (univ donors) ● low blood count resulting from decreased
prod or destruction of red bone marrow
Rhesus Blood Group

● Rh+: contains Rh antigens

● 95-85% of Ph population is Rh+
● Antibodies only develop if an Rh- person is
exposed to an Rh+ blood by transfusion or
from mother to fetus
● Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn (HDN):
mother Rh- (has antibodies for Rh+) RBCs
cannot identify the RBC of the fetus—attacks
RBCs of the baby; worst case:
erythroblastosis fetalis
● Coone’s Test (direct/indirect): test for det. if
baby is Rh+

Prevention of HDN

● Rh- mother can be injected with Rho(D)

immune globulin (RhoGAM)—antibodies
against Rh antigens
● 2 arteries 1 vein; umbilical cord is utilized for
transfusion
● any repeated mixing of blood causes a
reaction
● occurs when mother produces anti-Rh
antibodies that cross placenta and
agglutination & hemolysis of fetal
erythrocytes occurs
● can be fatal to the fetus

Diagnostic Blood Tests

CBC (Complete blood count)—RBC count,

hemoglobin (lack of it indicates anemia; 14-18g in M
& 12-16g in F), hematocrit (% of total blood vol.
composition of RBC; 42-52 % in M & 38-48% in F);
WBC count

2 Ways to Measure the Ability of Blood to Clot

1. Prothrombin time: usually 9-12 secs; time it takes

for blood to begin clotting (INR-international
nationalized ratio)

2. Platelet count: 240-400k per microL of blood

Thrombocytopenia: low platelet count caused by

decreased platelet prod. as a result of hereditary
disorders, lack of vit. B12, drug therapy, or radiation
therapy

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