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1
(AF-117) Engineering Mechanics

TEACHING & EXAMINATION SCHEME
2
Teaching Marks
Scheme
(Hours)
Lec. Tut. Pra. Ext. Sess. TW Pra. Total
03 02 00 60 40 25 00 125
Syllabus
3
1. Introduction
• Definitions
• Classifications of mechanics
• Fundamental concepts & Fundamental principles of mechanics
• System of units
2. System of forces
• Definitions
• Types of Forces
• Determination of resultant of two force system
• Problems based on resultant of two force system
• Determination of resultant of several force system
• Problems based on resultant of several force system
Syllabus…
4
3. Equilibrium
• Condition for the equilibrium of a particle
• Lami’s theorem
• Problem based on Lami’s theorem
4. Resultant of coplanar non-concurrent forces

• Moment of the force
• Varignon’s theorem
• Couple
• Equivalent force-couple system
• Resultant of coplanar non-concurrent force system
• Problems based on equivalent force-couple system
• Problem based on resultant of coplanar non-concurrent force system
Syllabus…
5
5. Centroid
• Fundamentals of centroid
• Determination of centroid from first principle
• Centroid of line
• Problem based on centroid of line segment
• Centroid of area & Centroid of standard shapes
• Problems based on centroid of area
• Centroid of volume
• Volume & Centroid of regular shape
• Problem based on centroid of volume
• Pappus - Guldinus theorems & problems
Syllabus…
6
6. Friction
• Fundamentals of friction
• Law of dry friction
• Problem based on friction on inclined plane
• Ladder Friction
• Problem based on ladder friction
• Wedge & block friction
• Problem based on wedge & block friction
• Screw friction
• Problem based on screw friction
• Rope & belt drive
• Problem based on rope and belt drive
Syllabus…
7
7. Support reaction
• Type of supports
• Type of loads
• Types of beams
• Problems based on support reaction
• Principle of virtual work
• Problems based on virtual work
8. Force in space
• Fundamentals of force in space
• Problem based on force in space
• Force vector
• Problems based on force vector
Text books & References
8
 Engineering Mechanics by - A.K.Tayal

 Mechanics for Engineers by - Beer & Johnston
 Engineering Mechanics by- Hibbeler R C
 Applied Mechanics by- Dr.H.J.Shah & S.B.Junnarkar
Engineering Mechanics by J. L. Meriam and L. G. Kraige
Engineering Mechanics by S.S.Bhavikatti &
K.G.Rajashekarappa
 Engineering Mechanics by R.S.Khurmi
9
INTRODUCTION
Outline 10
1. Introduction
• Definitions
• Classifications of mechanics
• Fundamental concepts & Fundamental principles of mechanics
• System of units
INTRODUCTION
11
Mechanics can be defined as the branch of physical science which

deals with the state of Rest or Motion of bodies under the action of
Forces.
In general mechanics can be classified as
1. Rigid body mechanics
2. Deformable body mechanics
3. Fluid mechanics
CLASSIFICATION OF RIGID BODY
MECHANICS 12
Rigid Body
Mechanics
STATICS DYNAMICS
Objective -1:To find Single Force
Objective-2:To analyze the
equilibrium of body
KINETICS KINEMATICS
Force/ Mass & s,v,a,t s,v,a,t
Tools
Newton’s laws Differential
Work Energy Equations
Conservation of
Momentum
DEFINATIONS
13
STATICS:-The science which deals with bodies which are at rest.

DYNAMICS :-The science which deals with the bodies in motion.
ENGINEERING MECHANICS:-
• Mechanics may be defined as branch of applied
science that deals with description and prediction of
the condition of rest or motion of bodies under the
action of force.
• The concept of applied mechanics is useful when it

comes to analyzing stress, designing of machine
structures and hydraulics, etc.
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS IN
MECHNAICS 14
The basic concepts used in mechanics are Space, time, mass and
force.
Space:-
• The concept of Space is associated with the notion of the

position of point P. The position of P may be defined by three
lengths measured from certain reference point, or origin, in three
given directions. These lengths are known as the coordinates of
the point P.
MECHNAICS… 15
Event:-
• To define an event , it is not sufficient to indicate its position in
space. The time of the event should also be given.
Mass:-
• The concept of mass is used to characterize and compare
bodies on the basis of certain fundamental mechanical
experiments. Two bodies of the same mass, for example, will be
attracted by the earth in the same manner; they will also offer the
same resistance to a change in translational motion.
MECHNAICS… 16
FORCE :-
• It is an external agency which tries to change the state of rest or
motion of the body.
• A force represents the action of one body on another. It may be
exerted by actual contact or at a distance, as in the case of
gravitational force and magnetic forces. A force is characterized
by its point of application, its magnitude, and its direction.
• Force is a vector quantity.
CONCEPT OF A PARTICLE
17
• A particle does not mean the small corpuscles. What it means is

that the size and shape of the bodies under consideration will
not significantly affect the solution of the problems. Also all the
forces acting on a given body will be assumed applied at the
same point.
• In short, a particle has mass but no volume.

CONCEPT OF RIGID BODY
18
• Most of the bodies considered in mechanics are assumed to

be rigid, a rigid body is defined as one which does not deform
under the action of forces. A rigid body is a combination of
large number of particles occupying fixed positions with
respect to each other.
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF
MECHANICS 19
(1) The Principle of Transmissibility of forces

(2) Newton’s First Law
(3) Newton’s Second Law
(4) Newton’s Third Law
(5) Newton’s Law of Gravitation
MECHANICS… 20
(1)The Principle of Transmissibility of forces

This states that
“The conditions of equilibrium or of motion of a rigid body
will remain unchanged if a force F acting at a given point of the
rigid body is replaced by a force F’ of the same magnitude and
same direction, but acting at a different point, provided that the
two forces have the same line of action.”
MECHANICS… 21
(2) NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION

If the resultant force acting on a particle is zero, the particle will
remain at rest ( if originally at rest) or will move with constant speed
in a straight line ( if originally in motion)
(3) NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION

If the resultant force acting on a particle is not zero, the particle will
have an acceleration proportional to the magnitude of the resultant
and in the direction of this resultant force.
F = m. a
Where F= external resultant force,
m= mass of the body,a= acceleration of the body.
MECHANICS… 22
(4) NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION

The forces of Action and Reaction between bodies in contact have
the same magnitude, same line of action but opposite sense.
(5) NEWTON’S LAW OF GRAVITATION :-
This states that two particles of mass M and m are mutually attracte
with equal and opposite forces F and F’ of magnitude F given by th
formula,
m
r
F = G M m /r 2 F’
F
M
MECHANICS… 23
• where r = distance between the two particles

G = universal constant called the constant of gravitation
• A particular case of great importance is that of the attraction of the
earth on an object located on its surface. The force F exerted by
the earth on this object is then defined as the weight W of the
object. Taking M equal to the mass of the earth, m equal to the
mass of the object, and r equal to the Radius R of the earth, and
introducing the constant
g = GM/ R2 ,
• The magnitude W of the weight of the object of mass m may be
expressed as,
W = mg
SYSTEMS OF UNITS
24
1. FPS SYSTEM
• Length in Feet
• Mass in Pounds
• Time in Seconds
2. MKS System
• Length in Meter
• Mass in Kilogram
• Time in Seconds
SYSTEMS OF UNITS…
25
3. CGS SYSTEM
• Length in Centi-Meter
• Mass in Gram
• Time in Seconds
4. S.I. SYSTEM
• System International
26
SYSTEM OF FORCES
DEFINATION
27
FORCE
• It is an external agency which tries to change the state of rest or
motion of the body. It is completely described by its Direction,
Magnitude, Point of Application & Sense.
Line of action
Head or Tip
Point of 30o
application A X
•It’s magnitude is 50 N.
•It’s direction, is 30 o with horizontal
•It’s point of application, Point A
•It’s sense, (push / pull) It is a pull at A.
SYSTEM OF FORCES
28
COLINEAR FORCES Y
• Forces, whose line of action are F1
along same line, are known as F3
collinear forces .F1,F2,F3 F2 F2
COPLANAR FORCES
F1
• Forces, whose line of action lie in F3 X
one plane, are known as
coplanar forces. F2
Z F3
COPLANAR CONCURRENT FORCES F1
• Forces, whose line of action passes through one point &
with in same plane are known as coplanar concurrent
forces. All the forces may be towards the point (Push or
Compression) or away from the point (Pull or Tension)
SYSTEM OF FORCES…
29
NON-COPLANAR CONCURRENT Y
FORCES
• Forces, whose line of action passes F2
through one point but not in same F1
plane are known as coplanar F3
concurrent forces. All the forces may X
be towards the point (Push or F1
Compression) or away from the F3
point (Pull or Tension). F2
Z
COPLANAR NON-CONCURRENT
FORCES
• The forces acting in one plane
but not meeting at a given point.
SYSTEM OF FORCES…
30
PARALLEL FORCES Y
• Forces, whose line of action are
parallel to each other, are known as F1
parallel forces. F1
• If parallel forces have same F2 F2

direction, they are known as Like X
parallel forces.
F3 F3
• If parallel forces have opposite
direction they are known as Z
Unlike parallel forces.
RESULTANT OF A FORCE SYSTEM
31
Resultant
• A single force which replaces all several forces acting on the
body without changing their effect on the body is called
resultant force of the given system of forces.
Y
Y
R
Z
F1 Z
F2 X
X A
A
F3
RESULTANT OF COPLANER
CONCURRENT FORCES 32
CASE:1 Resultant of Two Forces
Analytically
Graphically
1.Law of Triangle 1. Law of Parallelogram of Forces
of Forces 2.Law of Triangle of Forces
GRAPHICAL METHOD
33
1. Law of Triangle of Forces

• “If two forces acting simultaneously on a particle be
represented in magnitude and direction by the two sides of
a triangle taken in order; their resultant may be represented
in magnitude and direction by the third side of the triangle,
taken in opposite order.”


R
A
ANALYTICAL METHODS
34
1 LAW OF PARALLELOGRAM OF FORCES
• Two forces acting on a particle may be replaced by a single

force, called their resultant, obtained by drawing the
diagonal of the parallelogram which has sides equal to the
given forces.
B C
Q R


O P A
ANALYTICAL METHODS…
35
B C
Q Q R
 Q sin
 
 D
O P O P A Q cos
From above figure : in triangle ODC ,

R2 = (P+Q cos) 2 + (Q sin) 2
= P2 +2 PQ cos  +Q2 cos2  + Q2 sin2 
= P2 + Q2 + 2PQ cos 
R =  (P2 + Q2 + 2PQ cos ) is magnitude of Resultant
tan  = Q sin /(P + Q cos) is direction of Resultant
ANALYTICAL METHODS…
36
2. Law of Triangle of Forces
• “If two forces acting simultaneously on a particle be
represented in magnitude and direction by the two sides of
a triangle taken in order; their resultant may be represented
in magnitude and direction by the third side of the triangle,
taken in opposite order.”


R
A
FIND RESULTANT OF THE FOLLOWING
FORCE SYSTEM 37
Ex-1 If P = 50N, Q = 40N, =40. Find resultant for the force system
using “law of parallelogram”.
B C
P=50N P R
=40° P sin
=40° 

O Q=40N O Q A P cos
R =  (P2 + Q2 + 2PQ cos )
=  502 +402 +2*50*40*cos40 =84.64N (Magnitude)
tan  = Q sin /(P + Q cos)
= 40 sin 40 / (50+40cos40) = 0.3188
so,  = 22°31’ is inclination of Resultant with P.

FORCE SYSTEM… 38
Using law of triangle

Q=40N
P=50N 
P=50N
 R
Analytically, A
Q=40N
R =  (P2 + Q2 - 2PQ cos)
=  (502+402-2*50*40*cos140)
=84.64N (Magnitude)
For Direction, applying Sine Rule:
50/sin  = 40/sin  =84.64/sin140
Therefore,  =17° 41’ &  = 21 ° 19’
FORCE SYSTEM… 39
Ex-2 A hook is subjected to two forces P & Q . If the resultant force

has a magnitude of 150 N and be directed horizontal towards right,
determine ;
1. The magnitudes of P & Q.
2. The magnitudes of P & Q if P is minimum. 70°
P P Q
110°
40° 30°
40°
R = 150 N
hook 30°
Q
Solution:(1) Applying sine rule,

P/ Sin 30 = R/ Sin 110; gives P=79.81 N;
Q/ sin 40 = R / Sin110 ; gives Q= 102.60 N;
FORCE SYSTEM… 40
Graphically A
P Q
P
40 40° R = 150 N C
hook 30 O
30
Q
Q P
Steps:
1. Draw a line // to P from point O. B
2. Draw a line // to Q from point O.
3. Now, Resultant of these two forces is 150N horizontal. So, from O,
draw a horizontal line with magnitude 150N (resultant) to some
scale.
4. From tip of R draw a line // to P and Q which will intersect at the
lines of actions of Q and P at B and A respectively.
5. Measure OA and OB which will give values of P and Q.
Answer : P=79.8 N; & Q= 102.6 N;
FORCE SYSTEM… 41
Ex-3 To find P & Q for Minimum value of P. If the resultant force has
a magnitude of 150 N. R = 150 N
Pmin=? O C
30° 60°
?
hook 30° Q P
Q=?
1. Draw horizontal axis XY as shown. D

2. Draw a line at 30° from XY along
3. Draw XY = 150 N to some scale to represent resultant force of
150N.
4. Now, from tip of 150N force, draw different lines to meet the line
of action of Q. Out of all these lines, a line  ar to Q will give
minimum length of line and hence, minimum value of P.
5. Measure OA and OB which will give values of P and Q.
Answer : P= 75.0 N; & Q= 129.9 N;
FORCE SYSTEM… 42
Ex-4 Find P And Q For Minimum Value of Q in the above

example.
P=?
30°
R=150N
?
hook Qmin=?
RESULTANT OF COPLANER
CONCURRENT FORCES 43
CASE:2 Resultant of several coplanar concurrent forces

• Law of polygon
• ‘If a number of forces acting simultaneously on a particle be
represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a
polygon taken in order, then the resultant of all these forces
may be represented in magnitude and direction by the closing
side of the polygon taken in opposite order’.
• Solution can be obtained by
a) Analytical method, b) Graphical method
Q
P P S
Q
Closing side
S R
of polygon
ANALYTICAL METHOD
44
• The resultant of more than 2 forces can be found analytically by

summing X and Y components of the forces (i.e. finding Fx and
Fy) then, resultant R is given by
R =  (Fx)2 + (Fy)2 (Magnitude)
 = tan-1 (Fy / Fx)
(Direction - angle of resultant with horizontal)
• Sign convention
Y F
F
+ve
F F
F
 X
-ve
ANALYTICAL METHOD…
45
A). Resultant of force system when reference of θ is same:
Fx = F1 cos1 + F2 cos 2 + F3 cos 3
Fy = F1 sin1 + F2 sin 2 + F3 sin 3
Y
R =  (Fx)2 + (Fy)2 F2 F1
and direction is given by
2
 = tan-1 (Fy / Fx)
1
X
3
F3
ANALYTICAL METHOD…
46
A). Resultant of force system when reference of θ is not same:
Y
F2 F2cosθ2 F1sinθ1
F1
F1cosθ1
F2sinθ2 2
1 Fx = F1 cos1 - F2 sin 2
X + F3 sin 3
F3sinθ3
3 Fy = F1 sin1 + F2 cos 2
• Sign convention - F3 cos 3
F3
F F F3cosθ3 R =  (Fx)2 + (Fy)2
+ve
and direction is given by
F
-ve F  = tan-1 (Fy / Fx)
GRAPHICAL METHOD
47
As per “law of polygon of forces”
• ‘If a number of forces acting simultaneously on a particle be
represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a
polygon taken in order, then the resultant of all these forces
may be represented in magnitude and direction by the closing
side of the polygon taken in opposite order’.
Y
F2 F1 3 F2
F3
2
R
2
1 Y R
3 X
F1
  1
F3 X
FORCE SYSTEM 48
Ex-5 A particle is acted upon by five forces as shown in fig. Find

resultant force in magnitude and direction by a) “graphical method”
b) Analytically
Y Take suitable scale
80N 60° 80N
65N
40N 25N 45°
R 10N
45° 30° Y 20°
60° X 65N
20°  R
25N 10N
X 40N
 30°
Solving this
Resultant R=114.78 N &  =75
FORCE SYSTEM… 49
b) Analytically Y
80N 65N
1) Taking same reference of θ
40N
Y 135° 90°
80N 65N 30°
40N
240° X
45° 30° 10N
25N 290°
60° X
20°
25N 10N Here,F1 = 40 N; 1 = 30
F2 = 65 N; 2 = 90
F3 = 80 N; 3 = 135
F4 = 25 N; 4 = 240
F5 = 10 N; 5 = 290
FORCE SYSTEM… 50
Fx = 40cos30 + 65cos90 + 80cos135+ 25cos240 + 10cos290

= - 31 N
Fy = 40 sin30 + 65 sin90 + 80 sin135+ 25 sin240 +10sin290
= 110.52 N
Resultant, R =  ( Fx )2 + ( Fy )2
R =  (31)2 + (110.52)2 = 114.78 N
tan  =  Fy /  Fx = 110.52 / 31 = 3.565 R= 114.78 N Y
 = 74.33 º Fy
• Sign convention =74.33°
F F F X
-ve F +ve Fx
FORCE SYSTEM… 51
b) Analytically
2) Taking different reference of θ
80sin45 Y
80N 65N 40sin30
40N
80cos45
40cos30
45° 30°
Fx = 40cos30 + 65cos90 -
60° X
25cos60 80cos45 - 25cos60 + 10sin20
20° 10sin20
= - 31 N
25N 10N
25sin60 10cos20 Fy = 40sin30 + 65sin90 +
• Sign convention 80sin45 - 25sin60 -10cos20
F F = 110.52 N
F
-ve F +ve
FORCE SYSTEM… 52
Resultant, R =  ( Fx )2 + ( Fy )2
R =  (31)2 + (110.52)2 = 114.78 N
tan  =  Fy /  Fx = 110.52 / 31 = 3.565
 = 74.33 º
R= 114.78 N Y
Fy
=74.33°
X
Fx
FORCE SYSTEM… 53
Ex-6 The forces of 200N, 300N, 400N, 500N and 600N are acting
on one of the vertex of a regular hexagon towards the other
vertices, taken in order as shown in fig. Determine the resultant by
graphical as well as analytical method.
500N
D 400N
E
600N
300N
F C
A 200N
B
Regular Hexagon
FORCE SYSTEM… 54
600N
500N
400N
 = 76.64
300N
200N
FORCE SYSTEM… 55
Ex-7 Find resultant force in magnitude and direction if a particle is

acted upon by following forces.
1. 20 N inclined at 30 north of east.
2. 25 N towards north
3. 30 N towards north-west N
4. 35 N inclined at 40 to south of west 25N
30N
5. 24 N inclined at 30 to east of south.
20N
45° 30°
W E
40°
35N 30° 24N

S
FORCE SYSTEM… 56
• Taking same reference of θ N

F1= 20 N; 1 = 30 30N 25N
F2 = 25 N; 2 =90 135° 90° 20N
F3 = 30 N; 3 = 135 W 30°
E
F4 = 35 N; 4 = 220 220°
F5 = 24 N; 5 = 300 24N
35N
300°
S
Fx = 20 cos30 + 25 cos90 + 30 cos135 + 35cos220 +24cos300
= -18.7 N
Fy = 20 sin30 + 25 sin90 + 30 sin135 + 35sin220 +24sin300
= 13 N
FORCE SYSTEM… 57
Resultant, F =  ( Fx )2 + ( Fy )2
F =  (18.7 )2 + (13 )2 = 22.74 N
tan  =  Fy /  Fx = 13/18.7
 = tan-1(13/18.7) = 34º 40’as shown in fig.
Fy • Sign convention

R
F F
+ve
 F
Fx -ve F
FORCE SYSTEM… 58
Ex-8 Find resultant force in magnitude and direction if a particle is

acted upon by following forces.
Y
100N
50N
3
1
2 1
X
7
5
30
75N 40N
RESOLUTION OF A FORCE
59
• Consider a force on any two arbitrary axes
Y’ Y’ F
F
 Fy’ 
 
Fx’
X’ X’
Using Sine Rule,
Fx’/ (sin) = Fy’/(sin ) = F/ (sin (180 -  - ))
= F/ sin (  + )
RESOLUTION OF A FORCE…
60
Ex-9 Determine components of force F=100 N, along (i) X
and Y axis(ii) X’ and Y’ axis(iii) X and Y’ axis(iv) X’ and Y
axis (v) Determine angle which the force F makes with X-
axis if Fx=80N while resolving the force along X and Y’
axes.
Y
Y’
F=100N
X’
20°
20° X
61
(i) Resolution along X and Y axis
Y’ Y Y
F=100N F=100N
20°
20° X’
20° 40°
X X
 = 40 ,
Fx= 100 cos 40 = 76.60 N ,
Fy= 100 sin 40 = 64.28 N
62
(ii) Resolution along X’ and Y’
Y’ Y Y’
F=100N F=100N
20°
20° X’ X’
20°
20°
X
 = 20 ,
Fx’ = 100 cos 20 = 94 N ,
Fy’ = 100 sin 20 = 34.20 N
63
(iii) Resolution along X and Y’ axis
Y’ Y Y’
F=100N Fx
20°
C
Fy’ 70°
X’ 70° Fy’
20°
40° 70°
20°
X A X
Fx B
( By sine rule in  ABC)
AC /sin 70 = AB / sin 70 = BC / sin 40
F / sin 70 = Fx/sin 70 = Fy’ / sin 40
Fx = 100, Fy’ = 100 sin 40 / sin 70 =68.4 N
64
(iv) Resolution along X’ and Y axis
Y’ Y Y
F=100N F=100N
20°
Fx’ C
Fy
X’ 50°
20°
50° 110° X’
20°
20° Fy B
X Fx’
A
Applying sine rule in triangle ABC,
AC /sin 110 = AB / sin 50 = BC / sin 20
F / sin 110 = Fx’/sin 50 = Fy / sin 20
Fx’ = 81.52 N, (Where F=100 N, Given in data)
Fy = 36.40 N
65
(v) Determine angle which the force F makes with X-axis
if Fx=80N while resolving the force along X and Y’ axes.
Y’
F=100N
C
Fy’ 110°-θ
110°-θ
θ 70°
A X
Fx=80N B
AC /sin 70 = AB / sin (110 - ) = BC / sin 

100 / sin 70 = 80/sin (110 - ) = Fy’ / sin 
Solving,  = 61.25° & Fy’ = 93.3 N
THANK YOU
66
EQUILIBRIUM
1
Content
• Introduction
• Equations of Equilibrium
• Resultant and Equilibrant
• Lami’s Theorem
• Free Body Diagram
• Example based on equilibrium
2
Introduction
Equilibrium
• Any system of forces which keeps the body at rest is said to be equilibrium,
or when the condition of the body is unaffected even though a number of
forces acted upon it, is said to in equilibrium.
• Equilibrium of a body is a condition in which the resultants of all forces

acting on the body is zero
R P1
P3
O
3
E
P2
4
Equilibrium of coplanar force system :-
• Equilibrium of a Particle :-
“ A particle is in equilibrium if the resultant of all concurrent forces
acting on the particle is zero.”
• The resultant of coplanar concurrent system is given by
R =  Fx2 +Fy2
But , as the resultant is zero, it follows that
R =  Fx2 +Fy2 = 0
Fx = 0 ; Fy = 0
• It implies that conditions of equilibrium of a particle are
Fx = 0 ; Fy = 0 5
Resultant and Equilibrant:-
R P1
P3
E
P2
• P1,P2, and P3 acts on a particle O.
• Let R be the resultant of P1,P2 and P3, that is a single force
which produces the same effect on particle O by replacing all the
forces which are acting on the particle O.
• If a single force E whose magnitude is equal to R but if applied
in opposite direction, the system will be in equilibrium.
6
• The force E is known as an Equilibrant.
Example:- Find resultant and equilibrant for thefollowing force
system.
80kN
45 kN
20 kN 45 ̊
15 ̊ 30
Fx = 20cos165 ̊ + 80cos75 ̊ + 45cos30 ̊ = 40.35 kN

Fy = 20sin165 ̊ + 80sin75 ̊ + 45sin30 ̊ = 104.95 kN
Resultant R=  (Fx2 +Fy2 ) = 112.43 kN (Magnitude)
7
tan = Fy/Fx
 = tan-1(Fy/Fx )= 68.85 ̊ (Direction) with x axis
Equilibrant,
E = R= 112.43 kN (magnitude)
Direction of Equilibrant is opposite to that of resultant
O 
E
8
Lami’s Theorem:-
“ If a particle is in equilibrium under the action of three coplanar
concurrent forces all acting either towards or away from point of
concurrency, then each force is proportional to the sine of the angle
between the other two forces.”
P2 c
P3
-
  P2
-
P1
P3  a P1 b
9
10
Example: Find the tensions in the string AC & BC.
60o A Tbc Tac

75o
B 150o
135o C
45o C
W=25 N
W=25 N
11
Ex:-1 For Equilibrium find P &  if tension in AB & AC is 500 N.
C B
T=500 N T= 500
30o 60o 90o
A 120o +  150o - 
 P
P
12
Ex:-2 Find the value of W for the equilibrium of the system, also find
the tension in each cables.
A D
45o 60o
B
30o C
50KN
13
A D
45o 60o
T1 B
T3
30o C
50KN T2
T1
165o W
135o B T2
60o
T2 T3
90o
50 kN C 150o
120o
14
w
T1
T2 T3
165o 90o
135o B T2 C 150o
60o 120o
w
50 kN
15
Ex:-3 Find out Reaction of sphere on surfaces Ra & Rb if the weight
of the sphere is 100kN
A A B
B
40o Ra 40o 60o
60o Rb
100 kN
Rb Ra
30o 50o
16
100 kN
Ex:-4 Find out the reaction Re, Rc, Rd & Rab if weight of the each
sphere is 25 kN.
B
E A
C
D 20o
B
A Rab
Re
20o
25kN Rd 25kN Rc
17
B
A Rab
Re
20o Rc
25kN Rd 25kN Rc 70o

20o B
Rd Rab
Rba
20o 25kN
20o
A Re
18
25 kN
Rc Applying, Lami’s Theorem at point B,
Rab
90o 25/sin(90) = Rab/sin(160) = Rc/sin(110)
B
160o Rba = 8.55 kN
110o
Rc = 23.5 kN
25kN
Now, At point A,
Rd Fy=0
Rba
20o -Rabsin20 + Rdcos20 - 25 = 0
20o Rd = 29.7 kN
Re
A Fx=0
25 kN Re – Rab cos20 – Rdsin20 = 0
19
Re = 18.2 kN
Ex:-5 A sphere of 80cm diameter is resting on an inclined plane as
shown in figure. If the weight of the sphere is 400N. Find
(i) Value of P to overturn the sphere above the box.
(ii) Magnitude & Direction of “P” for minimum value of “P”
40o
20
Ra
Initially the reaction from
P box and surface will be there. But
when the sphere is lifted, the
reaction from surface will be zero
as shown in figure.
400N
40o R= 0
Sin = 20/40
Ra
  = 30o
(Ra with surface)
P
Ra with horizontal
30o
40o 40o + 30o = 70o
21
Case (i)
Ra Ra
110o
70o
P P 160o
90o
400N
400N
22
Case (ii)
Ra
Ra
P
 70o
P 110 o - 
160o
90o + 
400N
400N
For P to be Minimum Denominator

should be Max. = 1
Hence, Sin(110 - ) = 1
110 -  = 90
 = 20o
P min. = 136.808 N
23
Ex:-6 A 15kN collar slide on a frictionless vertical rod and is connected
as shown in figure to a 17kN counter weight C. Determine the value of
“h” for which system is in Equilibrium.
1.6
17 kN Fy=0
 17 cos  = 15
h So,  = 28

C
17 kN Now, tan  = 1.6/ h
15 kN
15 kN
So, “h” = 3 m
24
Ex:-7 A Wt. Of 20 Kg suspended by two strings 6m and 8m in length
are fastened to two pages A and B which are 12 m apart and in the
same horizontal line. Find out the tension in the string.
xm D 12-x m
A B In triangle ACD,
CD2 = 62- X2
In triangle BCD,
6m CD2 = 82- (12-X)2
1 2 8m
Equating these two,
C X = 29/6
20 Kg X = 4.83m
25
A 4.83 m D 7.17 m
In triangle ACD be, 1 B
Sin 1= 4.83 / 6
1 .= 53.6o T1 T2
6m 1 2 8m
In triangle BCD be, 2
Sin 2 = 7.17 / 8 C
2 .= 63.7o 20 Kg
T1 T2
117o
126.4o 116.3o
20 Kg 26
NON CONCURRENT
COPLANAR FORCE SYSTEM
RESULTANT OF COPLANER NON-CONCURRENT
FORCES
So far, we have discussed forces passing through a given point
known as “Concurrent Forces” as shown in figure below.
F1
F2
Concurrent Forces
2
Now, let’s study the forces not passing through one point known as
“Non-Concurrent Forces”.
This type of forces cause Moment on the particle. In the figure
below, force F acts at distance d from point O.
d
O
Non-Concurrent Forces
3
Moment of a force
The moment of a force about a point is the product of the force and
the perpendicular distance between the given point and line of action of
the force. It is a vector quantity.
F
• Moment of force F at point O
• M= F x d (clock wise)
d
• Unit of moment N-m.
O M=F*d
4
Varignon’s Theorem
“ Moment of a force about any axis is equal to the sum of the moments
of its components about that axis.”
• Consider force F acting at point A and the

d2 component P and Q of the force F in any
B F
two direction.
d • The moment of F about an axis through
d1
an arbitrary point B = F*d
Q P • Moment of P and Q about axis through B
is (P d1) and (Q d2) respectively.
A • We propose to show that,
Fd = P d1 + Q d2
5
Varignon’s Theorem
y Here,  is the angle that F forms with the
d2 F x axis, and observing that  is also the
B
angle between AB and perpendicular
 d distance drawn from B onto the line of
action of F.
Q P F . d = F (AB) cos 
 x = (AB) F cos 
A = (AB) Fx ………(1)
Expressing in a similar way the moments P d1 and Q d2 of the forces
P and Q, We write
P d1 + Q d2 = (AB) Px + (AB) Qx
= (AB) (Px + Qx)
= (AB) Fx ……………(2) 6
Example: Find moment of force about point A.
B
A 40° C
3m 500 kN
60°
Let us take Anti-Clockwise moment as +ve

Moment @ A, Ma = - 500 x AB
= - 500 x 3 sin 40
= - 750 kN.m
= 750 kN.m (clockwise)
7
A
3m 500 kN
60°
500 Sin 60
A 3m
60° 500 kN
500 Cos 60
Let, take Anti-Clockwise moment as +ve

Moment @ A, Ma = - 500cos60 x 3 – 500 sin60 x 0
= - 750 kN-m
8
= 750 kN.m (clockwise)
C 500 Sin 60
1 m 60°
500 kN
A B
3m
500 Cos 60
Let us take Clockwise moment as +ve

Moment @ A, Ma = 500*cos 60*3 + 500*sin 60*1
= 750 + 433
= 1183 kN-m (clockwise)
9
10 Cos 60
1m
1m
10 kN 60°
10 kN
6m 10 Sin 60
6m
60°
60°
A
A
Let’s take, Anticlockwise moment as + ve
Moment @ A, Ma = -10sin60 x 6 + 10cos60 x 1
= - 51.96 + 5
= - 46.96 kN.m
10
= 46.96 kN.m (Clockwise)
Ex (3) Find Moment at point A
6 kN
30°
20 kN 5 kN
3m
A 2m 2m 2m 45°
10 kN 6 kN
Assume, Anticlockwise : +ve & Clockwise: -ve

Ma = 20x2 - 10x4 - 6sin45x6 - 5x3 + 6cos30x3 + 6sin30x6
= 40 - 40 - 25.46 - 15 + 15.59 + 18
= - 6.87 kN.m (clockwise)
(The component 6cos45 is in the same line of point A, hence
moment due to that force is = 0) 11
Example: Find Moment at points B,C & D.
A
600 N
120mm 30°
B 160mm
C 80mm D
Point B:
Mb = -600cos30x0.120
= 62.35 N-m
Point C:
Mc = -600cos30x0.120 + 600sin30x0.160
= -14.35 N-m
Point D:
Md = -600cos30x0.120 + 600sin30x0.240 12
= 9.646 N-m
Couple Force
In a particular case, when the magnitudes of the two unlike parallel
forces, acting on a body, are equal , the magnitude of the resultant
force is zero. These two unlike parallel ,equal and non-collinear forces
form a Couple.
P P R=0
a
Q Q
• P and Q are two unlike, parallel, equal and non collinear forces,
Resultant R= P-Q= 0;
• if ‘a’ is the lever arm(distance between P,Q) then;

13
moment of couple P x a = Q x a (clock-wise)
Characteristics of a Couple;
1. A couple consists of two parallel unlike forces
2. The resultant force of a couple is always Zero.
3. A couple has got fixed moment which is equal to one of
the parallel forces forming the couple into distance
between the two forces.(arm of a couple)
4. A couple can be balanced only by another couple
having same magnitude but opposite sense. It can
never be balanced by a single force.
5. The algebraic sum of the moments of the two forces
forming a couple independent of the position of the
moment center chosen as shown below. 14
Equivalent Couple:-
20 N
50 N
2m 5m
50 N
20 N
10 N
25 N
4m
10 m
10 N 25 N
Thus here all the couples have moment of 100 kN-m 15
clockwise.
EQUIVALENT FORCE-COUPLE SYSTEM :-
F F
A F F A F A
d A d d
d
B B B
F B F
F
M =F x d
A
B 16
EQUIVALENT FORCE-COUPLE SYSTEM :-
• Here a force F is applied at point B. we want to find equivalent

force-couple system at A.
• Apply two equal & opposite forces F at point A as shown in fig.(ii).
As the applied forces are in same direction the net effect on A is
“Zero”.
• But the forces F at points A & B forms a couple of magnitude,
M=F x d. Hence the equivalent force at point A will be the same
force F at point A and a couple M= F x d at point A.
17
Example: Convert a given force into a force couple system
at C.
50N 50N 50N
A C B A C B
2m 3m 2m 3m
50N
50N
50N
C B A C B
A
2m 3m 2m 3m
50N 50N
150Nm
C
A B 18
2m 3m
Example: Convert a given force into a force couple system
at A.
50N 50N 50N
C B C B
A
A
2m 3m 2m 3m
50N
50N 50N
C B C B
A A
2m 3m 2m 3m
50N
50N
250Nm
A C B 19
2m 3m
Example:- A column is subjected to load P=120kN at point B
at an eccentricity of e = 0.2 m. Find the equivalent force &
couple system at point A.
P=120 kN P=120 kN
e=0.2m
M=120x0.2
A B =24 kN-m
20
Converting couple into parallel forces: -
Example:- Convert a couple in to two parallel forces (I) at C
& B (II) at A & B
60 N-m
C
A B
2m 3m
20 N
12 N
C C B
A B A
2m 3m 2m 3m
20N 12N
Two parallel forces at C & B Two parallel forces at A & B
60 = F*3 60 = F*(2+3)
F = 20 N F = 12 N
21
Example:- Convert the following system into two parallel
forces at A and B,
30 N
A C
B
2m 3m 60 N-m
30 N 18 N
12 N 12 N
A C B A C B
2m 3m 2m 3m
12 N
Two parallel forces at A & B
60 = F*(2+3)
F = 12 N
22
Example:- Convert the following system into two parallel
forces at A and B, 30 N
A C 30° B
2m 3m 50 N-m
F 30 N
C 30°
A B
2m 3m
F
F Fsin30
30 N
30° C 30° B Fcos30
Fcos30 A 2m 3m
F
Fsin30 23
F Fsin30
30 N
30° C 30° B Fcos30
Fcos30 A 2m 3m
F
Fsin30
Now,
20N 30 N
M = Fsin30 x 5
A C 30° B
50 = Fsin30 x 5
2m 3m
F = 20 N 20 N
20N 10 N
A C 30° B
24
2m 3m
Example:- Replace the force system into equivalent force & couple
system acting at point C.
50 kN
C C
50 kN P=37.5 kN
0.20
0.20
B
B
0.30 m A P=37.5 kN
A
The moment at point C, due to 50kN force = 50 x 0.3

= 15 kN.m
This moment convert into force at C & A so, 15 = P x 0.4
P = 37.5 kN 25
Resultant of coplanar non-concurrent force system
Resolve the inclined forces in horizontal & vertical component.
•Find out Fx, Fy
•Find out R= (Fx)2 + (Fy) 2
•Find out  = tan-1 (Fy/Fx)
• To find point of application of the force, Varignon’s principal of

moment should be used.
• “The moment of all the forces about any point is equal to the
moment of the resultant of the force system about the same point.”
So,  M= R x d;
• Summation of moment at a point = Resultant x lar distance. 26
Reduction of a system of coplanar Forces to one Force, one
couple & then to a single force only.
F
F1 F2
F1 F2
M2 A A
M1
A M
M3 F3
F3
F1 at any point = F1 at A + M1
similarly, F2 & F3.
27
F
F
A
A
M d = M/F
M=Fxd
Horizontal distance from A Fy F

M = Fx dy + Fy dx
M = Fy dx A dx
dx= M/Fy Fx
Vertical distance from A dy d
M = Fx dy + Fy dx
M = Fx dy Fy
dy= M/Fx
Fx
28
STEPS TO SOLVE PROBLEMS:-
1. Make all the forces concurrent at any one point (preferably

the point from which distance of resultant is to be
calculated)
2. While making the forces concurrent, consider their

moment at the point of concurrency also.
3. Now at a given point, there is a system of concurrent

forces and moments of all these forces.
4. Find out resultant force in magnitude and direction.

29
5. Find out resultant moment also.
6. Now, at a point of concurrency, there is one (resultant)
force and one (resultant) moment.
7. To convert this system to a system of single force, Use the

formula M=F x d to determine perpendicular distance from
the given point to the line of action of a resultant force.
8. Calculate horizontal and vertical distances from a given

point to the line of action of a force, if required.
30
Example:- Find the resultant of the forces as shown in figure.
40 kN 10 kN
A 2m B 2m
A B
60 kN.m
30 kN
Fx = 0 R=10 kN
Fy = 40 - 30 = 10 kN A 2m
d=6m B
Hence, R = 10 kN
Ma = 30 x 2 = - 60 kN.m
= 60 kN.m
Now, Ma = R x d
d = Ma/R
= 60 / 10 31
d = 6m. ( From Left of point A)
Example: Find the resultant of following force system
10 N
B
A C
2m 1m
Fx = 0 25 N 15 N
Fy = 10 - 25 - 15 = - 30 N
R = - 30 N = 30 N (downward)
MA = - 25 x 2 - 15 x 3 = - 95 N-m = 95 N-m (anticlockwise)
30 N
MA = R x d d = 3.17 m
95 = 30 x d A C
d = 3.17 m
2m B1m
32
(Distance from point A)
Example: Find the resultant of force system shown below.
A 40N A 140 N A
2m
270 N.m d=1.93m
140 N
B 60 N
B B
1m 1m
C 10 N C C
D 30N D D
Fx = -40 -60 -10 -30 = -140 N Ma = R x d

Fy = 0 d = Ma/R
R = -140N = 140 N d = 270 / 140
Ma = - 30 x 4 - 10 x 3 - 60 x 2 d = 1.93m. ( Down From point A)
= - 270 N.m 33
= 270 N.m (clockwise)
Example: Find the resultant of force system shown below.
30° B
600 N
E C D
6m 2m 2m
3m
100 N 1000 N
34
30° B
Fx = - 600cos30 = -519.6 N
Fy = - 600sin30 -100 -1000 600 N
E C D
= -1400 N 6m
2m 2m
R =  (-519.6)2 + (-1400)2 3m
100 N 100 N
R = 1494 N
 = tan-1 (Fy/Fx) A
 = tan-1 (1400/519.6)
A
 = 69.64°
69.64°
M=1082.4 N-m
MA= 600cos30 x 6 -100x2 -1000x4
= -1082.4 N-m
35
= 1082.4 N-m (clockwise) R=1494 N
A B
69.64°
M=1082.4 N-m
E D
C
R=1494 N
A
MA= R x d
1082.4 = 1494 x d
d = 0.72 m (distance from A)
36
Example: Find the resultant if a triangle is subjected to
forces as shown . Find also horizontal & Vertical distance
Of resultant From point C.
3 kN
A 30°
1m 1m
2 kN
1.5 kN
B 1m C
4 kN
37
Fx = 3*cos30 - 1.5 = 1.098 kN
3 kN
Fy = 3*sin30 - 4 + 2 = - 0.50 kN A 30°
R =  (1.098)2 + (0.50)2 = 1.207 kN
1m
 = tan-1 (Fy/Fx) 1m 2 kN
 = tan-1 (0.50/1.098)
1.5 kN
 = 24.5° B 1m C
4 kN
Fx
24.5°
Fy
R=1.21kN
38
3 sin30 3 kN
A 30° In triangle ADC,
3cos30
AC2 = AD2 + DC2
1m 1m
2 kN (1)2 = AD2 + (0.5)2
AD = 0.86 m
1.5 kN
B D 1m C
4 kN
Taking Moment @ point C , M=1 kN-m
Mc = -(3cos30x0.86) – (3sin30x0.5) +(4x1) C
= 1 kN.m (anticlockwise) 24.5°
Mc = R x d
R=1 kN
1 x d = 1.207 x d
d = 0.828 m 39
M=1 kN-m
C A
24.5°
1m 1m
R=1 kN
B 1m C
Mc = R x d
1 x d = 1.207 x d
d = 0.828 m (distance from C)
40
Example: Determine resultant force in magnitude and
direction for the system of forces given below. Locate also
the two points where resultant will cut the edges of a
rectangle.
85 N
125 N
B
A
15 m
E
C 240 N
D 8m
20 m
100 N
41
Solution:- 125 N 85 N
tan1 = 8/15 1 = 28 A B
tan2=20/15 2 = 53.13  2 15 m
1
At point D
C
D8m E 240 N
Fx = 85 sin 28 - 125 sin 53.13 – 240 20 m
= -300 N 100 N
Fy = 85 cos 28 + 125 cos 53.13 +100

= 250 N Fy
R =  (300)2 + (250)2 = 391 N R=391N
 = tan-1 (Fy/Fx)
39.8
 = tan-1 (250/300) Fx
 = 39.8°
42
125 N 85 N
A B Moment @ D
Md = -100 x 20
2 15 m
1
= -2000 Nm
C
20 m D8m E 240 N = 2000 Nm (clockwise)
100 N
A B Md = Ry.dx
R=391 N so 2000 = 250 * dx
Ry dx = 8 m.
dx = 8 m so CG = 20 - 8 =12 m
39.8°
C
Rx G D E
20 m 43
A B
R=391 N
F
15 m
Ry
10 m
Now in triangle GCF
dx = 8m
tan 39.8 = CF / (20-8) 39.8°
CF = 10 m. C Rx G D E
20 m
So, Resultant force cut edges at G and F point in rectangle.
44
Engineering Mechanics
(AF-117)
1
DYNAMICS :
 Motion of Connected Bodies, Motion Along an Inclined Plane

 Instantaneous Centre in Plane Motion
 Principle of Conservation of Momentum
 Mass Moment of Inertia in Rotational Motion
 Impulse & Momentum
 Impact
 Work Power & Energy
 D’Alembert’s Principle
 Vibrations of Single Degree
2
MECHANICS
Branch of physical science concerned with the
state of rest or motion of bodies that are
subjected to the action of forces.
Rigid
MECHANICS
Force Deformable
MECHANICS MECHANICS OF
MECHANICS OF
OF RIGID DEFORMABLE Fluids
FLUIDS
BODIES (EM ) BODIES
Deformation
3
ENGINEERING
MECHANICS
STATICS DYNAMICS
It deals with the study It deals with the study
of bodies at rest. of bodies in motion
4
Dynamics
Branch of mechanics which deals with analysis
of bodies under motion.
First significant contributions in dynamics was

made by Galileo (1564-1642) and Newton (1642-
1727)
5
Kinematics
It is a sub branch of dynamics which is used to
relate displacement, velocity, acceleration and
time without reference to cause of motion. It
treats only the geometric aspects of the motion.
Kinetics
It is a study of relation existing between forces
acting on a body, mass of a body and motion of
the body. It is used to predict motion caused by
given forces or to determine force needed to
produce given motion.
6
DYNAMICS
KINEMATICS KINETICS
Motion
Motion Parameters:
Parameters:
Space, Velocity,
Space, Velocity, Acceleration,
Acceleration, Time +
Time
Force, Mass
7
Domains under Kinematics
• Rectilinear Motion
• Curvilinear Motion
• Relative Velocity
• Motion of Connected Bodies
• Projectiles
• Plane Motion
Approach to Kinematic Problems :

Differential Equations
8
Domains under Kinematics
• Particle: It has mass but negligible size and shape.

• Rectilinear motion: Position, Velocity, and Acceleration of
a particle as it moves along a straight line. Particle moving
along a straight line is said to be in rectilinear motion.
• Curvilinear motion: Position, Velocity, and Acceleration of

a particle as it moves along a curved line. A particle
moving along a curve other than a straight line is said to
be in curvilinear motion
9
FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS
KINEMATICS
10
DISPLACEMENT : Change in the position of an
object with direction taken into consideration. It is
a vector quantity = [-X2]
DISTANCE : The total movement of an object

without any regard to direction. It is a scalar
quantity = [X1+X2]
O
X2 X1
11
VELOCITY : The rate of change of the object’s
position with respect to time. (dx/dt)
ACCELERATION : The ratio of change in velocity

during a given time interval. (dv/dt)
12
Uniformly Accelerated Rectilinear Motion
v t
dv
 a  constant  dv  a  dt v  v0  at
dt v0 0
v  v0  at
x t
dx
dt
 v0  at  dx   v0  at dt x  x0  v0t  12 at 2
x0 0
x  x0  v0t  12 at 2
v 2  v02   ax  x0 
v x
dv
v  a  constant  v dv  a  dx 1
2
dx v0 x0
v 2  v02  2a x  x0 
13
Example
Consider particle moving in a straight line, assume
its position as x = 6t2-t3 where, t is in seconds and
x in meters. Find out velocity and acceleration at
t = 2 s and t = 4 s.
Differentiating,
v = 12t-3t2
a = 12-6t
At t = 2 => v = 12 m/s and a = 0 m/s2
At t = 4 => v = 0 m/s and a = -12 m/s2
14
Domains under Kinetics
• Newton’s Second Law

• Work , Power, Energy
• Impulse & Momentum
• Simple Harmonic Motion
15
Approach to Kinetics Problems
Forces and Velocities and Velocities

Accelerations Displacements and Time
Impulse-
Newton’s Momentum
Work-Energy
Second Law
 F  ma T1  U12  T2 mv1   F dt  mv2

t2
G t1
16
KINETICS
17
MASS : Mass is defined as the matter contained in
the body.
WEIGHT : It is defined as the force by which the

body is attracted towards the center of the earth.
MOMENTUM : It is the quantity of motion

possessed by the body moving in a straight line.
i.e. The product of mass of the body and it’s
velocity.
18
FORCE : It is defined as an agent which either
produces or stops the motion in a rigid object. It
is expressed in N , kN.
INERTIA : It is an inherent property of a body which

offers resistance to change in it’s state of rest or of
uniform motion.
19
When the body is at rest or moving in a straight
line or rotating about an axis , it obeys certain
laws.
These laws are often known as LAWS OF MOTION.

Among all the other laws , Newton's laws are most
prominent.
20
Newton’s first law of motion :
It states “ Every body continues to be in it’s state of rest
or uniform motion, along a straight line, unless it is acted
upon by some unbalanced external force to change it’s
state.”
Newton’s second law of motion :

It states “ The rate of change of momentum is directly
proportional to the external force acting on the body
and takes place in the direction of the straight line in
which the force acts.”
21
This law enables us to measure the force acting on
the body and to establish the fundamental equation
of dynamics.
Let,
M = mass of the body,
V0 = Initial velocity of the body, and if
V = Final velocity of the body
F = force acting on the body for time t,
a = Uniform acceleration of the body for time t
22
Momentum is the product of mass and velocity.
Initial Momentum = m . V0
Final Momentum = m . V
Change in momentum 
= m . V - m . V0
Rate of Change of momentum 
[ m . V - m . V0 ] / t
= m [ V - Vo ] / t
= ma (i)
23
DEPENDENT MOTION
MOTION OF CONNECTED BODIES
1
DEPENDENT MOTION
The motion of a body when it is connected by a string

to another body subjected to an external force is
studied here.
2
DEPENDENT MOTION
1. Two bodies connected by

a string and passing over a
smooth pulley.

a string one hanging free
and other lying on
horizontal plane.
3
DEPENDENT MOTION

string, one hanging free and
other lying on inclined
plane.

string, both lying on inclined
plane.
4
Assumptions:
 Pulley is smooth,
 String is inextensible and weightless
The blocks are connected by an

inextensible cord wrapped
around a pulley. If block A moves
downward, block B will move up.
XA
A XB
V1 = V2 numerically
X1= -X2
V1
V1= -V2
V2
a1= -a2
B 5
Length of the string
remains constant;
L = XA+ 2XB + const;

XA T T T XB dL/dt = 0 
A dXA/dt + 2dXB /dt = 0,
VA + 2VB = 0
VA = - 2VB
B
Further differentiating;
d(VA + 2VB) /dt = 0  aA + 2aB = 0
 aA = - 2aB 6
Example 1
System is released from
rest. If aA = 2 m/s2, find
XA velocity of block A and B
A XB after time t = 5 s.
V1 Block A will move
V2 downward with V1
B
Since L = XA + XB is constant, So XA= -XB
Differentiating, VA= -VB
After t = 5 s, VA= V0+ aA.t = 10 m/s Downward
VB= -VA = 10 m/s Upward 7

Example 2
rest. If aB = 3.33 m/s2,
XA T (downward), find velocity
T T XB of block A and B after
time t = 2 s.
A
L = XA+ 2XB + const;
dL/dt = 0 
B dXA/dt + 2XB /dt = 0,
VA + 2VB = 0
VA = - 2VB
8
Further differentiating;
d(VA + 2VB) /dt = 0  aA + 2aB = 0
 aA = - 2aB
 aA = - 2aB = - 2 * 3.33 = - 6.66 m/s2,

After t = 2 s,
VB= V0+ aB.t = 6.67 m/s downward
VA= V0+ aA.t = 13.34 m/s upward
9
WA
Smooth Pulley
A
Inextensible String
B WB
VB = VA  a A = aB
VB = +ve downward, VA = -ve towards right
aB = +ve downward, aA = -ve towards right
10
L = 2 XA+ 3 XB + cons.;
dL/dt = 0 
XA
XB
A 2 dXA/dt + 3 dXB /dt = 0

2 VA+ 3 VB = 0
B 2 dVA/dt+ 3 dVB /dt = 0
2 aA+ 3 aB = 0
11
XA
XC
C XB
L =2XA+ 2XB +XC + cons.;

dL/dt = 0 12
2 dXA/dt + 2 XB /dt + Xc /dt = 0
2 VA+ 2 VB + Vc = 0
2 dVA/dt+ 2 VB /dt + Vc /dt = 0
2 a A+ 2 a B + ac = 0
13
Dependent Motion Examples
Using Newton's Second Law
14
Example 3
rest. If mA = 100 kg and
mB = 20 kg , find
XA T velocity of block A and
A T XB B after time t = 5 s.
V1
XB= -XA;VB= -VA
B V2 aB= -aA, numerically
aA = a B
Equation for block A;
Block A will move in downward direction.
15
Net force acting in downward direction,
WA – T,
As per Newton's second law of
motion,
XA T F=m.a
A T XB
WA – T = mA . aA
V1
100 (9.81) – T = 100 aA ……..Eq.I
B V2
Equation for block B;

Block B will move in upward direction.
Net force acting in upward direction, 16
T - WB ,
As per Newton's second law of
motion,
XA T F=m.a
A T XB
T - WB = mB . aB
V1
T – (20)(9.81) = (20) . aB ……..Eq.II
B V2
Here, aB = aA . Solving the two equations,
aA = 6.54 m/sec2 , aB = - 6.54 m/sec2
VA= V0+ aA.t = 32.7 m/s downward
17
VB= V0+ aB.t = 32.7 m/s upward
Example 4
rest. If mA = 20 kg and mB
= 100 kg , find velocity of
XA T T T XB block A and B after time
t= 2 s.
A L = XA+ 2XB ;
VA = - 2VB
B aA = - 2aB , numerically
aA = 2aB
For block B;
Block B will move in downward direction.
Net force acting in downward direction, 18
Free body diagram;
WB – 2 .T,
T T
As per Newton's second law
of motion,
B F=m.a
WB – 2 .T = mB . aB
100 . (9.81) – 2T = 100 . aB ……..Eq.I
Block A will move in upward direction.
Net force acting in upward direction, 19
T - WA ,
T As per Newton's second law of
motion,
A F=m.a
T - WA = mA . aA
T - 20 . (9.81) = (20) . aA ……..Eq.II
aA = 2aB
Solving the two equations,
aA = 6.54 m/sec2 , aB = - 3.27 m/sec2
20
XA T T T XB
VB = V0+ aB.t = 6.54 m/s downward
VA = V0+ aA.t = 13.08 m/s upward

21
Motion Along
Horizontal Plane
22
Example 5
XA System is released from
A rest. If mA = 100 kg and
mB = 300 kg , find
velocity of block A and B
XB after time t= 2 s., floor is
smooth
XA + 2XB = cons.
Diff. w.r.t time
B VA = -2VB
aA = -2aB , Positive
towards right, and
negative towards left.23
For block B;
T T WB – 2 .T,
of motion,
B F=m.a
WB – 2 .T = mB . aB
300 (9.81) – 2T = 300.aB ……..Eq.I
24
Block A will move in positive X - Direction.
Net force acting in that direction, T
T = mA . a A T
T = 100 . aA ……..Eq.II A
aA = -2aB , Solving the two equations,

aA = 8.40 m/sec2 , aB = 4.20 m/sec2
VB = V0+ aB.t = 8.40 m/s downward
VA = V0+ aA.t = 16.8 m/s Rightward 25

Example 6
T System is released
A
from rest. Block A
moves with an
acceleration of (g/5) .
Ff =  .R T T
Determine the value
of coefficient of
friction between
block and table.
B WA = 10 N and
WB = 20 N
26
Friction:
Friction may be defined as a force of resistance
acting on a body which prevents or retards
slipping of the body relative to a second body
with which it is in contact.
This force always acts tangent to the surface at
points of contact with other bodies and is
directed so as to oppose the possible or existing
motion of the body at these points.
27
P
W
Ff =  .N

N=W
R
tan  = 
Maximum frictional force =  .N (limiting friction)
28
For block B;
T
A WB – 2 .T,
Ff =  .R T T of motion,
F=m.a
B
WB – 2 .T = mB . aB
10 – 2T = (10/g).aB ……..Eq.I 29
Block A will move in positive X
T - Direction.
A
Net force acting in that
direction, T
Ff =  .R T T
T - Ff = mA . aA
B T -  .R = (20/g) . aA
T -  . 20 = (20/g) . (g/5)
T -  . 20 = 4.0 ……..Eq.II
30
From the fig we can see
that acceleration of block A
will be twice the
acceleration of block B.
T
A
aA = 2aB
Ff =  .R T T Solving equations,
Coefficient of friction =
0.025
B
31
Example 7
T1 T2 If m1 >m2 ,find out the
m velocity of the system,
after 5s, when left to
itself. m1 = 100 kg, m2
T1 T2 = 20kg, m = 50 kg,
m1 Find also tension in
m2
each string.
Equation of motion for three blocks are;
W1 – T1 = m1 . a
T1 – T2 = m . a
T2 – W2 = m2 . a 32
Solving the Equation of motion;
a = 4.616 m/s2
V = 23.08 m/s
T1 = 519.4 N
T2 = 288.5 N
33
Motion Along
An Inclined Plane
34
(A) MOTION ALONG SMOOTH PLANE:
 = angle of the inclined R

plane with horizontal
W = weight of the body, W sin 
a = acceleration,
 W cos

W
m = mass of the body
g =gravitational acceleration of the body
35
As the surface of the plane is smooth there will not be
any frictional forces acting on the body.
Hence Forces acting on the body are;

W = weight of the body,
R = reaction offered by the surface.
Resolving force W in two components
(a) along the inclined plane ----W sin 
(b) perpendicular to the inclined plane ----W cos 
36
R = W cos 
Force responsible for the motion of the body
down the plane is W sin , which produces the
acceleration down the plane.
F=ma eq (I)
F = W sin , eq (II)
Equating I & II
W sin = m a
a = W sin / m (W/m) = g
a = g sin
37
Hence the body is moving down the plane with
an acceleration a = g sin , similarly if the same
body is moving up along the same inclined plane
then the acceleration will be a = - g sin
38
(A) MOTION ALONG ROUGH PLANE:
 = angle of the inclined R
FF
plane with horizontal
W = weight of the body,
W sin 
a = acceleration,  W cos

m = mass of the body W
g = gravitational acceleration of the body
μ = coefficient of friction FF = frictional force

As the surface of the plane is rough, while moving down,
the body will experience a frictional force, acting in
opposite direction of the motion.
39
FF = μ R, But R = W cos
FF = μ W cos 
Force acting down the plane, F1 = W sin
So net downward force acting on the body , down the
plane will be, F = F1 - FF
F = W sin - μ W cos ,
According to Newton’s law this must be equal to the

product of mass and acceleration,
F = W sin- μ W cos = m a
(W sin - μ W cos ) = (W/g) a
40
a = (sin - μ cos ) g
This is the acceleration with which the body

is moving down the rough inclined plane. If
the body is moving up the plane then the
acceleration will be negative
a = - (sin - μ cos ) g
41
Example 8
T
W1 = 60 N; W2 = 8 N
W2 Angle of inclined
T plane = 15° with the
Ff horizontal. If
W1 coefficient of
friction() = 0.22
between the inclined plane and the block 2. Find: (i)
Tension in the string. (ii) the acceleration with which
the body moves up the inclined plane
42
Motion of 60 N block; W1
60 – T = (60/g) . a (i)
Motion of 8 N block; W2
T – W2 . sin  - Ff = (8/g) . a
 T – 8 . sin  - .N = (8/g) . a …….(ii)

N = W2 . cos  = 8 . cos 15
Adding equation 1 and 2, and solving:
a = 8.11 m/s2
43
Substituting the value a = 8.11 m/s2
In equation i ;
60 – T = (60/g) (8.11)
T = 10.39 N
44
T Example 9
W1
W1 = 20N; W2 = 30N
Ff T T Angle of inclined
plane = 30° with the
horizontal. If coeff. of
friction() = 0.25
between the plane
and the block 1.
W2
Determine the resulting motion. If the system
starts from rest, determine the velocity of body 1
after 5 seconds.
45
Let T = tension in the string,
a = acceleration of the block 1
Motion of 20 N block; block W1
T – W1 . sin  - Ff = (W1/g) . a
 T – 20 . sin 30 - .N = (20/g) . a
N = W1 . cos  = 20 . cos 30
 T – 10 – 4.33 = (20/g) . a
 T – 14.33 = (20/g) . a …….(i)
46
Motion of 30 N block; block W2
Acceleration of block 2 will be half the acceleration

of block 1. ( i.e. = a / 2 )
30 - 2T = (W2/g) . (a/2)
 30 - 2T = (15/g) . a……………..eq.ii
Solving the two equations:

a = 0.239 m/s2
47
In equation i ;
30 - 2T = (15/g) . a
T = 14.82 N
Velocity after 5 s,
V = V0 + a.t
V = 1.195 m/s
48
Example 10
W2
W1
45˚ 60˚
W1 = 10N; W2 = 4N;
Angle of smooth inclined planes as shown in
the fig. Determine the tension in the string, and
Velocity of the system 3 seconds after starting
from rest.
49
a = acceleration of the system,
Motion of Block A ; (W1)

Resolving forces parallel to the plane.
10 . sin 60 - T = (10/g) . a…….…….(i)
Motion of Block B ; (W2)

T - 4 . sin 45 = (4/g) . a…….…….(ii)

50
a = 4.08 m/s2
Substituting the value a = 4.08 m/s2 in equation i ;
10 . sin 60 - T = (10/g) . a
T = 10 . sin 60 - (10/g) . 4.08
T = 4.5 N
51
Velocity after 3 s,
V = V0 + a.t
V = 0 + 4.08 * 3
V = 12.24 m/s
52
Example 11
=0.2
3 3
4 4
If W1 = 400N; W2 = 300N, Determine the acceleration
of each body and tension ‘T’ in string
53
a/2 = acceleration of the block 2
For the inclined plane,

tan  = (3/4)   = 36.86°
Motion of Block W1
W1 . sin  - T – Ff1 = (W1/g) . a

 400 . sin 36.86 - T - N = (W1/g) . a
 400.sin 36.86 -T- W1.cos 36.86= (W1/g).a 54
240 - T - 64 = 40.77 . a
 176 - T = 40.77 . a………………eq( i )
Motion of Block W2
2T - W2 . sin  - Ff2 = (W2/g) . a/2

2T- 300.sin 36.86 - W2.cos 36.86 = (W2/g) . a/2
 2T- 228 = 15.3 a …………………eq(ii)

a = 1.28 m/s2
55
In equation i ;
176 - T = 40.77 . a
T = 176 - (40.77) .1.28
T = 123.81 N
56
Example 12
30˚ 30˚
Weights of A = 8N, and B = 4N rest on smooth

inclined planes as shown in the fig. Initially the
system is at rest. After two seconds of releasing the
system the weight of 8N is removed. How far up the
plane will the 4N weight move.
57
Motion of Block A
8 . sin 30 - T = (8/g) . a…….…….(i)
Motion of Block B
T - 4 . sin 30 = (4/g) . a…….…….(ii)

a = 1.635 m/s2
Now considering the motion of 4N block when the

8N weight is not cut.
58
Initial velocity, V0 = 0
Acceleration a = 1.635 m/s2
Time taken 2 s,
V = V0 + a.t
V = 0 + 1.635 * 2
V = 3.27 m/s
When the 8N block is cut off the initial velocity of the

4N block is 3.27m/s
59
Initial velocity, V1 = 3.27 m/s
Final velocity, V = 0 m/s
Acceleration a = - g.sin30 m/s2
Acceleration a = - 4.905 m/s2
Distance moved in this period;

V2- V02 = 2 a S
S = 1.09 m
60
Example 13
20˚
60˚
W1 = 150N; W2 = 250N, Determine the distance
moved by them in 4 seconds. Neglecting friction
between the two bodies and the inclined surfaces.
61
1 = 60° 2 = 20°
W1 = 150 W2 = 250
Motion of Block W1
W1 . sin 1 - T = (W1/g) . a
 150 . sin 60 - T = (150/g) . a
 129.9 – T = (150/g).a ………………eq(i)
62
Motion of Block W2
T + W2 . sin 2 = (W2/g) . a
T + 250.sin 20 = (250/g) . a
 T + 85.5 = (250/g) a …………………eq(ii)

a = 5.28 m/s2
Distance moved in 4 seconds;
S = V0 .t + ½ a t2
S = 42.24 m 63
Analysis of Lift Motion
64
W = WEIGHT OF LIFT + WEIGHT IN LIFT
a = UNIFORM ACCELERATION OF LIFT
T T
T = TENSION IN CABLE
a a
W W
65
A: FOR UPWARD MOTION
Net force in upward direction
T – W,
As per Newton's second law of motion,
F=m.a
T –W=m.a
T–mg=ma
T=mg+ ma
T = m {g + a }
66
B: FOR DOWNWARD MOTION
The net downward force which is responsible for

the motion of the lift in downward direction is ;
W –T
m g -T
m g –T = m a
T=mg- ma
T = m {g - a }
67
Example 14
An elevator cage of mass 900kg when empty is lifted

or lowered vertically by means of a wire rope. A man
of mass 72.5 kg is standing on it. Find:
(a) Tension in the rope
(b) The force exerted by the man on the cage for the
following conditions :
(i) When moving up with an acceleration of 3m/s2,
and
(ii) When moving up with uniform velocity 3m/s
68
mass of the cage, M = 900kg
mass of the man, m = 72.5kg
FOR UPWARD MOTION WITH a = 3 m/s2:

A: Tension in Rope
Let T = tension in the rope

Forces acting on the cage are,
(i) T (up), and (ii) Total mass (M+m) down
the Net force in upward direction

T – Wt,
Net accelerating force = T – Wt = (T– (M+m)g) 69
As per Newton's second law of motion,
F=m.a
(T– (M+m)g) = (M+m) . a…………eq(i)
solving the equation
T= 12458N
B: Reaction
ma
Let ‘R’ be the reaction of mg
the cage on the man
Equation of motion (of man), R
R – mg = m a…………eq(ii) 70
R = Reaction cage on man
R – mg = m a
R = mg + m a
R = m ( g + a)
R = 72.5 (9.81+3)
R = 928.7 N
Force exerted by the man on the cage must be equal to

the force exerted by the cage on the man
Force exerted by man on the cage = 928.7N
71
FOR UPWARD MOTION WITH UNIFORM VELOCITY:
A: Tension in Rope

Putting a = 0 in the equation i
(T– (M+m)g) = (M+m) . a…………eq(i)
(T– (M+m)g) = 0
T = (M+m) g
T = (900+72.5) 9.81
T = 9540 N
72
B: Reaction
Let R’ be the reaction of

a=0
cage on the man mg
(const velocity => a=0)
Putting a = 0 in the equation ii R
R’ – mg = m a…………eq(ii)
R’ – mg = m 0
R’ = mg
R’ = 711.2 N
73
74
Dependent Motion Examples
Using D'Alembert's Principle
75
D'Alembert's Principle :
A body of mass “m” is moving with a uniform
acceleration “a” under the action of external force
“F”.
As per Newton’s Second law of Motion,
F = m x a … … … … … (1)
This equation can be written in the form:

F - m x a = 0 … … … … (2)
From above equation, if we apply a force of

“- m x a ” on the body, the body will be in
equilibrium as the sum of all the forces acting on
the body is zero. 76
At this instant the body is said to be in “DYNAMIC
EQUILIBRIUM” and the force “- m x a ” is called
D’Alembert’s Force or Reversed Effective Force or
Inertia Force.
The body will be in Dynamic Equilibrium under the action

of external force “F” and the inertia force of the body –
This is known as D’Alembert’s Principle
77
As per Newton’s law:
Motion of block B
XA T mb*g – 2T =mb*a/2 …(1)
T T XB
Motion of block A
A T - ma*g =ma*a ….(2)
As per D’Alembert’s
principal:
B
Wb -2T –mb*a/2 = 0
T - Wa –ma*a = 0
78
Example 15
W2
W1
45˚ 60˚
A = 10N; B = 4N; Angle of smooth inclined planes as
shown in the fig; Determine the tension in the string,
and velocity of the system after 3 seconds, starting
from rest.
Use D’Alembert’s principle.
79
a = acceleration of the system,
Motion of Block A ; (W1)

10 . sin 60 - T - (10/g) . a = 0…….…….(i)
Motion of Block B ; (W2)

T - 4 . sin 45 - (4/g) . a = 0…….…….(ii)

80
a = 4.08 m/s2
In equation i ;
10 . sin 60 - T - (10/g) . A =0
T = 10 . sin 60 - (10/g) . 4.08
T = 4.5 N
81
Velocity after 3 s,
V = V0 + a.t
V = 0 + 4.08 * 3
V = 12.24 m/s
82
Example 16
A block resting on rough inclined plane starts
sliding down and attains a velocity of 10m/s, when it
is at the end of the rough inclined plane. Calculate
the inclined distance from where the block has
started down sliding. Use D’Alembert’s principle.
a
Net force = 0
Acting force – inertia force =0
μ =0.2
θ=30º wsin30º - μwcos30º -(w/g)*a = 0
a = 3.206m/s2
V2 = Vo2 +2ax , Vo = 0,
so x = 15.596m 83
Example 17
A bucket is suspended with the help of rope. The
weight of the bucket is 500N. Calculate tension in
rope, if (1) bucket has a constant velocity of 5m/s (2)
has an upward acceleration of 2m/s2, (3) has
downward acceleration of 1m/s2 and (4) V = 2t2m/s,
where t in s (at t = 2s, downward motion of bucket)
a
bucket
84
(1) As velocity is constant ,acceleration is zero
hence Tension in rope, T = 500N
(2) As per D’Alembert’s principle:

acting force = T , inertia forces are 500N
and 500a/g,
T – 500 – 500a/g = 0, gives T = 601.94N
(3) As per D’Alembert’s principle:

acting force = W ,inertia forces are T and 500a/g,
500 - T - 500a/g = 0, gives T = 449.03N
85
(4) V = 2t2, a = dV/dt = 4t,
at t = 2s, a = 8m/s2
As per D’Alembert’s principle: for downward
motion of the bucket
acting force = W ,inertia forces are T and 500a/g,
500 - T - 500a/g = 0, gives T = 92.25N
86
Example 18
An elevator cage of mass 900kg when empty is lifted
or lowered vertically by means of a wire rope. A man
of mass 72.5 kg is standing on it. Using D’Alembert’s
principle calculate:
(a) Tension in the rope
(b) The force exerted by the man on the cage for the
following conditions :
(i) When moving up with an acceleration of 3m/s2,
and
(ii) When moving up with uniform velocity 3m/s
87
mass of the cage, M = 900kg
mass of the man, m = 72.5kg
FOR UPWARD MOTION

Forces acting on the cage are,
(i) T (up), and (ii) Total weight (M + m) g down ward and
(iii) inertia force (M + m) . a
As per D’Alembert’s principle, F-m.a=0

T– (M + m) g - (M + m) . a = 0…………eq(i)
solving the equation, T= 12458N 88
Let ‘R’ be the reaction of
the cage on the man ma
mg
Equation of motion (of man),
R – mg - m a = 0………eq(ii)
R = 72.5 (9.81+3), gives R
R = 928.7 N

89
FOR UPWARD MOTION WITH UNIFORM VELOCITY
(acceleration is zero):
Putting a = 0 in the equation i
(T– (M+m)g) - (M+m) . a = 0…………eq(i)
(T– (M+m)g) = (900+72.5) 9.81 = 9540 N
Putting a = 0 in the equation ii for reaction of the man on
lift
R’ – mg - m a = 0…………eq(ii)
R’ – mg = 72.5*9.81 = 711.2 N
90
1
INTRODUCTION 2
Each particle of the body is attracted towards the center of
the earth by a gravitational force known as the weight of a
particle.
G
Resultant
Consider a body consisting of a number of particles, the

gravitational forces acting on particles of a body form a
system of parallel forces passing through each particle.
INTRODUCTION… 3
The resultant of all these forces for all positions of the

body pass through a point which is called the ‘Centre of
Gravity’ of the body.
CENTER OF GRAVITY 4
The ‘Centre of Gravity’ or ‘c.g.’ of the body is point where

the weight of the body appears to be concentrated.
CENTER OF GRAVITY… 5
The C.G. of an Object can be found by hanging the
object from three different points as shown and drawing
the line of plumb. The intersection of three lines gives the
position of C.G. of the object.
A
B C
G
A A
C B C B
DETERMINATION OF CENTROID 6
FROM FIRST PRINCIPLE
According to principle of moments; “ The sum of moments

of the weights of the parts of a body about any axis is
equal to the moment of the weight of the whole body about
same axis.”
Considering a 3 dimensional body as shown in figure. Let

the arbitrary particle A in the body, have the co-ordinates x,
y & z and its weight is w. Let W be the total weight of the
body.
DETERMINATION OF CENTROID
7
FROM FIRST PRINCIPLE…
Let X, Y, and Z be the Y

coordinates of the c.g. of
the body. (x,y,z)
A (X,Y,Z)
w W
O y
X
z Y
x Z
Z
8
If we take moment @ z axis; Y
(w * x) =  w * X (x,y,z) (X,Y,Z)

A
 x dw = X  dw w W
y
O
X
z Y
 x dw x Z
X=
 dw X
Z
9
Similarly,
 y dw
Y=
 dw
 z dw
Z=
 dw
CENTER OF MASS 10
It is defined as the point where whole mass of the body is
assumed to be concentrated, and given by,
X =  x.dm/  .dm
Y =  y.dm/  dm
Z=  z.dm/  dm
CENTROID 11
The centroid is defined as the point where the whole

area of the figure is assumed to be concentrated .
Thus centroid can be taken as quite analogous to center
of gravity when bodies have area only and not weight.
(when only geometrical properties are taken in to

account).
CENTROID… 12
The geometrical property may be a line, an area or a
volume.
Correspondingly the centroid also may be
Centroid of a line,
Centroid of an area
Centroid of a volume.
CENTROID OF LINE 13
Consider a line as shown in figure.
The coordinates of small segment “dL” are (x,y,z)
The co-ordinates of the centroid C are (X,Y,Z)
y dL
C(X,Y,Z)
y
Y
x x
X
z
CENTROID OF LINE… 14
Now, the Mass of the small element,

dm =  . dv
dm =  . A . dL (Where, =Density, A= c/s Area)
Now, X =  x.dm/  .dm………(Centre of Mass)
 x.  . A . dL
X=
  . A . dL
CENTROID OF LINE… 15
If the density () & Cross-sectional Area (A) are constant for
a line;
 x.  . A . dL  x.dL
X= X=
  . A . dL  dL
 y.dL
Y=
 dL
 z.dL
Z=
 dL
CENTROID OF COMPOSITE 16
LINE
If the line is divided into number of simple
segments, the centroids of which are known, the centroid
of a composite line will be
X =  xi.dLi /  dLi
Y =  yi.dLi /  dLi
Z =  zi.dLi /  dLi
Where i = 1,2,3…..no of segments.
CENTROID OF A CIRCULAR
17
ARC: (LINE SEGMENT)
The circular arc may be uniform thin wire. Let us place the
arc in such a way that it is symmetrical about X-axis. So
Y=0 ; as shown in fig.
Consider element of the arc at an angle  from x- axis;
subtending an angle d at center. Let r be the radius of the
are and  be the angle of extreme points with x-axis as
shown in fig.
So L = r d ;
now X =  x. dL /  dL putting x= r cos ,
dL= rd,  dL = L
18
ARC: (LINE SEGMENT)…
r B
r d
 d C

A

19
20
Centroid of line 21
segments
L L
 L/2sin
L/2
L/2cos 
X = L/2
Y=0 X=L/2 cos 
Y=L/2 sin 
Centroid of line
22
segments
SEMI CIRCULAR ARC :-- X=R Y = 2R/

QUARTER CIRCULAR ARC:-- X =2R/ Y = 2R/
Example 1:- Find centroid for the line
segments as given; take r = 50 mm 23
60°
Example 1…
24
L1 = 100 mm
r L2 =  r = 157 mm
100
60° L = L1 + L2 = 257 mm
X = (L1 x1 + L2 x2) / ( L1 + L2)

= [ 100 (50 cos 60) + 157 (100 cos 60 + 50) ] / 257
= 70.81 mm
Y = (L1 y1 + L2 y2) / ( L1 + L2)
= [100 (50 sin60) + 157(100sin60 + 2r/)] / 257
= 89.2 mm
Find centroid for the line segments as given;
25
Example 2
r =50 mm
150 mm 150 mm
Example 3
r =50 mm
200 mm
50
CENTROID OF AREA
26
For Areas;
X =  x.dA /  dA
Y =  y.dA /  dA
Z =  z.dA /  dA
If the figure is divided into number of simple segments,
the centroids of which are known, the centroid of a
composite figure will be
X =  Ai xi /  Ai
Y =  Ai yi /  Ai
Z =  Ai zi /  Ai
CENTROID OF UNIFORM
27
SECTOR SHAPED AREA
Consider a sector shaped element at angle with X
axis subtending an angle d at the vertex. d Is very
small angle; the sector ABC can be considered as a
triangle so its centroid is at 2/3 r from center.
Area of triangle is dA = 1/2 r(rd) = (r2 /2) d
The x coordinate of centroid of that elementary area
= 2/3 r cos 
Total area of sector = (1/2) r . r .2 = r2 . 
CENTROID OF UNIFORM
28
SECTOR SHAPED AREA…
r B
r d
 d C

A

CENTROID OF UNIFORM
29
SECTOR SHAPED AREA…
Now AX =  x dA
r2. . X =(2/3 r cos).(r2/2)d =(r3/3)cos d
= r3/3[ sin  ] ( from,( - ) to + ))
= 2 r3/3( sin ) ;
X = [2 r3/3 (sin )] /(r2. ) = (2r/3)( sin/ )
For semi circle plate  =  /2 ;
X = (2r/3) ( sin  /2) / ( /2)
= 4r / 3
CENTROID OF STANDARD AREA
30
Example 4: Find the centroid of the T-shaped 31
area. (all dimensions are in cm.)
Y 50
10 X =  Ai xi /  Ai
1
Y =  Ai yi /  Ai
50 2
X = a1x1+a2x2 / (a1+a2 )
X Y = a1y1+a2y2 / (a1+a2)
10
Example 4…
32
Y 50 X = a1x1+a2x2 / (a1+a2 )
10 1 Y = a1y1+a2y2 / (a1+a2)
50 2 a1= 50 * 10 = 500 cm2

a2= 50 * 10 = 500 cm2
X
10
x1 = 50/2 =25 cm y1 = 50+(10/2) = 55 cm
x2 = 50/2 = 25 cm y2 = 50/2 = 25 cm
X = 500 *25 + 500 *25 / (500+500) = 25 cm

Y = 500*55+500*25 / (500+500) = 40 cm
Example 5: Find the centroid of the area
33
shown. (all dimensions are in mm.)
120 200 200 100
200
100 dia. cutout
X =  Ai xi /  Ai
Y =  Ai yi /  Ai
Example 5…
34
Y
120 200 200 100
200
1 2 4
X
3
100 dia. cutout

As the figure is symmetrical @ X-axis, Its Y = 0
Example 5…
35
No. Ai (mm2) Xi (mm) Ai.Xi (mm3)

1 12000 80 960000
2 80000 320 25600000
3 -7854 320 -2513280
4 15708 562.44 8834807.52
∑Ai 99854 ∑Ai.Xi 32881527.52
X =  Aixi /  Ai
= 32881527.52 / 99854 = 329.29 mm
Example 6: Find centroid of the
composite figure shown. 36
cutout
R=10 cm
 r = 5 cm
R
 = 4 cm
Square
cutout
Example 7:- Find the centroid of half parabolic
area (y=kx2), bounded by co-ordinates (a,b) as 37
shown in figure.
Y
(a , b)
y = k x2
X
Equation of parabola, y= kx2 substituting x=a, y=b
We, get b= ka2 k = b/a2
Substituting the value of k in equation of parabola we get,
y = (b/a2). x2
Example 7…
Y 38
dy (a,b)
y dA y = b/a2 * x2
Consider the horizontal strip

y = b/a2 * x2 x =  ya2/b
Area of small strip; dA= x.dy = (ya2/b)1/2 .dy
Total area, A=  dA =  (ya2/b)1/2.dy [limit of y from 0 to b]
A = 2ab/3
Centroid, Y=  y.dA /  dA A.Y =  y. dA
Example 7…
39
Y
dy (a,b)
y dA y = b/a2 * x2
A.Y =  y. dA
=  y. [y a2/ b]1/2 . dA
= (2/5) ab2
(2ab/3).Y = 2/5 ab2 Y = (3/5) b
Example 7…
Y 40
(a , b)
dA y = (b/a2)* x2 dA = y’ . dx
y’ = [ b-b/a2.x2 ] dx
X
x Total A= 2ab/3
dx
Considering the Vertical strip

A.X =  x . dA
=  x.(b-b/a2.x2) dx (limit of X from 0 to a)
(2ab/3).X = 1/4 ba2 X = (3/8) a
Example 8:- Find the centroid of unshaded area
shown in figure. 41
Y
(a , b)
y = k x2
X
CENTROID OF VOLUME
42
It can be written as
X =  x. dv /  dv
Y =  y. dv /  dv
Z =  z. dv /  dv
If the Volume is divided into number of simple volumes,
the centroids of which are known, the centroid of a
composite volume will be
X =  xi. dvi /  dvi
Y =  yi. dvi /  dvi
Z =  zi. dvi /  dvi
Where i = 1,2,3…..no of segments.
VOLUME OF REGULAR SHAPE
43
h
Sphere: V=(4/3) R3
Cylinder: V=  R2 h
Y= 3R/8
Hemisphere: V= =(2/3) R3
VOLUME OF REGULAR
44
SHAPE…
Cone: V=(1/3)  R2 h
h
Y = h /4 h
Pyramid : V= (1/3) l b h l
X = h /4
b
a
Paraboloid of Revolution:
h
V= =(1/2)  a2 h ; X= h/3
Example 9:- Determine the Centroid of Volume
of the Composite Body as shown in Figure 45
Y
300
Cone
400 Cylinder
100 Hemisphere
X
Z 200
As the Composite Body is Symmetrical @ Y Axis, X and Z
are Zero. Y is to be found out.
Example 9…
46
Body Volume (mm3) Y (mm) V x Y (mm4)
1. Cone = (1/3)  (100)2 (300) =100+400+300/4 =18 x 108

= 3.14 x 106 =575
2. Cylinder =  (100)2 (400) =100+200 =37.71x 108

=12.57 x 106 = 300
3. Hemisphere = (2/3)  (100)3 =100 - (3 x 100)/8 =1.31 x 108
=2.09 x 106 = 62.5
V =17.8 x 106 V x Y =57.02 x108
Y =( V x Y)/(V) = 57.02 x108 /17.8 x106 =320.34 mm

PAPPUS - GULDINUS 47
THEOREMS:
A surface of revolution is a surface generated by rotating a

line or a plane curve about a non-intersecting axis in figure.
THEOREMS:…
A body of revolution is a solid body generated by
rotating a plane area about a non intersecting axis
lying in the plane of the area.
THEOREMS:…
Theorem 1:-
“ The area of a surface of revolution is given by the
product of the length of a generating curve and the
distance travelled by the centroid of the generating
curve.” L
A = 2  Y. L Y
Where,
L = length of generating curve
2  Y = Distance travelled by
the centroid.
THEOREMS:…
Surface area of a Sphere
L= r
Y = 2r/  y
A = 2  Y. L
= 2  (2r/ ) ( r)
= 4  r2
THEOREMS:…
Theorem 2 :-
“ The volume of a body of revolution is given by the

product of the area of generating surface and the
distance travelled by the centroid of the generating
area.” A
V = 2  Y. A Y
A= area of rectangle
2  Y = Distance travelled by
the centroid.
THEOREMS:…
Volume of a Sphere
A = (1/2) r2
Y = 4r/3 y
V = 2  Y. A
= 2  (4r/3) ((1/2) r2))
= (4/3)  r3
Example :1
53
A hollow cone made up of thin metal sheet as shown in
figure. Using Pappus theorem;
find out (a) Surface area of cone,
(b) Volume of cone.
100 mm
300 mm
200 mm
Example :1…
(i) Surface area of cone 54
100 50
B
C
X=75 C 300
300
A
100 50
200
L =  502 + 3002 = 304.14 mm
A = 2  X .L = 2  75 . (304.14) = 143000 mm2
Example :1…
(ii) Volume of cone 55
50mm 50mm
100
B
2
1 38.89
300
A
100 mm 100 mm
200 mm
X = (A1x1 + a2x2)/ (A1+A2)
Example :1…
56
X = (1/2)50*300*(50+(50/3))+50*300*(25) /(9000)
= 38.89 mm
X=38.89 mm and A = 9000 mm2

V = 2  X .A = 2  38.89 (9000) = 505*104 mm3
FRICTION
1
FRICTION
• Friction may be defined as a force of resistance acting on a body
which prevents or retards slipping of the body relative to a second
body with which it is in contact.
• This force always acts tangent to the surface at points of contact

with other bodies and is directed so as to oppose the possible or
existing motion of the body at these points.
• In general, two types of friction can occur between surfaces.
Fluid friction exists when contacting surfaces are separated by
a film of fluid (gas or liquid).
The nature of fluid friction is studied in fluid mechanics.
2
Dry friction exist between the contacting surfaces of bodies in
the absence of a lubricating fluid.
Limiting Frictional Force
During Static condition, the frictional force increases in direct
proportional to the applied force.
A certain stage is reached when the the applied force is just

sufficient to overcome the friction. At this stage the block is on the
verge of moving in the direction of applied force, this is known as
Condition of Impending Motion. At this stage the friction is maximum,
3
known as Limiting Frictional Force.

Kinetic Friction
• If the applied force is still increased, the object is in motion, due to
this the frictional force suddenly drops and is constant. It is the
case of Kinetic Friction.
• As soon as block has set in motion,
the magnitude of friction drops from
maximum value to lower value. this
is because there is less
interpenetration between the
irregularities of the surface in contact
when these surface move with
4
respect to each other.
P
F
Condition of
Impending Motion
Motion
(Kinetic Friction)
5
Applied Force (P)
Laws of Dry friction
1. The friction force acts in a direction opposite to motion of the body.
2. The frictional force is directly proportional to the Normal Reaction

and it is independent of extent of area of surface in contact. (F  N)
3. The frictional force depends on the Nature of Surface in contact.
4. The Kinetic Frictional force is less than the limiting value of Static
frictional force (Fs > Fk).
6
Co-efficient of Friction
The Co-efficient of friction is defined as the Ratio of Limiting
Frictional force to the Normal Reaction. It is denoted by “”.
Limiting Frictional force(F)

Co-efficient of friction =
Normal Reaction (N)
F
 =
N
F = . N
W P
F
N
7
Angle of Friction
The angle of friction is defined as the angle which the

resultant(R) of normal reaction (N) and limiting force of friction (F),
makes with the normal reaction (N). It is denoted by “”.
tan  = F/N
 = tan-1 (F/N) W
 = tan-1 ()
P
 = tan 
F
N 
R
F
Angle of repose
The inclination of plane with horizontal at which the block on the

verge of sliding down the plane without application of any external
force, is defined as angle of repose.
W

9
In the figure if “” is angle of repose, the block will start moving
down the plane. Resolving all the forces, along the plane &
Perpendicular to plane.
For Equilibrium,
W sin - . N = 0
. N = W sin …..(1)
N - W cos = 0
90- 
N= W cos…..(2)
 W cos
from eq. (1) and (2)
. (W cos) = W sin W
. = tan 
But,  = tan “”
= (Angle of Friction = Angle of Repose) 10
Equilibrium on Rough Incline plane
Consider a block of weight W resting on an inclined plane. If

the inclination of the plane is greater than angle of repose, the block
will start moving down the plane.
Let an external force “P” is applied as shown in figure.
W
 11
CASE - I
If the external force is gradually increased a state is reached

when the body is just on the point of moving down the plane. The
frictional force is acting up the plane and is maximum.
90- 
 W cos
W 12
CASE - II
If the external force is further increased, the upward frictional

force will become smaller and smaller and ultimately becomes zero.
This is called “No friction Condition” and there no tendency of
motion.
90- 
 W cos
W
13
CASE - III
If the external force is still further increased, a state is
reached when the body is just on the point of moving up the plane .
Here the frictional force is acting down the plane and is maximum.
90- 
 W cos
W
14
Example: A Wooden block of 30 N weight is placed on a horizontal
plane. If the Coefficient of friction() is 0.3, Find the maximum
horizontal force required to move the block just to the right.
Solution:
Considering conditions of equilibrium, W
Fy=0
P
N-W=0
F=  N
N = W = 30
N
Max. Frictional Force developed =  * N
= 0.3 * 30
=9N
15
So, Minimum value of P required = 9 N
Example: A Wooden block of 30 N weight is placed on a horizontal
plane. A horizontal force of 12 N is applied and block is on the point of
moving. W
Find (i) Coefficient of friction ()
12N
(ii) Angle of friction ()
F=  N
(iii) The resultant reaction (R)
N  R
Solution:
(i) Co-efficient of Friction
Conditions of equilibrium
 = F/ N = 0.4
Fy=0 N-W = 0
(ii) Angle of friction
N = W = 30 N
 = tan-1() = tan-1(0.4)= 21.8°
Fx=0 12-F =0
(iii)Total reaction R = (N2 + F2)
F =12 N
= (30 2+12 2)
= 32.3N 16
Example:- A block weighing 60N and subjected to a force P as shown
in figure. If the co-efficient of friction is 0.25, find the value of P to just
move the block up the plane.
60N 60cos30
30°
17
Solution:-
Here W= 60N,  = 0.25
Resolving the forces parallel to plane for Equilibrium,
P - N - 60sin30=0
P= 0.25N+ 30 ……(I)
Equating forces  lar to plane,
N - 60 cos30=0
N = 60cos30
60cos30
60N
N = 51.96 N 30°
P = N
P = 0.25(51.96) + 30
• The value of P to just move the
P = 42.99N block up the plane is 43 N.
Example:- A block of 36 N weight is subjected to a force 12 N as
shown in figure, and the block is just on the point of moving down
the plane. Determine coefficient of friction.
12N
10°
30°
19
As the block is on the point of moving down the plane, the
frictional force will act up the plane.
Resolving the forces parallel & perpendicular to plane for
equilibrium;
12N
10°
36 N
30°
20
12N
10°
36 N
30°
Equating forces  lar to plane, Resolving the forces parallel to plane

for Equilibrium,
N + 12sin 10 - 36 cos30 = 0
12cos 10 + N - 36 sin 30 = 0
N = 29.093 N
N = 6.18
21
 = 0.212
LADDER FRICTION
22
Ladder Friction
• The ladder rest on wall and floor. As
shown in the figure, if a weight W is
placed on the ladder, the ladder will try
to slip in the direction shown. At the
same time the direction of friction
will be opposite to that of direction of
sliding.
• The normal reactions acts
perpendicular to the surface as
shown in figure.
• The horizontal and vertical reactions at
floor & wall can be found out by
applying the laws of friction and the
moments @ the supports = 0. 23
24
Example: A ladder AB weights 200 N. The coefficient of
friction between ladder & wall is 0.2 and that between
ladder and floor is 0.5. Determine the force P applied
horizontally at bottom to just produce motion to the left.
B NB
FB
6m
200N
P A
FA
4.5m 25
NA
For equilibrium,
Fx= 0 - P + FA – NB = 0 B NB
- P + A NA – NB = 0
FB
0.5NA - P - NB = 0 ……(1)
6m
Fy= 0 NA - 200 + FB = 0
NA - 200 + B xNB = 0 200N
P A
NA - 200 - 0.2 x NB= 0 .…(2)
FA
4.5m
For equilibrium, NA
Taking moments about A
M A = 0 NB x 6 + B x NB x 4.5 – 200 x 4.5/2 = 0
NB = 65.2 N
26
from equation (2) NA=187 N & P = 28.28 N

WEDGE & BLOCK
FRICTION
27
WEDGE & BLOCK FRICTION
• Wedges are used to lift or to move the heavy blocks. While driving
a Wedge, the frictional Forces are developed at all Rubbing
Surfaces.
• The Figure Shows a Wedge & Block arrangement.  is the Angle
Between two rubbing surfaces, which is known as angle of Wedge
is the driving force and W is the Weight to be displaced.

28
• When force P is applied to the
Wedge, the wedge Slides
down and the Block moves
Towards right. The frictional
force are developed at the
rubbing surfaces 1, 2 & 3.
• F1, F2 and F3 are the
Frictional Forces which
Opposes the Movement
and act in Opposite
Direction that of 29
movement.
1, 2, and 3 are the angle of Friction of respective
Surfaces, 1, 2 and 3.(Angle Between Normal and Resultant) Using
Lami’s Theorem, the problem can be solved...
30
31
EXAMPLE:- A 15º Wedge is to be driven between the vertical surface
and the block weighing 1200N which is resting on a Horizontal Surface.
If the Coefficient of Friction between all Rubbing Surface is 0.25,
Determine the vertical Force Required to Start the Wedge down. Also
find the resultant reactions at all the rubbing surfaces.
32
15º
33
15º
= 15º = Angle of Wedge. For all the surfaces.

 = 0.25 From Figure, Angle Between:
 = tan P & R1 = 90+  = 90+14=104º.
 = tan-1(0.25) P & R2 = 90+ +  = 90+14+15 =119 º
 = 14º . 34
15º
35
Applying Lami’s Theorem,
1200 R2 R3
= =
sin 133 sin 166 sin 61
1200∗sin 166
 R2 =
sin 113
R2 = 398.16 N
1200∗sin 61
 R3 =
sin 133
R3 = 1459 N
Applying Lami’s Theorem,
P R2 R1
= =
sin 137 sin 104 sin 119
398.16∗sin 137
 P=
sin 104
P = 280 N
398.16∗sin 119
 R1 =
sin 104
R1 = 359 N
SCREW
FRICTION
38
SCREW FRICTION
• The screws, bolts, studs, nuts etc. are widely used in various
machines and structures for fastenings.
• These fastenings have screw threads, which are made by cutting
a continuous helical groove on a cylindrical surface.
• If the threads are cut on the outer surface of a solid rod, these
are known as external threads.
• But if the threads are cut on the internal surface of a hollow rod
these are known as internal threads.
39
Screw threads
Square threads
V-threads
• V-threads are stronger and offer more frictional resistance to

motion than square threads.
• V-threads have advantage of preventing the nut from
slackening.
• Whereas square threads are used in screw jacks, vice screws
etc. which are used for lifting heavy loads.
40
tan  = Lead of the screw
Circumference of screw
= p/ d (in Single threaded screw)
= np/ d (in multithreaded screw)
Where,
P = Pitch of the screw,
d = Mean diameter of the screw 41
N= Number of threads in one lead
Helix : It is the curve traced by a particle while moving along a screw
thread.
Pitch :It is the distance from a point of a screw to a corresponding

point on the next thread.
Lead : It is the distance through which a screw thread advances

axially in one turn.
Depth of thread : It is the distance between the top and bottom

surfaces of a thread.
Slope of the thread : It is the inclination of the thread with horizontal.
In case of multithreaded screw, Lead = Pitch x No. of threads 42

Relation between Effort and Weight lifted by a screw jack
• The screw jack is a device lifting heavy loads by applying a
comparatively smaller effort at its handle. The principle, on which
a screw jack works is similar to that of an inclined plane.
Let,
p = pitch of the screw
d = Mean diameter of the screw
P = Effort applied at the mean radius of the screw jack to lift the load
W = weight of the body to be lifted
 = coefficient of friction, between the screw and nut
 = Angle of friction
43
• Now, the force applied at lever of the screw jack is considered to be
horizontal.
RELATION BETWEEN EFFORT AND WEIGHT LIFT BY A

SCREW JACK:
Horizontal force required to lift a load on an inclined rough plane,

P = W tan (α + )
RELATION BETWEEN EFFORT AND WEIGHT LOWERED BY A

SCREW JACK:
The horizontal force required to lower a load on an inclined plane,

P = W tan (α - ) …. (when α  )
P = W tan ( -α) …. (when   α ) 44
Efficiency of a Screw Jack :
• Force required to lift the load,
P = W tan(α + )
• If there is no friction,  will be zero.
P0 = W tan (α)
Ideal effort
Efficiency =
Actual effort
W tan (α)
Efficiency =
W tan (α + )
tan (α)
Efficiency =
tan (α + )
For Maximum efficiency, tan (α + )=1
α = 45 - /2 45
Example 1 : The mean radius of a screw of square threaded screw
jack 25 mm.The pitch of thread is 7.5 mm. If the co-efficient of friction
is 0.12, what effort applied at the end of a lever 60cm length is needed
to raise a weight of 2 kN.
Solution :
helix angle, tanα = p / 2r
tanα = 0.75/ (2x2.5)
tanα = 0.048
α = 2.74º
Angle of friction,  = tan-1 ()
 = tan-1 (0.12)
 = 6.84º 46
Effort required at mean radius of the screw to raise the weight,.
P = W tan (α + )
P = 2000 tan ( 2.74 + 6.84 )

P = 337.55 N
Now the effort applied at the end of the lever,

P1 x 60 = P x r
P1 x 60 = 338 x 2.5
P1 = 14.1N
47
Example 2 : The screw of a jack is square threaded with two threads
to a centimeter. The outer diameter of the screw is 5cm. If the co-
efficient of friction is 0.1, calculate the force required to be applied at
the end of the lever, which is 70cm long.
(i) to lift a load of 4kN and
(ii) to lower it.
Solution :
There are two threads in a cm. n =2
Pitch of the screw p = ½ = 0.5cm
Internal diameter of the screw = 5 – 2*0.5 = 4cm
Mean diameter of the screw,
d=5+4
2
d = 4.5 cm
Let α = Helix angle
tanα = p / 2 r Angle of friction,
tanα = 0.5/ (  x 4.5)  = tan-1 ()
α = tan-1 (0.0335)  = tan-1 (0.1)
α = 1.92º  = 5.71º 49
(i) Force applied at the end of 70cm
long lever to down the load,
P = W tan(α + )
= 4000 tan(1.92 + 5.71)
= 535.84 N
Now the force applied at the end of
the lever,
P1 x 70 = P x d/2
P1 x 70 = 535.8 x 4.75/2
P1 = 18.5 N
50
(ii) Force applied at the end of 70cm
long lever to lift the load,
P = W tan( - α)
P = 4000 tan (5.71 - 1.92)
P = 264.98 N
Now the force applied at the end of the
lever,
P2 x 70 = P x d/2
P2 x 70 = 264.98 x 4.75/2
P2 = 9 N
51
Example 3 : The load of 2500N is to be raised by a screw jack with
mean diameter of 7.5cm and pitch of 12mm. Find the efficiency of the
screw jack, if the co-efficient of friction is 0.075.
Solution :
helix angle, tanα = p / d Efficiency of the screw jack,
tanα = 0.75/ (x7.5) W tan (α)

=
W tan (α + )
tanα = 0.051
α = 2.92º tan (2.92)
=
tan (2.92 + 4.29)
Angle of friction,  = tan-1 ()
= 0.403
= tan-1 (0.075)
= 40.3%
 = 4.29º
52
SCREW
FRICTION
53
ROPE AND BELT
54
ROPE AND BELT
• The power or rotary motion from one shaft to another at a
considerable distance is, usually transmitted by means of flat
belts, vee belts or ropes, running over the pulleys.
• Figure shows an open belt drive consisting of pulleys A and B.
The pulley A is keyed to rotating shaft, and is known as driver. The
pulley B is keyed to a shaft, intended to be rotated, and is known
as follower.
• When the driver rotates , it carries the belt due to grip between its
surface and the belt. The belt, in turn, carries the driven pulley
which starts rotating.
• The grip between the pulley and the belt is obtained by friction,
which arises from the pressure between the belt and the pulleys.
The friction gap is increased by tightening the belt.
55
d1 d2
Driver
Follower
56
d2
d1
Follower
Driver
57
SPEED OF PULLEYS CONNECTED BY BELT DRIVE
• Figure shows the two pulleys of diameters d1 and d2. Let the
centers of the two pulleys by belt. Let the diameter of driver pully
d1 and diameter of follower pully d2.
• Former pulley is called driver and the latter pulley is called a
follower, when the belts are provided the pulleys are said to be
connected by open belt drive. In this case, the direction of rotation
of the follower is the same as that of the driver.
d1 d2
Driver
Follower 58
Follower
Driver
• When it is desired that the direction of rotation of the follower
should be opposite to that of the driver the pulleys will be
connected by belts as shown in figure.
• In this case the pulleys are said to be connected by cross belt
drive.
• Angular velocity of the driver = 1 rad/sec
• Angular velocity of the Follower = 2 rad/sec
• There is no slip between driver and belt, linear velocity of the
belt = v
V = 1 d1/2 59
• There is no slip between driver and belt, linear velocity of the
belt = v
V = r*1
𝑑1
V= *1
2
• Similarly There is no slip between follower and belt, linear
velocity of the belt = v
V = r*2
𝑑2
V= *2
2
• Linear velocity of the belt ,
𝑑1 𝑑2
*1 = *2
2 2
2 N
1d1 = 1 d2 (= )
60
N1 d1 = N2 d2
60
VELOCITY RATIO OF A COMPOUND BELT DRIVE
• Sometimes the power transmitted from one shaft to another
through a number of pulleys. This arrangement is known as
compound belt drive.
Let, d1 = diameter of pulley 1
N1 = Speed of pulley 1 in r.p.m.
d2, d3, d4, N2, N3, N4 = Corresponding values for pulleys 2,3 & 4.
61
• Velocity ratio of the pulleys 1 and2,
N2 = d1
N1 d2 …………………(1)
• Similarly, velocity ratio of the pulleys 3 and 4

N4 = d3
N3 d4 …………………(2)
• Multiplying equation 1 with 2
N2 x N4 = d1 x d3
N1 N3 d2 d4
N4 = d1 x d3 [as N2 = N3, being keyed to the same shaft]

N1 d2 d4
62
Example: In a workshop, an engine drives a shaft by a belt. The
diameter of the engine pulley and the shaft pulley are 500 mm and
250 mm respectively. Another pulley of 700 mm diameter on the
same shaft drives a pulley 280 mm in diameter on a motor shaft. If
the engine runs at 180 RPM, Find the speed of the motor shaft.
SOLUTION :
N4 = d1 x d3
N1 d2 d4
N4 = 180 X 500 X 700

250 X 280
N4 = 900 R.P.M
63
POWER TRANSMITTED BY BELT :
• Driving pulley pulls the belt form one side, and delivers the same to
the other. The tension T1 in the former side (tight side) will be more
than tension T2 in the latter side i.e slack side.
V = velocity of the belt in m/s.
• Effective driving force at circumference of the follower = T1 – T2
• Work done = Force x Distance
= [T1 – T2] V Nm/s A B

Power = [T1 – T2] V J/s
Follower
Driver
P = [T1 – T2] V watt
64
Example: Find the necessary difference in tensions in kgf in the two
sides of a belt drive, when transmitting 20h.p at 30m/sec.
SOLUTION :
Power = [T1 – T2] V watt
[T1 – T2] V
20 =
75
[T1 – T2] ∗ 30
20 =
75
20
[T1 – T2] =
0.4
[T1 – T2] = 50 kgf
65
GENERAL PLANE MOTION
INSTANTANEOUS CENTER
1
PLANE MOTION of a RIGID BODY :
The motion in which all the particles of the body

move in parallel planes,
i.e. motion in which mass center lies in the plane

of motion.
i.e. the motion of the body may be represented by

the motion of a representative slab or lamina
instead of the entire body.
2
PLANE OF MOTION :
The plane in which the mass center of the body
moves is defined as the plane of motion.
The plane motion of a body may be divided into

three categories:
TRANSLATION
ROTATION

3
TRANSLATION
A rigid body has a motion of translation when
it moves in such a way that the line joining
any two particles keeps the same orientation
throughout the motion.
In translation all the particles forming the rigid

body moves along the parallel paths.
4
A’
A Rectilinear
translation.
B B’
If these paths are the straight lines, the motion is

said to be a rectilinear translation.
5
A’
A
Curvilinear
translation.
B B’
If these paths are the curved lines, the motion is

said to be a curvilinear translation.
6
When a rigid body is in translation, all the
particles of the body have same displacement
and therefore same velocity and same
acceleration at any particular instant of time.
7
ROTATION
If a body rotates about

a fixed point in such a
A
way that all it’s
particles move in
circular path, the body
is said to have the
A’ motion of rotation.
B
B’
O 8
ROTATION
v = linear velocity (m/s)
ds v = ds/dt
A
ds = arc length = rθ
θ B
r v = r (dθ/dt)
v = r.ω
ω is angular velocity (rad/s)
9
Any motion which is neither a pure translation
nor a pure rotation, but the combination of
translation and rotation is known as general
plane motion.
General plane motion can always be considered
as a combination of pure translation motion and a
pure rotation motion.
10
PURE TRANSLATION PURE ROTATION
B1 B1’
A1 A2
A1’
B2
B1
A2
A1
B2
11
at time t at time t + Δt
Another example of such type of motion is the
motion of a rod whose extremities slides,
respectively , along a horizontal and a vertical
plane.
B
= +
General Plane Motion Pure Translation Pure Rotation

12
INSTANTANEOUS CENTER
13
The instantaneous centre method of analysing the
motion in rigid body is based upon the concept that
any displacement of a body having motion in one
plane, can be considered as a pure rotational
motion of a rigid link as whole about some centre.
This point is known as INSTANTANEOUS center of

rotation.
14
SUMMARY
Instantaneous center is not a fixed point.
It’s location keeps on changing at every instant of
time.
Path traced by it is known as centrode.
The instantaneous center may lie on the body or
outside the body.
15
For any particle in motion of rotation,
V=  r, So
VI =  Ip,
Ip = 0, distance between point of rotation and point
under consideration.
VI = 0
At any instant of time linear velocity of
instantaneous center is zero.
16
The instantaneous center is a point identified
within the body whose the velocity is zero, or ,
If a point on the body identified at rest at any
instant, it must be the instantaneous center of
rotation of the body.
LOCATING THE INSTANTANEOUS CENTERS

The process of locating IC can be done using the
direction of velocity vectors.
17
CASE A When direction of the velocities of two
points are known to us and they are unequal,
along with the known value of one velocity.
Consider two
Vp = known Vel. points P and Q
Vq = unknown vel. on the rigid body
in plane motion.
Let at any instant
their velocities be
Vq=? Vp and Vq
Vp respectively.
P Q
18
I.C. Draw a line from point P
which is at right angles to
the velocity vector VP.
If this velocity VP is the

result of rotation of the
body about some point
then this point must lie
Vp along this perpendicular
P
line.
19
I.C. And now draw another
line from point Q which
is at right angles to the
velocity vector Vq.
If this velocity Vq is the

result of rotation of the
body about some point
Vq then this point of
Vp rotation must lie along
P this perpendicular line.
20
I.C. Thus the point at which
these two perpendicular
lines intersect with each
other is the point of
rotation of the body at
that instant of time and it
is known as
INSTANTANEOUS
CENTER OF ROTATION.
Vq
Vp
P
21
Now, we know that V =  r i.e.  = V / r
The angular velocity of the body , @ I.C. can be
determined as
For point P
I.C.  = Vp / IP , similarly
For point Q
 = Vq / IQ
For point P, Q and R,
R VR  =(Vp/IP)=(Vq/IQ)=(Vr/ IR)
Vq
Vp
P Q
22
 = the angular velocity @ the I.C.
Here, IP, IQ & IR are distances of the points P, Q
and R from the instantaneous center I.
23
CASE B When the velocities of two particles are
parallel and unequal.
Vp = known Vel. Vq = known vel.
The instantaneous center

I.C. I.C. can be found out by
determining the point of
intersection of line PQ
with the line joining the
extremities of the two
velocity vectors Vp and Vq.
Q Vq
Vp
P 24
CASE C When the velocities of two particles are
parallel and equal in magnitude.
I.C. at When the velocities Vp

infinity and Vq are equal and
the vectors are parallel
to each other then the
instantaneous center
will be at infinite
Vq distance and all the
Q points on the body will
Vp have the same velocity.
P
25
PURE TRANSLATION
PURE ROTATION
C C
D B D B
O O
A A
GENERAL PLANE MOTION : IC
B
D O
A [V = 0 => IC] 26
Example 1
A cylinder of radius 1.0 m rolls without slipping
along a horizontal plane AB. Its center has a
uniform velocity of 25m/s. Find out the velocities of
point E and F on the circumference of the cylinder.
E Vo= 25m/s
O 2.0 m
27
SCALE Vo= 25m/s
1 cm = 0.5m
Vo =  * IO
IO = 1.0m
Vo = 25m/s
F VF  = 25 rad/s
O Vo 2.0 m VF =  * IF
VF = 25 * 2
VF = 50 m/s
I.C.
28
VE =  * IE
VE = 25 * 1.414
VE = 35.355 m/s
VE
Vo 2.0 m
O
E
I.C.
29
Example 2
A cylindrical roller of radius 0.25 m, is in contact,
at its top and bottom, with two conveyor belts PQ
and RS as shown. If these belts run at the uniform
speed of V1 = 5 m/s and V2 = 10m/s, find out the
angular velocity of the roller.
V1 = 5 m/s
P Q

O 0.5 m

R S V2= 10 m/s
30
I.C.
 = 10 rad/s
AI = 0.5 m
VO= 7.5 m/s
A V1= 5 m/s
AB = 0.5 m O
V2= 10 m/s
B
31
Location of I.C.
Example 3
A bar “AB” of length 1.5m, has it’s ends A and B
constrained to move horizontally and vertically as
shown. The end A moves with a constant velocity
of 5m/s horizontally.
Find out,
a) The angular velocity of the bar, b) The velocity
of end B, and c) The velocity of the point C
located at midpoint on the bar at the instant when
the axis of the bar makes an angle of 45° with the
horizontal.
32
B
VB
0.75
C
0.75
45°
A VA 5 m/s 33
B x I.C.
VB 45°
2x2 = 1.5 => x = 1.06

For point A x
C
= VA / IA = 5 / 1.06
 = 4.72 rad/s,
45°
For point B
= VB / IB (IB = 1.06)
A
VA
VB= 5.00 m/s
34
B I.C.
VB 45°
For point C 1.06

C
 = VC / IC
IC = 1.5/2 = 0.75
45°
VC= 3.54 m/s
A
VA
35
Example 4
In the previous numerical, find :
a) The angular velocity of the bar, b) The velocity of
end B, and c) The velocity of the point C located at
midpoint on the bar at the instant when the axis of
the bar makes an angle of 30° with the horizontal.
36
B
VB 0.75
C
0.75
30°
A VA 5 m/s 37
B x I.C.
30°
VB
Using Sin Rule,
X / sin 60 = 1.5 / sin 90 y
= y / sin 60
C
Hence, x = 1.3, y = 0.75
For point A 60°
= VA / IA = 5 / 0.75
 = 6.66 rad/s, A
VA
38
B 1.3 I.C.
VB 30°
0.75
C 0.75
For point B
= VB / IB (IB = 1.30) 60°
VB = 8.67 m/s
A
VA
39
B 1.3 I.C.
VB 30°
0.75
C
Using Cosine Rule
(𝟎.𝟕𝟓)𝟐 +(𝟏.𝟑)𝟐 −(𝑰𝑪)𝟐 60°
cos 30 =
𝟐(𝟎.𝟕𝟓)(𝟏.𝟑)
IC = 0.75 A
VA
Vc = 4.99 m/s
40
Example 5
For the given mechanism, AB link rotates
clockwise at 2.5 rad/s. BC link is at angle 30˚ with
horizontal. If end C of rod is free to move on
horizontal surface, calculate velocity of end C and
angular velocity of the system.
IC
A
C
41
For point B (AB = rotation)
 r = VB
 VB = 1.5 * 2.5 = 3.75 m/s
 IB = 3 tan 60˚ = 5.19
For point C
IC = 3 / cos 60˚ = 6
VC = 6 * 3.75 / 5.19 = 4.33 m/s
Angular velocity of system

ω = 3.75 / 5.19 = 0.72 rad/s
42
1
IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM

INTRODUCTION
2
Principle of impulse and momentum:-

Derived from Newton’s second law of motion
Impulse of a Force:-
Impulsive force: Large force acts for a very small
period of time.
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF
MOMENTUM 3
When sum of the impulses due to external forces

is zero then the momentum of the system remains
constant.
Or
“ If no external force is acting then total momentum of
the system remains unchanged ”
(m V)1 = (m V)2
Principle of Linear Impulse
4
and Momentum
MOMENTUM:- Product of mass and Velocity.
As per Newton’s second law of motion,

F=ma
F = m . dV/dt
F = d/dt . (mV)
Force = rate of change of momentum of the
particle.
Rearranging the terms and integrating
Principle of Linear Impulse
and Momentum…
5
Force
t1 t t2 time
Integrating between the limits v = v1 at t = t1
and v = v2 at t = t2 we have
t1  t2 F . dt = m
v1  v2 dv
6
This can be written as,

t1  t2 F.dt = (m V) - (m V)
t2 t1
t1= 0,at start t2= t,

0
t F.dt = (m V)t - (m V)0
7
Impulse:- The integral  F . dt is referred to as the

impulse
The term is a vector quantity
If impulse and force act in same direction are
considered as positive
Units are represented as N*s.
If the force is constant in both magnitude and
direction, the resulting impulse become.
I = t1  t2 F.dt = Fc (t2 – t1)
Force Variable 8
Force
t1 t2 time
Force
Constant
Fc
Force
t1 t t2 time
FX = d/dt . (m VX) FY = d/dt . (m VY)
9
FX dt = d(m VX) FY dt = d(m VY)
FX dt = Impulse of the force FX

FY dt = Impulse of the force FY
d(m VX)= Differential change in the momentum of

particle in X direction.
d(m VY)= Differential change in the momentum of

particle in Y direction.
10
Differential change in the momentum of particle over

time t1 to t2 is equal to the impulse of the force
acting for the same time period.
t1  t2 F . dt = (m V ) - (m V )
X X t2 X t1
t1  t2 F . dt = (m V ) - (m V )
Y Y t2 Y t1
This can be written as,
t1  t2 F.dt = (m V) - (m V)
t2 t1
t1= 0,at start t2= t,
0  t F.dt = (m V) - (m V)
t 0
0  t F.dt = (m V) - (m V)
t 0
Impulse of a force = Final momentum – 11
Initial momentum
 Large force acting for a very small period of time---

Impulsive force
 When impulsive force act on the system the non-
impulsive forces are neglected.
12
t1  t2 F.dt = (m V) - (m V)
t2 t1
For problem solving the equation can be rewritten

in the form
(mV)t1 + t1  t2 F.dt = (m V)t2
Which state that the initial momentum of the

particle at time t1 plus the sum of all the impulses
applied to the particle from t1 to t1 is equivalent to
the final momentum of the particle at time t2
13
If each of the vectors is resolved into its x, y, z

components we can write the following three
equations of linear impulse and momentum
(mVx)1 + t1  t2 F.dt = (m Vx)2
(mVy)1 + t1  t2 F.dt = (m Vy)2
(mVz)1 + t1  t2 F.dt = (m Vz)2

t1  t2 F.dt 14
(m V)1
+ =
Initial Impulse (m V)2

Momentum Diagram
Diagram
Final
Momentum
Diagram
Let’s take the case of collision of two balls,
15
A and B :-
BALL A ,
Mass of the ball =m1, Velocity before collision=v01
Velocity after collision = v1
BALL B ,
16
Mass of the ball =m2,
Velocity before collision=v02
Velocity after collision = v2
Before collision,
Momentum of mass ma = m1 v01
Momentum of mass mb = m2 v02
Total Momentum = m1v01+ m2 v02 eq (I)
17
After collision,
Momentum of mass ma = m1 v1
Momentum of mass mb = m2 v2
Total Momentum = m1v1+ m2 v2 eq (II)
18
The law of conservation of momentum requires that

,the total momentum before the collision must be
equal to the total momentum after the collision.
So,
m1 v1 + m2 v2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2 eq (iii)
eg. 1) Propulsion of jet plane
2) Recoil of the gun after fire
19
A railway wagon of mass 50,000kg moving with a

velocity 3.6 kmph backs into another wagon of mass
30,000kg that is at rest on a level track. After
coupling is made find the velocity of the coupled
wagon.
If no external force is acting then total momentum

of the system remains unchanged.
Here, external force is zero,

Impulse of force is zero, Hence
Final momentum = Initial momentum
Before collision,
Momentum of mass 1 = 50000 * 3.6 20
Momentum of mass 2 = 30000 * 0.0

Total Momentum = m1v01+ m2 v02
= 180000
After coupling,
Momentum of the combined mass 1 & 2
= (50000+30000) * V
V = 2.25 kmph…………….Ans.
21
The brakes are applied to a car of mass 1200 kg

traveling at 72kmph so as to cause all the wheels to
skid. Determine time required to stop the car. Take
Coefficient of friction =0.5
Using Newton’s Law

Ff = ma (frictional force)
Ff = 1200 * 9.81* 0.5 = 5886 N
5886 =1200 *a
a = - 4.905 m/sec2
V0 = 20 m/s
V=0 22
V =V0 + at
t = 4.08s
impulsive force = Change in momentum

F.dt = (mV)2- (mV)1
Before applying the brakes,

Momentum of car = m v1
= 1000*20
= 20000 kg m/s
After applying the brakes ,
Momentum of car = m v2 23
= 1000 *0
=0
Impulse of a force = Final momentum –

Initial momentum
F.dt = (m V)2 - (m V)1
Ff .dt = 20000
(1000*9.81*0.5)*dt = 20000
t = 4.08 s
24
A bullet of mass 25g is fired with a velocity of

500m/s in to a wooden block resting against rigid
vertical wall. If the bullet is brought to rest in 0.5m,
determine the average impulsive force exerted by
the bullet on the block.
impulsive force = Change in momentum
F.dt = (mV)2- (mV)1
Before collision,
Momentum of bullet = m v1
= 0.025*500
= 12.5 kg.m/s
After collision, 25
Momentum of bullet = m v2
= 0.025*0
=0
Equation of Distance travelled in the wood;

V2- V02 = 2 a s
02- 5002 = 2 * (a) * 0.05
a = -2500000 m/s2
V = V0 + a.t
t = 0.0002s
26
Impulse of a force = Final momentum –

Initial momentum
F.dt = (m V)2 - (m V)1
F * (0.0002) = 12.5
F = 62.5 kN
27
A ball of mass 150g is moving towards a bat with a

velocity of 30m/s as shown in the fig. When hit by
the bat, it attains a velocity of 50m/s. If the bat and
the ball are in contact for 0.012s, determine the
average impulsive force exerted by the bat on the
ball.
VX1= 50
VX0= -30
35
X
M = 150 gms = 0.15kg
t = 0.012s 28
Taking components in x and y directions:-
VX1 = - 30m/s VY1=0

VX2 = 50*cos35 VY2 = 50*sin35
= 40.96m/s = 28.68m/s
Applying the equation,
0  t F .dt = (m V ) - (m V )
X X t2 X t1
= 0.15[ 40.96 – (-30)]

= 10.644
FXavg = 10.644 / 0.012
= 887N 29
Applying the equation,
0  t F .dt = (m V ) - (m V )
Y Y t2 Y t1
= 0.15[ 28.68 – 0 ]
= 0.4302
FYavg = 0.4302 / 0.012
= 358.5 N
𝑭𝑹 = 𝑭𝟐𝒙𝒂𝒗𝒈 + 𝑭𝟐𝒚𝒂𝒗𝒈
= 𝟖𝟖𝟕𝟐 + 𝟑𝟓𝟖. 𝟓𝟐 = 𝟗𝟒𝟕. 𝟓 𝑵

30
A man of mass 65kg stands on one end of 7.5 m

long floating boat of mass 350kg. If the man walks
towards the other end of the boat at a steady rate
of 1.0m/s. Find:-
1) Velocity of the boat as
observed from the ground,
2) The distance by which the
boat gets shifted. V m
Q P
VB
7.5 m
At start, both are at rest,
Momentum of boat = m1 * V01 = 0 31
Momentum of man = m2 * V02 = 0

=0
Man moves from O to P,( in –ve X direction)

If,
VB = Absolute Velocity of the boat 32
Vm = Absolute Velocity of the man

Vm/B = Relative Velocity of the man w.r.t. boat
Vm/B = Vm - VB
Vm = Vm/B + VB
Vm = (-1.0) + VB
i.e absolute velocity of the man
Final momentum,
Momentum of boat = m1 * V1 33
= mB*VB
Momentum of man = m2 * V2
= mm *Vm
= mm * [ (-1.0) + VB ]
= mB*VB + mm * [ (-1.0) + VB ]
As no external force is acting, total momentum of the

system remains unchanged.
Final momentum = Initial momentum
34
mB*VB + mm * [ (-1.0) + VB ] = 0
VB = 0.157 m/s
Time taken by the man to reach the other end,

t = d / V = 7.5 s.
So the distance travelled by the boat in that time,

d = VB * t = 0.157*7.5
d = 1.175m
1
2
The moment of inertia of mass of a body about an

axis is given by the product of
1. Mass of the body (m)
2. Square of the distance f mass from the axis as
shown in the fig.
Mathematically,
m
r I =  m r 2,
 = angular Unit kg m2
acc.
Inertia torque=I 
3
4
Case (i) Mass Moment of inertia of a uniform thin rod

about centroidal axis
dx
A B
L/2 L/2
Let m = mass of the rod per unit length

M = total mass of the rod = m *L
Consider elementary strip of length dx at a distance x
form the neutral axis through center O.
M.I. Of the strip length @ O-O
5
IO-O = mass of the strip *(distance from axis O-O)2

IO-O = m dx * (x)2
IO-O = m (x)2 dx
M.I. Of the total rod
IO-O = (-l/2)  (l/2) m (x)2 dx
= [mx3/3](-l/2) (l/2)
= [(ml3/24) – (-ml3/24)]
= [ ml3/12 ] M = ml
IO-O = [ Ml2/12 ]
Case (ii) Mass Moment of inertia of a uniform
6
thin rod about an axis passing through one
endpoint.
dx
A B
Let m = mass of the rod per unit length

M = total mass of the rod = m L
Let’s consider elementary strip of length dx at a distance
x form the neutral axis through A.
7
IO-O = mass of strip * (distance from axis O-O)2
IO-O = m dx (x)2  = m (x)2 dx,

M.I. Of the complete rod,
IO-O = 0 l m (x)2 dx
= [mx3/3]0(l)
= [(ml3/3) – (-m03/3)]
= [ ml3/3 ] M = ml
IO-O = [ Ml2/3 ]
Case (iii) Mass Moment of inertia of a thin
Circular ring about an axis perpendicular to the 8
plane and passing through center.
Y
dx
Let m = mass of the strip
X r X per unit peripheral length
O
M = total mass of the of
the ring = 2  r m
Consider elementary
Y strip of length dx.
9
IO-O = mass of strip * (distance from axis O-O)2
IO-O = m dx (r)2
Here axis O-O is taken perpendicular to the plane of

the body (i.e. the ring) and passing through the
center of the ring.
M.I. of whole ring = IZ-Z
= mass of the whole ring (r)2
Since all the elemental components are at the
same distance from the axis O-O, we can write,
10
IZ-Z = (2  r m ) (r)2
IZ-Z = (2  m ) (r)3
IZ-Z = (M) (r)2 ,Where M= mass of the
whole ring.
Case (iv) Mass Moment of inertia of a thin
Circular plate about an axis perpendicular to 11
the plane and passing through center.
Y
dr
Let m = mass of the strip per
r unit area.
X
O
M = mass of plate =  r2 m
Let’s consider elementary
strip of thickness dr,at a
distance r from the center O.
Y
Mass of the circular ring= m*area
= m 2r dr
So, the moment of inertia of the circular strip
about the axis passing through O and 12
perpendicular to the plane of the board,
= (m 2r dr )
So the M.I. Of the whole section can be found out by

integrating, IZ-Z = 0 R m 2r (r)2 dr
= 0 R [2  m r3] dr
= [2  m r4 /4]0R
= [ m R4 /2] M =  m R2
IZ-Z = [ MR2/2 ]
IX-X = [ MR2/4 ] IY-Y = [ MR2/4 ]
RADIUS OF GYRATION 13
It is defined as the distance from the axis of rotation

where whole mass of the body is assumed to be
concentrated.
So, from the definition,

I = M K2 K =  I/M
I = mass moment of inertia of the section about an axis.

M= mass of the whole section.
K = Radius of gyration.
Laws for rotary motion:-
14
First law : It states “ every body continues to be in it’s

state of rest or uniform rotation, about an axis, unless
it is acted upon by some external Torque to change it’s
state.”
Second law : It states “ The rate of change of angular

momentum is directly proportional to the external torque
acting on the rotating body and takes place in the
direction of the torque.”
15
Let,
0= Initial angular Velocity
 = Final angular Velocity
I = Mass moment of inertia of the body about
the axis of rotation = m.k2
m = mass of the rotating body
K = radius of gyration
T = Torque applied
t = Time
Initial angular Momentum = I . 0
Final Momentum = I .  16
Change in momentum 
= I .  - I . 0
Rate of Change of angular momentum 

[ I .  - I . 0 ] / t
= I [ - 0 ] / t
= I (i)
According to the law,
TI 17
T=KI
If we define unit of Torque as that which produces unit

angular acceleration to unit mass moment of inertia,
then in that case T = 1 ,  = 1 and I=1 therefore k=1,so
we can write the above equation as,
T=I
18
Find out angular acceleration of a flywheel of an

engine of weight 1500N, having a radius of gyration
0.65m. If the wheel is subjected to a torque of 1500
N.m. g = 9.81 m/s2
Data given,
W = 1500 N
m = 1500/9.81 = 152.905 kg
K = radius of gyration = 0.65m
T = Torque applied = 1500 N.m ( kg.m/s2)
From the definition,
I = M K2 19
I = 152.905 * 0.652
I = 64.6 kg.m2
T=I
1500 = 64.6 * 
 = 23.22 rad/s2
1
EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID BODY
2
A rigid body can be in equilibrium if the resultant force ( Fx

& Fy); and moment (M) at any point is zero;
•So, Necessary Conditions for Equilibrium of a Rigid Body is
 Fx = 0
 Fy = 0
 M = 0
3
TYPE OF SUPPORTS
4
(I) ROLLER SUPPORT :- This type of support have only

one reaction, the line of action of reaction is
Perpendicular to the surface. reaction on smooth
surface is also normal to the surface.
Roller
Smooth
R surface
R
Moment @ Roller Support is always Zero.

TYPE OF SUPPORTS…
5
(II) HINGED SUPPORT :-This types of Support have two

reactions, One horizontal and other vertical.(For
Example, Hinge support, reaction offered by rough
surface etc…)
Rough surface
Hinge
A
HA
H
VA
V
Moment @ Hinge Support is always Zero.
TYPE OF SUPPORTS…
6
(III) FIXED SUPPORT :- This type of support have three

reactions, One horizontal, One vertical & One moment.
MA
HA A
VA
Moment @ Fixed Support is not Zero.
TYPE OF BEAM
7
Simply Supported Beam

Hinge support Roller support
Overhanged Beam
Cantilever Beam
TYPE OF BEAM…
8
Fixed Beam
Continuous Beam
9
Types of loads:
1 Point load / Concentrated load
2 Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL)
3 Uniformly Varying Load (UVL)

TYPE OF LOAD
10
1 Point load :-
When the load is acting on very small area (approximately
zero), then that load is called as point load. It is expressed in
’kN’ and its convention is ‘ ’
TYPE OF LOAD…
11
2 Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL) :-

when the load is uniformly distributed over some
length, the magnitude of the load is same at all points in
loaded part. The unit is ‘kN/m’.its convention is
The total magnitude of load can be calculated by
multiplying intensity of UDL with length. And the total load W
can be assumed to act at the centre of the loaded
length.(centroid)
TYPE OF LOAD…
12
3 Uniformly Varying Load (UVL) :-
When the load intensity is varying uniformly over some
length, the ordinates of UVL is expressed in terms of ‘kN/m’.
Its convention is
w
L
The total magnitude of load can be calculated by the finding

the area of triangle ; ie W= 1/2 * w*L.
This total load W will act at the centroid of the triangle.
Example :1
13
Find out the reaction at point A and point B. If the body
remains in Equilibrium.
90 kN
2m
45 kN 60
C D
2m
B A
4m
Applying conditions of equilibrium :
Fx = 0 , Fy = 0 , M = 0
Example :1…
14
90 kN
60 2m
45 kN
C D
2m
B A
Ha
4m
Vb Va
Fx=0 - Ha + 90 cos 60 + 45 = 0 Ha = 90 kN
Fy=0 Va + Vb - 90 sin60=0 Va +Vb = 77.94 kN
Example :1…
15
90 kN
60 2m
45 kN
C D
2m
B A
Ha
4m
Vb Va
Taking moment @ point A.
M=0 - Vbx4 - 45x2 + 90sin60x2 - 90cos60 x 2=0
Va = 83.96 kN & Vb = -6.02 kN
Example :2
16
Find out the reaction at point A and point B. If the body
remains in Equilibrium.
90 kN
0.2 m
45 kN 60
C D
100 kN-m 0.2 m
B A
0.4 m
Example :2…
17
90 kN
0.2 m
45 kN 60
C D
100 kN-m 0.2 m
B A
Ha
0.4 m
Vb Va
Applying conditions of equilibrium :
Fx=0 - Ha + 45+90cos 60 Ha = 90 kN
Fy=0 Va + Vb - 90 sin60 = 0 Va + Vb = 77.94 kN
Example :2…
18
M=0 -100 -45 x 0.2 -90 cos60 x 0.2
+90 sin 60 x 0.2 - Vb x 0.4 = 0
Vb = -256.02 kN
Vb = 333.96 kN
Example :3
19
Find reaction at point A and point B.
Va
A
Ha
150 kN
40
50 kN
Hb C
B
0.7 m 0.7 m
Example :4
20
Find support reactions at A and B for the beam shown
in fig. Below.
80 kN
A B
2m 7m
80 kN
A 2m 7m B
HA
VA VB
Example :4…
21
80 kN
A 2m 7m B
HA
VA VB
Fx = 0; Fy = 0 ; M = 0
Fx = 0 ; So, Ha=0;
Fy = 0 ;So,Va+Vb-80=0==>Va+Vb=80 ----(1)
Ma = 0 Vb* 9 - 80*2=0 Vb=17.78 kN.
And Va=80 - 17.78=62.22 kN(using eq.1)
Example :5
22
Find support reactions at A & B for the beam shown in
fig. below. 80 kN
A 60° B
2m 7m
80sin60
A 80cos60 B
HA 2m 7m
VA VB
Example :5… 80sin60
23
A 80cos60 B
HA 2m 7m
VA VB
Fx = 0 ;Fy = 0 ; M = 0
Fx = 0 ;Ha-80cos60=0===>Ha=40kN
Fy = 0 ,Va+Vb-80sin60=0==>Va+Vb=69.28 -(1)
M = 0;taking moment@A
Vb*9-80sin60*2=0==>Vb=15.4kN
so Va=53.88(from eq-1)
Example :6
24
Find support reactions at A & B for the beam shown in
fig.below.
30kN/m
A B
9m
(30 x 9) = 270kN
A 4.5m 4.5 m B
HA 9m
VA VB
Example :6…
(30 x 9) = 270kN 25
A 4.5m 4.5 m B
HA 9m
VA VB
Fx = 0; so Ha=0
Fy = 0;Va+Vb-270=0==>Va+Vb=270--(1)
M = 0;Vb*9 -270*4.5=0==>Vb=135kN
so now Va=135(from eq.(1))
Example :7
26
Find support reactions at A & B for the beam shown
in fig.below.
30kN/m
A B
9m
(1/2)(30)(9) = 135kN
3m 6m
HA
9m
VA VB
Example :7…
(1/2)(30)(9) = 135kN 27
3m 6m
HA
9m
VA VB
Total load =1/2*intensity of UVL*length of UVL
and total load will act at the centroid.
Fx = 0;Ha=0
Fy = 0;Va+Vb- 135=0==>Va+Vb=135kN …(1)
 M = 0 ;M@A
Vb*9 - 135*3 = 0 ==> Vb = 45kN
Va = 90 kN (From (1))
Example :8
28
in fig.below.
90 kNm
A B
2m 7m
90 kNm
HA
2m 7m
VA VB
Example :8…
90 kNm 29
HA
2m 7m
VA VB
Fx = 0==>Ha=0;
Fy = 0 ==>Va+Vb=0---(1)
 M = 0;M@A,
Vb*9+90 =0==>Vb=-10 kN==>Vb=10 kN
so Va=10kN (from eq(1))
Example :9
30
in fig.below. 10kN/m
80 kN
100 kNm
A 60 15kN/m B
2m 2m 2m 3m
80sin60 30 15
100 kNm
A 80cos60 B
HA 1m 2m 2m
2m 2m
VA VB
Example :9…
80sin60 30 15 31
100 kNm
A 80cos60 B
HA 1m 2m 2m
2m 2m
VA VB
Fx=0 =>Ha- 80cos60=0 => Ha=40kN

Fy=0 =>Va+Vb-80sin60 -30 -15=0 =>Va+Vb =114.28 ---(1)
MA=0;
Vb*9 -15*7 - 30*5 - 80sin60 *2 +100 =0 =>Vb=32.61kN =>
Va=81.67kN(from eq(1))
Example :10
32
in fig.below.
80 kN 9kN/m
100 kNm
A 60 15kN/m B
30
2m 2m 2m 3m
30 R sin30
B
30 RB
RBcos30
Example :10…
80 kN 10kN/m 33
100 kNm
A 60 15kN/m B
30
2m 2m 2m 3m
80sin60 30 15
100 kNm
80cos60
HA 2 RBsin30
2m 2m 1 2
VA
RBcos30
Example :10…
80sin60 30 15 34
100 kNm
80cos60
HA 2 RBsin30
2m 2m 1 2
VA
RBcos30
Fx=0 =>Ha- RBsin30 -80cos60=0
=>Ha-RBsin30=40kN
Fy=0 =>Va+RBcos30 - 80sin60 -30 -15=0
=> Va+ RBcos30 =114.28 ---------(1)
MA=0;
RBcos30*9 -15*7 -30*5 - 80sin60 *2 +100 =0 => RB=37.65kN
=> Va=76.62kN(from eq(1))
Example :11
35
in fig.below. 10 kN
100 kNm
A 15kN/m B
2m 2m 2m 3m
15*2 = 30 10 kN
100 kNm
A 1m B
HA
2m 2m 2m 3m
VA
VB
Example :11…
15*2 = 30 10 kN 36
100 kNm
A 1m B
HA
2m 2m 2m 3m
VA
VB
Fx=0 =>Ha=0
Fy=0 =>Va+Vb - 30 -10=0 => Va+Vb =40 ----(1)
M=0;M@A,
Vb*6 -10*9 -30*5 +100 =0 =>Vb=23.33kN
=> Va=16.67kN (from eq(1))
Example :12
37
in fig.below.
20 kN 18kN/m
60 15kN/m
A
B
2m 2m 2m 3m
20sin60 30 27
20cos60 1m 1m
HA
2m 2m 2m 3m
VA V
Example :13
38
Find support reactions for the beam shown in
fig.below. 10kN/m
100 kN
A 1m 3 m D 6kN/m
C B
F E
2m 2m 3m
100kN
A1m 3m
C
VD 12 15
2m
F B
2m 2m E 3m
Example :14
39
fig.below.
80 kN
A
2m 7m
80 kN
A
HA
2m 7m
MA VA
Example :14…
80 kN 40
A
HA
2m 7m
MA VA
Fx = 0; Fy = 0 ; M = 0
Fx = 0 ; HA =0;
Fy = 0 ; VA - 80=0 VA =80 ----(1)
MA = 0 MA - 80*2=0 MA =160 kN.m
Example :15
41
fig.below.
80 kN
60
A
2m 2m 2m 3m
80sin60
A
HA 80cos60
2m 2m 2m 3m
MA VA
Example :15…
80sin60 42
A
HA 80cos60
2m 2m 2m 3m
MA VA
Fx = 0 ; HA=80cos60;
Fy = 0 ; VA-80sin60 =0 VA=80sin60 ----(1)
MA = 0 MA - 80sin60*2=0 MA =138.56kN.m
Example :16
43
fig.below.
15kN/m
A
9m
18kN/m
A
9m
Example :17
44
fig.below.
18kN/m
A
9m
80 kN 10kN/m
100 kNm
60 15kN/m
A
2m 2m 2m 3m
Example :18
45
fig.below.
10kN 10kN
40kN/m 2m 10 kN
1m 30kN/m 60
A B
3m C D 2m E 1.5m
Example :19
46
The lever AB is hinged at C and attached to a cable at A. if
the lever is subjected to a 400N horizontal force, find (a)
tension in cable, (b) reaction at C.
C 30
400N
B
200mm
D
Example :19…
ACD =120 47
A Vc
AC = CD = 200
DAC=ADC=30 T 30 30
E C Hc 30 400cos30
B
200 30 400sin30
D
M@C=0 Tsin60 (0.2) - 400sin30 (0.15)=0

T = 300 N
Fy=0 Vc - Tsin60 = 0
Vc = 300 sin60 =260 N
Fx=0 Hc + 300cos60 - 400=0 Hc=250N
48
INTRODUCTION
49
Work Done = Force X Displacement along the line of action of

the force.
If the Displacement is in Opposite Direction to that of applied
force, the work done is “- ve”.
Work Done by a Force = W = f x d
INTRODUCTION…
50
Work Done by a Force = W = f x d

Work Done by a Moment or Torque
W = Moment (or Torque) x Rotation
W = M (or T) x 
Unit of Work Done is Joule
1 Joule = 1 N.M
PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL WORK
51
“ If a body is in Equilibrium under the action of a system of

forces, then the total work-done by all the forces on the
system for any virtual displacement of the body which is
consistent with the constraints, is zero.”
dU = 0
PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL WORK…
52
F1 Sign Conventions
F2
F3 F4 + ve
1 2 5 D E + ve
B C 3 4
A
+ ve - ve
F5
Let, F1, F2, F3, F4 & F5 are the forces acting on a body and
1, 2, 3, 4 & 5 are the respective displacements. Since
the total Virtual Work Done is Zero,
du = F1*1+ F2*2+F3*3+F4*4+F5*5 = 0
Example :1
53
A beam AB is supported as shown in figure. Determine the
reactions at the supports using the principle of virtual work.
7.5 kN 6 kN 10 kN
2m 1m 1.5m 1.5m B
A
C D E
Example :1…
54
7.5 kN 6 kN 10 kN
2m 1m 1.5m 1.5m B
A
C D E
7.5 kN 6 kN 10 kN
E’ B’
C’ D’
A  B
2m C 1m D 1.5m E 1.5m
RB
Example :1…
Now, the virtual displacements are; 55
Force (F) Displacement(d)
RB BB’ = 6 
-10 EE’ = 4.5 
-6 DD’ = 3 
-7.5 CC’ = 2 
dU = 0
= RB (6) -10(4.5) - 6(3) -7.5(2) =0
RB = 13 kN
Example :2
56
A Right Angle Bend AHB is Hinged at H. It carries two
forces as shown. Moment “M” is applied at the hinge to
keep the bend in Equilibrium. Determine “M”.
500N A
1.2m
800N
H 1.5m
B
M
Example :2…
Give Virtual Rotation  to the bend AHB, so its new 57
position will be A’HB’.
500N A
A’
1.2m
800N
H 1.5m
B
M 
B’
Force Virtual Displacement
-500 N (-ve) AA’= 1.2  (+ve )
-800 N (-ve ) BB’ = -1.5  (-ve )
M (+ve) -  ( -ve)
Example :2…
A 58
500N A’
1.2m
800N
H 1.5m
B
M 
B’
Since total Virtual Work done is ZERO,
dU = 0
dU = - 500(1.2) - 800(-1.5) + M(-) = 0
M=600 N.m
Example :3
59
A beam ABC is supported as shown in figure. Determine
the reactions at the supports using the principle of virtual
work.
12 kN 9.5 kN
A 1m 1m 1.5m 1.5m 2m C
D H E
B
1
2
Elasticity:-The property of bodies, by virtue of

which, they rebounds, after impact is known as
elasticity. The body which rebounds to a greater
height is said to be more elastic, than a body which
rebounds to a lesser height. The body which does not
rebounds at all after the impact is called an inelastic
body.
IMPACT
3
The phenomenon of collision of two bodies which

occurs in a very small interval of time and during
which the two bodies exerts very large pressure on
each other, is called an impact.
B VB VA
line of impact
A
LINE OF IMPACT:-The common normal to the
surfaces of two bodies in contact during impact, is
called line of impact.
4
RESTITUTION:- Whenever two elastic bodies

collide with each other, they tend to compress each
other. Immediately after this they try to regain
their original shape, due to it’s elasticity. This
process of requiring the original shape is known as
restitution.
TIME OF COMPRESSION:- The time taken by the

two bodies in compression, after the instant of
collision, is known as time of compression.
5
TIME OF RESTITUTION :- The time taken by the

two bodies in regaining the original shapes ,after
compression, is known as time of restitution.
TIME OF COLLISION:- The sum of time taken by

the two bodies in compression, and the time taken in
restitution, is known as time of collision.
TYPES OF IMPACT
6
There are two types of impacts.

1. Direct impact
2. Indirect impact
7
(A) DIRECT IMPACT:- The collision between two bodies

is known as direct impact if the two bodies before
impact are moving along the line of impact.
If the velocities of the two bodies before collision are

collinear with the line of impact, it is called a direct
impact.
B VB VA
line of impact
A
Point of
contact 8
Va O Vb
C1 C2 B line of impact
A
normal
Here A and B are in direct impact as shown in fig. If
Mass of the body A = mA , Velocity before collision

= v0A
Velocity after collision = vA
Mass of the body B = mB ,
9
Velocity before collision = v0B
Velocity after collision = vB
Then, as per the law of conservation of momentum,
mA v0A + mB v0B = mA vA + mB vB
10
It states, “ When two moving bodies collide with

each other , their velocity of separation bears a
constant ratio with their velocity of approach.”
BODYA
Mass = mA , 11
Velocity before collision = v0A

Velocity after collision = vA
BODYB
Mass = mB ,
Velocity before collision = v0B
Velocity after collision = vB
e = co-efficient or constant of proportionality
If v0A > v0B 12
Velocity of approach, = v0A - v0B
and if vB > vA
Velocity of separation = vB - vA
Velo. of separation / Velo. of approach = e

(vB - vA) / (VOA - vOB) = e
COEFFICIENT OF RESTITUTION
13
According to the Newton’s law of collision of elastic

bodies: “ Velocity of separation bears a constant ratio
with the velocity of approach.”
Mathematically ( v2 – v1)/(v01 - v02) = e

Where e is a constant of proportionality and this
constant is known as CO-EFFICIENT OF
RESTITUTION.
•If e = 0 , the bodies are inelastic.

•If e = 1 , the bodies are perfectly elastic.
14
DIRECT IMPACT WITH THE FIXED PLANE
line of impact VA
A
fixed plane
Consider a body having a
V=0
direct impact on a fixed plane.
V0 = initial velocity,
V = Final velocity,
e = Coefficient of restitution
15
Since the fixed plane will not move

even after impact, so,
Velocity of approach = Vo
Velocity of separation = V
As per Newton’s law of collision of
elastic bodies
V = e Vo
Q. Two spheres of mass 2kg and 3kg
moving in opposite direction with velocity 16
5m/s and 3m/s strikes with each other.
Calculate velocity of each sphere after
impact. Take e = 0.9
Line of impact
Va=5m/s 2kg 3kg Vb= - 3m/s
ma *Voa +mb*Vob = ma*Va+mb*Vb

2*5 +3*( - 5) = 2Va +3Vb, _ _ _ (1)
( Vb – Va)/(Voa - Vob) = e
0.9 =(Vb –Va ) / {5 – (-5)} _ _ _ (2)
Solving (1) and (2) Va = -6.4 m/s and Vb = 2.6m/s
Q. Two spheres of mass 2kg and 3kg moving
in opposite direction with velocity 5m/s and 17
5m/s respectively strikes with each other.
Calculate coefficient of restitution and
velocity of second sphere if velocity first
sphere is -5m/s.
Line of impact
ma *Voa +mb*Vob = ma*Va+mb*Vb

2*5 +3*( - 5) = 2*(-5) +3Vb, gives Vb = 1.667m/s
( Vb – Va)/(Voa - Vob) = e
e ={1.667 –(-5)} / {5 – (-5)}, gives e = 0.667
Q. Two spheres of mass 2kg and 4kg moving
in opposite direction with velocity 8m/s and 18
4m/s respectively strikes with each other.
Calculate coefficient of restitution and
velocity of second sphere if velocity first
sphere zero after impact.
Line of impact
Ans.ma *Voa +mb*Vob = ma*Va+mb*Vb

2*8 +4*( - 4) = 2*(0) +4Vb, gives Vb = 0 m/s
( Vb – Va)/(Voa - Vob) = e =0
As after impact both sphere comes to rest both
bodies are perfectly plastic/inelastic.
Q Three perfectly elastic sphere A, B and
C of masses 4kg, 8kg and 16kg respectively, 19
move in the same direction with velocities of
1.5m/s, 2m/s and 8m/s respectively. If ball C
strikes with ball B, which in turn strikes with
ball A, Find out Velocities of balls A and B
after impact.
C B VB VA
line of impact
VC A
e = 1 As the balls are perfectly elastic,
Impact of A with B 20
e = Coefficient of restitution
V0A = initial velocity of ball A,
VA = Final velocity ball A,
V0B = initial velocity of ball B,
VB = Final velocity ball B,
V0C = initial velocity of ball C,
VC = Final velocity ball C,
21
As per the law of conservation of momentum,
mA V0A + mB V0B = mA VA + mB VB
4 * 8 + 8 * 2 = 4 VA + 8 VB Eq (i)
As per the law of collision of elastic bodies,

(VB - VA) / (VOA - VOB) = e
(VB - VA) = (VOA - VOB) = 8 –2 = 6m/s
(VB - VA) = 6m/s Eq (ii)
Solving the two expression,
VB = 6 m/s 22
VA = 0
Impact of B with C
V0B = initial velocity of ball B,( 6 m/s )

VB = Final velocity ball B,
V0C = initial velocity of ball C,( 1.5 m/s)
VC = Final velocity ball C,
23

mB V0B + mC V0C = mB VB + mC VC
8 * 6 + 16 * 1.5 = 8 VB + 16 VC Eq (iii)
As per the law of collision of elastic bodies,

(VC - VB) / (VOB - VOC) = e
(VB - VA) = (VOA - VOB) = 8 –2 = 6m/s
(VB - VA) = 6m/s Eq (IV)
24
Solving the two expression,

VB = 0 m/s
VC = 4.5 m/s
25
Q. A ball is released from 2m height. Calculate the

height reached by ball in second bounce. Take e =
0.8.
If h is height of fall of body, then velocity of
approach, Vo = (2gh)1/2
rebound velocity V = eVo. After rebound the body
will move up by (2gh1) 1/2
Or 2gh1 = e2*2gh, i.e. h1 = e2*h
Simillarly for second rebound h2 = e2*h1 = e4*h
If H = 2m and e = 0.9 then height h2 reached by body
in second bouce = 0.94*2 = 1.312m
Q. Three balls shown in figure colloid with each
other. Calculate the velocity of each after series 26
of collision.
e = 0.8 C B
2kg 3kg 5kg A
Vc=10m/s VB=6m/s VA=3m/s
Collision between C & B
mC * V0C + MB* VOB = mC * VC + mB * VB
e = (VB - VC) / (VOC - VOB), Gives VC & VB
Collision between B & A
mB * V0B + MA* VOA = mB * VB + mA * VA
e = (VA - VB) / (VOB - VOA), Gives VB &VA
1
Indirect Impact:- When their velocity vectors are at

not co-linear with the line of impact, then this impact
is known as indirect impact.
Indirect Impact:- Are of two types :

Indirect central impact, and
Indirect non-central impact
2
Indirect Central Impact: When center of the bodies

lie along the line of impact, then this impact is
known as indirect central impact.
3
4
Spheres A ,
Mass = m1 ,
Velocity before
collision = V01
Velocity after
collision = V1
Spheres B , Mass = m2 ,
Velocity before collision = V02
Velocity after collision = V2
5
1 = the angle, which the initial velocity of the body A

makes with the line of impact.
2 = the angle, which the initial velocity of the body B
1 = the angle, which the final velocity of the body A

2 = the angle, which the final velocity of the body B

As per the law of conservation of momentum 6
,the total momentum before the collision, in any

direction, must be equal to the total momentum
after the collision, in that direction.
So,
m1 V01 + m2 V01 = m1 V1 + m2 V2
Considering X direction :
the momentum before the collision,
Momentum of mass m1 = m1 v01 cos 1
Momentum of mass m2 = m2 v02 cos 2
Total Momentum
 m1V01Cos 1 + m2V02Cos 2 eq (a) 7
Momentum after the collision,

Momentum of mass m1 = m1 V1 cos 1
Momentum of mass m2 = m2 V2 cos 2
Total Momentum,
m1 V1 cos 1 + m2 V2 cos 2 eq (b)
Equation a = Equation b eq(i)
Newton’s law of collision of elastic bodies also holds true

for the indirect impact also,
Velocity of separation bears a constant ratio with
the velocity of approach.” 8
Velocity of separation = V2 cos 2 - V1 cos 1
Velocity of approach = V01 cos 1 - V02 cos 2
Velocity of separation = e.Velocity of approach ``
V2Cos 2 - V1Cos 1 = e.{V01Cos 1 - V02Cos 2 } eq(ii)
By solving these two expressions we can very easily find

out the values of the velocities after impact, of their
directions using the given data.
Neglecting the friction,
9
Tangential components will remain the same,
V1 Sin 1 = V01 Sin 1 (iii)
V2 Sin 2 = V02 Sin 2 (iV)

INDIRECT IMPACT WITH THE FIXED PLANE
10
11
m = Mass of the ball ,

V0= Velocity before collision
V = Velocity after collision
 = the angle, which the initial velocity of the body

 = the angle, which the final velocity of the body makes

with the line of impact.
e = Coefficient of restitution,
The component of the initial velocity in the direction12 of
line of impact will cause direct impact with the fixed
plane.
The components, of the initial velocity and final velocity,
normal to the line of impact will remain unchanged.
The velocity of approach = v0 cos 

The velocity of separation = v cos 
Newton’s law of collision of elastic bodies also holds true

for the indirect impact also,
e = Coefficient of restitution,
V Cos  = e ( V0 Cos  ) eq(i) 13
Along the line of impact:

The momentum before the collision = m V0Cos  and,
the momentum after the collision = m V cos 
m V0 cos  = m V cos  eq (ii)

Q. A ball strikes a smooth horizontal floor
with a velocity of 10m/s at inclination of 40º 14
with floor. Calculate the velocity of ball after
impact. Take e=0.8
10m/s V=?
10cos40º =7.66m/s =VcosΦ

40º Φ=?
10sin40º = 6.428m/s
Smooth floor
Velocity of the ball after
0.8*6.428 = 5.142m/s impact in vertical direction =
5.142m/s 9.226m/s
tan Φ = 5.142 / 7.66
7.66m/s
Φ Φ = 33.87º
A sphere of mass 3kg, moving with a velocity
30m/s, strikes another sphere of mass 3kg,
15
moving with a velocity 45m/s, in the direction
as shown in the fig.
If e = 0.9, Find out Velocities of two
spheres A and B after impact. Find also the
direction in which they will move after impact.
1 = 30
2 2 = 60
1 Find out
VA,VB, 1 and
1 2
2
Sphere A ,
Mass = m1 = 3 kg , 16
Velocity before collision = V01 = 30 m/s,
1 = 30
1 =?
Sphere B ,
Mass = m2 = 3 kg ,
Velocity before collision = V02 = 45 m/s,
2 = 60
2 = ?
17
m1 V01 + m2 V01 = m1 V1 + m2 V2
Considering X direction :
the momentum before the collision,
Momentum of mass mA = mA v0A cos 1
Momentum of mass mB = mB (- v0B cos 2)
Total Momentum before collision,

mA V0ACos 1 - mBV0BCos 2 eq (a)
 3*30*Cos30 - 3*45*Cos60 = 10.44
Momentum after the collision,
Momentum of mass mA = mA VA cos 1
18
Momentum of mass mB = mB VB cos 2

Total Momentum after the collision,
mA VA cos 1 + mB VB cos 2 eq (b)
mA VA cos 1 + mB VB cos 2 = 10.44 eq (1)
Newton’s law of collision of elastic bodies also

holds true for the indirect impact also,
Velocity of separation bears a constant ratio with
the velocity of approach.” 19
Velocity of separation = VB cos 2 - VA cos 1
Velocity of approach = V0A cos 1 - V0B cos 2
Velocity of separation = e.Velocity of approach ``
VB Cos2 – VA Cos 1 =
e.{V0ACos1 -V0BCos2 }
VB Cos2 – VA Cos 1 = 43.65 (2)

Neglecting the friction, 20
Tangential components will remain the same,

VA Sin 1 = V0A Sin 1 = 15 m/s (3)
VB Sin 2 = V0B Sin 2 = 39 m/s (4)

Solving the four equations,
VA = 25.1 m/s
1 = 36.7
VB = 45.6 m/s
2 = 58.8
mA V0ACos 1 - mBV0BCos 2 mA =10.44
= VA cos 1 + mB VB cos 2 _ _ _(1) 21
VB Cos2 – VA Cos 1 = e.{V0ACos1 -V0BCos2 } =

VB Cos2 – VA Cos 1 = 43.65 (2)
From above eqns.VA COSΦ1 = - 20.12 ←,& VBCOSΦ2 =
23.62→
VA Sin 1 = V0A Sin 1 = 15 m/s ↓
VB Sin 2 = V0B Sin 2 = 39 m/s ↓
15m/s 39m/s
1 2 23.62
20.12m/s m/s
1 2 36.7º 68.8º
25.1m/s 46.6m/s
15m/s 39m/s
22
Thank You
FORCES IN SPACE
1
FORCES IN SPACE
If a particle is acted upon by three concurrent
noncoplaner forces; (in space); it can be
categorized as forces in space.
If the forces are represented by the three concurrent
sides of a rhomboid , the diagonal passing through
the point, represents the resultant of the force.
2
If P1, P2 & P3 are acting at point A as shown in figure;
according to law of parallelogram; Considering plane ABFE
resultant of P1 & P2 = R12 i.e. AF, Considering plane AFGD
and resultant of R12 & P3 = R i.e. AG.
D H
C G
P3 R
P1 E
A
P2 R12
B F
So we can say that diagonal of the rhomboid passing through
point A is the resultant. 3
P3
P1 R
P2 R12 R12
D H
C G
P3
P1 R E
A
P2 R12
F 4
THEORY - 1
Let force P be inclined at
Y angle y with Y- axis.
C Let projection of P on XZ
plane be Pxz.
Py B Py = Pcos y….(A)
y P Pxz = Psin y….(B)
O X
Z Pxz
D
5
Let force Pxz be inclined at angle Y
 with horizontal X axis.
Px= Pxz cos 
Px=Pxz cos X
Pz= Pxz sin O 
Pz
Pxz
Px = Psiny cos
Z A
(from B ,Pxz = Psin y)
Py= P cosy
(From A)
Pz= Psiny sin 
(from B ,Pxz = Psin y) 6
Y C Y
Py B Px F X
y P O 
Pz
Pxz
O X Z A
Z Pxz
D
In OBC In OAF
P2 = OB2 = OC 2 + BC2 Pxz2 = OA2 = OF2 + AF2
= Py2 + Pxz2 ----(1) = Px2 + Pz2 ----(2)
7
THEORY - 2
Let force P be inclined at angles x, y, z with X,Y & Z
axis
Px=Pcos x ; Py=Pcos y; Pz=Pcos z ---(AA)
y
Py
y P
x
Px x
Pz
z
z
8
Squaring & summing above equation,
Px2+Py2+Pz2 = P2 (cos2x + cos2y +cos 2z)
But ; Px2 + Py2 + Pz2 = P2 (from Theory ---1)
so (cos 2x + cos 2y + cos 2z) = 1
cos 2x + cos 2y + cos 2z = 1 -------------------- II
9
THEORY - 3
Consider force P. Point A on force having co-ordinates
(X,Y,Z), Let OA = d;
cos x = X/d
cos y = Y/d y
Py
cos z = Z/d
P A(X,Y,Z)
y
O x Px
z x
z 10
d = OP = (Length of the force) y
cos x = X/d
Py
P A(X,Y,Z)
cos y = Y/d ---(BB) y
cos z = Z/d x
O Px x
Squaring & summing
above equations z z
11
cos x = X/d Px = Pcos x X / d = Px / P
cos y = Y/d Py = Pcos y Y / d = Py / P
cos z = Z/d Pz = Pcos z Z / d = Pz / P
From BB From AA
d = Length of the force
P / d = Pm is known as force multiplier.

12
y
Py
Px = Pm . X P A(X,Y,Z)
y
Py = Pm . Y x
Pz = Pm . Z O Px x
z z
13
Brief
cos2x + cos2y + cos2z = 1
P / d = Pm …..Force multiplier
Px = Pcos x y
Py = Pcos y Py
Pz = Pcos z P A(X,Y,Z)
y
Px = Pm . X x
Py = Pm . Y O Px x
Pz = Pm . Z z z 14
When the system is in Equilibrium then,
Resultant force P = 0
Now,
Hence Px=0
Py=0
Pz=0
15
Example 1
The forces P1=100N, P2=140 N & P3=160 N are acting as
shown in figure. The side of a cube is 1m. Determine the
resultant of the forces.
P2
P3
X
P1
Z 16
Y
(1,1,0)
P2
(0,1,1)
P3
X
P1
(1,0,1)
Z
P1=100N, P2=140N, P3=160N 17

Component of Resultant Force
Length Force
Force (P) of Force Multiplier Px = Py = Pz =
(d) Pm = P/d Pm * X Pm * Y Pm * Z
Total Px= Py= Pz=
18
Length Force
100 1.414 100/1.414 70.72 * 1 70.72*0 70.72 * 1

=70.72 =70.72 =0 =70.72
140 1.414 140/1.414 99 * 1 99 * 1 99*0
=99 =99 =99 =0
160 1.414 160/1.414 113.15*0 113.15*1 113.15*1
=113.15 =0 =113.15 =113.15
Px= Py= Pz=
Total
169.72 212.15 183.80
19
Finding Distance :
(0,0,0) (1,0,1)
Px= Pm . x , Where x = (1 - 0) = 1
Py= Pm . y , Where y = (0 - 0) = 0
Pz= Pm . z , Where z = (1 - 0) = 1
20
21
Example 2
A force F has following components Fx = 30 N,
Fy= - 40N, and Fz= 45 N . Determine x , y & z.
22
Example 3
A force of 700 N forms angles of 60º, 45º and120º with
X,Y and Z axis respectively. Find the components of the
force(Px ,Py,Pz).
Px = Pcos x
Py = Pcos y
Pz = Pcos z
Px= 700 cos 60 = 350 N

Py = 700 cos 45 = 495 N
Pz = 700 cos 120 = -350 N
23
Example 4
A force acts at origin in a direction defined by the angles
x=75, z=130, knowing that Fy = 300 N, determine Fx, Fz
and y.
cos2 x + cos2 y + cos2 z = 1;

so y= 43º 86’
now Fy =F Cos y ; so 300 = F cos 43º 86’;
So F = 416.06 N.
Fx = F cos x = 107.68 N,
Fz = F cos z = -267.7 N
24
Example 5
A pole is supported by 3 wires as shown. If the tension in
wire AD is 1200N, Find the tension in other two wires
such that resultant is in vertical direction.
Y
A
5m 1200N
pole B
C
X
Z D 25
Y A(0,5,0)
1200N B(0,0,-3)
C(-4,0,2)
X
Z D(4,0,2) 26
Length Force
Total Px= Py= Pz=
27
Length
Force
of
Force (P) Multiplier Px = Py = Pz =
Force
Pm = P/d Pm * X Pm * Y Pm * Z
(d)
T1 5.830 T1/5.830 0 0.17T1* 0.17T1*

=0.17T1 (-5) = (-3)=
-0.855T1
-0.51T1
T2 6.708 T2/6.708 0.15T2* 0.15T2* 0.15T2*
=0.15T2 (-4) (-5) (2)
= -0.59T2 = -0.74T2 =0.298T2
1200 6.708 1200/6.708 178.89* 178.89* 178.89*
=178.89 (4) (-5) (2)
= 715.56 = -894.45 = 357.78
28
Total Px = 715.56 - 0.596 T2
Py = -0.855 T1 - 0.745 T2 - 894.45
Pz = - 0.513 T1 + 0.298 T2 + 357.78
Now, Resultant is vertical ……………….(given)
Therefore, Px = 0 & Pz = 0
Px=0 715.56 - 0.596 T2 = 0
T2 = 1200.6 N
Pz=0 - 0.513T1 + 0.298(1200.6) + 357.78 = 0
T1 = 1394.85 N
29
Example 6
Determine the resultant of following force system.
Y
A(2,3,-4)
B(-5,-1,1)
O
X
Z C(4,-2,4)
30
Length Force
P1 = 200
P2 = 500
P3 = 400
Total Px= Py= Pz=
31
Example 7
A crate is supported by
three cables as shown. y
Determine the weight of
the crate, knowing that
the tension in cable AD is O
1848 N.
T1
x
z T2
1848N
A(28,-45,0)
W
32
As the system is in equilibrium,
Weight of crate = Py.
Py = W, y
Px=0
Pz=0.
O
T1 x
z T2
1848N
A(28,-45,0)
W
33
Length Force
1848
T1
T2
Total Px = 0 Py = - W Pz = 0
34
FORCE VECTOR
35
SCALARS AND VECTORS
• Scalars : Only magnitude is associated.
eg: Time, Volume, Density, Speed, Energy, Mass
• Vectors : Both magnitude and direction are associated.
eg: Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration, Force,
Moment
Equivalent Vector V = V1 + V2 36
COMPONENTS
• Components : Vectors whose sum is equal to
given force F, are known as components.
Fy = Fcosy Fh = Fsiny Fx = Fhcos

Fz = Fhsin 37
UNIT VECTOR
• Unit Vector: A unit vector is defined as vector of
magnitude unity in given direction.
y
P = P.n
P P=magnitude
A(X,Y,Z) n=unit vector

j  P = Px + Py + Pz
n x P = Pxi + Pyj + Pzk
O
k i
z 
n=unit vector = Vector/Magnitude
38
UNIT VECTOR
• Unit Vector: A unit vector is defined as vector of
magnitude unity in given direction.
y
P
 A(X,Y,Z)
j 
n x
O
k i
z 
39
DIRECTION COSINES
cos = Px/P => Px = Pcos

cos = Py/P => Py = Pcos
y cos = Pz/P => Pz = Pcos
P P = Pcos + Pcos + Pcos

A(X,Y,Z)

We know that,
j 
n x P2 = Px2+Py2+Pz2
O Hence,
k i
z  cos2 + cos2 + cos2 = 1
40
Example 8
For a 10kN force calculate the components in x, y
and z directions. The angles of the with reference x,
y and z axes are 60º, 45º and 120º respectively.
Ax/A=cos α, Ay/ A= cos β, Az / A =cos γ
Fx= Fcos α = 10cos60 = 5kN, => Fx/ F = cosα= 0.5

Fy= Fcos β =10cos45 =7.07kN, => Fy/ F =cosβ = 0.707
Fz = Fcos γ = 10cos120 = -5kN,=> Fz / F =cosγ =-0.5
U = unit vector = 0.5i +0.707j -0.5k

and U = unit vector = (0.52 +0.7072 -0.52)1/2 = 1
41
Example 9
Calculate the unit vector for force passing between
two points A(3,4,5) and B(1,-2,-3).
Position vector
AB = (1-3)i +(-2-4)j +(-3-5)k = -2i -6j -8k
AB = (22 +62+82)1/2 = 10.198
cosθx = -2/10.198 = -0.196, cosθx = 101.30º,
cosθy = -6/10.198 = -0.588, cosθy = 126.02º,
cosθz = -8/10.198 = -0.784, cosθz = 141.63º,
Unit vector, U = - 0.196i -0.588j – 0.784k

U = ( 0.1962 +0.5882 + 0.7842)1/2 = 1
42
Example 10
Calculate resultant forces of F1 and F2.
F1 = (60j + 80k) N, and F2 = (50i – 100j +100k) N
Z
F1 = (60j + 80k)
F2= (50i – 100j +100k)
X 43
Z
FR = F1 + F2
= (60j + 80k) + (50i – 100j +100k)
= (50i - 40j +180k)N
FR = ( 502 + 402 + 1802)1/2
Y
= 191.05N
44
Z
Unit vector
Ua = FR/F
= (50i - 40j +180k) /191.05
= 0.262i – 0.209j +0.942k
cos α = 0.262, Y
α = 74.81 º
cos β = – 0.209,
β = 102.06 º X
cos γ = +0.942,
γ = 19.61 º
45
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
VIBRATIONS OF SINGLE DEGREE OF FREEDOM
(SDoF) SYSTEMS
1
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
SHM is defined as a periodic motion of a point
along a straight line such that it’s acceleration is
always directed towards a fixed point in the line
and is proportional to its distance from the fixed
point.
T
displacement
r
time
2
The simplest vibratory system
can be described by a single
mass connected to a spring
(and possibly a dashpot). The
mass is allowed to travel only
along the spring elongation
direction.
When one variable can

describe the motion of a
structure or a system of
bodies, then we may call the
system a 1-D system or a
single degree of freedom
3
(SDoF) system.
4
Time Period (T)
It is time taken by a particle for one complete
oscillation.
Amplitude (r)
It is the maximum displacement of a body from its
mean position.
Oscillation The to and fro motion of a body from

it’s mean position to one extreme position then to
the other extreme position and back to mean
position is called oscillation.
5
Frequency (ƒ) The number of oscillation or
vibration or cycles per second by the body is
called frequency.
Beat One half of the oscillation is called a beat.
Phase The state or condition as defined by the

vibrating particle in regard to it’s position,
direction of motion is referred as phase. It tells us
the stage of the vibrating particle.
Phase Difference The amount by which the phases

of the particle differ is called phase difference.
6
Free vibrations: If a system, after initial
disturbance is left to vibrate on its own, it will
oscillate due to its elastic property known as free
vibration. No external force acts on system.
Forced vibrations: If a system is subjected to an

external force (often periodic force), the resulting
vibration is termed as forced vibration.
7
Undamped vibrations: If there is no loss or
dissipation of energy in form of friction or
other resistance during an oscillation, system
is said to be in undamped vibration condition.
8
Damped vibrations: In a vibrating system there is
loss or dissipation of energy due to friction or
viscous damper (resistance caused by viscous
drag of fluid), the system is said to be a damped
vibration system.
9
Damping : A process whereby energy is
dissipated from a vibrating system by means
of friction, viscous oil, etc. is termed as
damping.
10
SDOF vibration can be analysed by Newton's
second law of motion, F = m*a.
The analysis can be easily visualized with the
aid of a free body diagram,
11
The resulting equation of motion is a
second order, non-homogeneous, ordinary
differential equation:
𝒎𝒙 + 𝒄𝒙 + 𝒌𝒙 = 𝒇(𝒕)
12

Y = r * cos = r*cost
X = r * sin = r*sint….(i)

 Y
VX = dx / dt
X = d (r*sint) / dt
= r  cos t = * Y
=  (r2−X2) ………..(ii)
VXmax = * r
 = *t
r = radius of the circular
path
13
aX = dVx / dt
= - r 2 sin t…...(iii)
Now X = r sin t
aX = - 2 * X…………(iv)
aXmax = - 2 * r
Frequency is number of cycles per second. Hence,

 = 2 ƒ => Frequency ƒ = ω /2 , T=1/ƒ= 2  / ω
From equation iv
aX / X = 2 = (2 ƒ) 2
ƒ = (1/2) * (aX / X) and T = 1 / ƒ 14
2 2
X
0 0
X
1 1
15
Fig shows a coiled helical spring, whose upper end
if fixed. Let a load be attached to it’s lower end.
0-0 = Equilibrium position of the spring after
the load is attached.
1-1 = Position up to which the spring is
stretched.
2-2 = When released it will move up to this
position.
This weight will move up and down with simple
harmonic motion.
16
W = Weight of the load attached,
k= Stiffness of the spring,
X= Displacement of the load below the
equilibrium position,
a= acceleration of the weight,
g= gravitational acceleration,
T= Periodic time.
Deflection of the spring,

=W/k
17
The disturbing force = mass * acceleration
=m*a
= W/g * a …………..(i)
The restoring force = k * X ……………..(ii)
Equating i and ii,

W/g * a = k * X
a / X = k*g / W………………(iii)
a = k*g*X / W………………...(iv)
18
Frequency of Vibration,
ƒ = (1/2)* (acceleration/displacement)
= (1/2)* (k∗g∗X/W)/(X)
= 1/(2)*(k/m)1/2, as m = W/g, OR
ƒ = (1/2)* ( kg / W)
= (1/2)* [(g / (W / k)]
= (1/2)* [g / ( )] ,  : stiffness of spring.
T = 1 / ƒ = 2* ( / (g) = 2 * (m / k)
ω = (k / m) 19
1. Piston of a steam engine moves with SHM. The
crank rotates at 20rpm and the stroke length is 2m.
Calculate the velocity & acceleration of the piston,
when it is at a distance of 0.5m from the center.


 Y
20
Angular velocity of the piston is
ω = 2 πN / 60 = 2 π 20 /60 = 2.094 rad /s
Velocity of the piston = ω (r2 - x2 )1/2
= 2.094 (12 - 0.52 )1/2 = 2.515 m/s
Acceleration of the piston = ω2 x
= 2.0942 *0.5 = 2.19 m/s2
21
2. A body performing SHM has a velocity of 12m/s
when displacement is 50mm and 3m/s when
displacement is 100mm from the mid point.
Calculate the frequency and amplitude of the
motion. Also calculate the acceleration when the
displacement is 75mm.
V = ω (r2 - y2)1/2 , 12= ω (r2 - 0.052)1/2------ (1)

3 = ω (r2 - 0.12)1/2 ------- (2)
Solving (1) & (2)
r = 0.1041 m and ω = 131.43rad/s
22
ω = 2π ƒ and also ƒ = 1/T , T = 2π / ω
ƒ = 1/T  ƒ = ω/ 2π  ƒ = 131.43/(2π) = 20.92Hz.
a = ω2y = 131.432 x 0.075 = 1295.54 m/s2
23
3. A 5kg mass is attached to a spring of stiffness
500N/m. The mass is released when the spring has
its natural length. Calculate natural frequency of the
motion and the downward distance moved by mass
before coming to rest.
 = W / k = 5*9.81 / 500 = 0.0981 m
ƒ = (1/2)* [g / ( )] = [1/ (2 )]*(9.81/0.0981)1/2

= 1.592m Hz.
24
4. A spring deforms by 10mm when the pulling force
is 750N. Calculate period of complete oscillation and
acceleration of the mass when a mass of 25kg is
attached to the spring and it is pulled down by
20mm.
 = W / k,
k = 750/10 = 75N/mm = 75000N/m
T = 2* [ / g] = 2* (20/9.81)1/2 = 8.971s
ƒ = (1/2)* [g / ( )] = [1/ (2 )]*(9.81/20)1/2
= 0.111Hz.
a = k*g*X / W = 75000*9.81*0.020/(25*9.81)
= 60 m/s2 25
5. Find amplitude and time period of a particle
performing SHM, which has a velocity of 9m/s and
4m/s at a distances 2m and 3m respectively from
the mean position.
Ans. V = ω (r2 - y2)1/2
9 = ω (r2 - 22)1/2 - - - (1)
4 = ω (r2 - 32)1/2 - - - -(2)
Solving above equations r = 3.2m
ω = 3.6 rad/s
and T = 2π / ω = 1.75s
26
EQUIVALENT SPRING STIFFNESS
Deflection of spring 1 + Deflection of spring 2 =

Deflection of equivalent spring
Deflection of springs 1, 2 and of equivalent 27

springs are same.
6. Calculate natural frequency of the given system.
For spring k1 and k2 in
k1 = 5kN/m series
ke = k1*k2 / (k1+k2)
= 5*15 / (5+15)
k2= 15kN/m
= 3.75 kN/m
For spring k3 and k4 in
k3 = 10kN/m
series
k4 = 15kN/m ke = (k3+k4)
50kg = 25 kN/m
28
For spring in series
ke = k1*k2 / (k1+k2)
ke = 3.75
ke = 3.26
3.75*25 / (3.75+25)
= 3.26 kN/m
f = 1/(2)*(k/m)1/2
ke = 25
= 1/(2)*(3260/50)1/2
= 1.285 Hz
50kg 50kg 50kg
Fig.1 Fig.2 Fig.3 29

7. The spring when suspended with weight W, has
natural frequency 12 Hz. If the extra weight of 20 N is
coupled, the frequency reduces to 10 Hz. Calculate
stiffness of the body.
Frequency, f1 = 12 = 1/(2) *(kg/W)1/2 ----------(1)
Frequency, f2 = 10 = 1/(2) *{kg/(W+20)}1/2 ---(2)
Solve above equations for W and k,
W = 45.45 N
k = 26340 N/m
30
8. Calculate natural frequency and natural period of
vibration for the spring systems. The spring
constants are k1 = 2kN/m, k2 = 6kN/m, k3 = 5kN/m,
k4 = 8kN/m and mass m = 50kg.
(1) Spring in Series:
k1 1/ke = 1/k1+1/k2 +1/k3 +1/k4
k2 = 1/2 +1/6 +1/5 +1/8 = 0.992,
k3 ke = 1.008 kN/m = 1008 N/m
k4
Natural frequency = 1/(2 )*(k/m)1/2
50kg
= 0.715 Hz
T = 1/f = 1.4 s
31
(2) Springs are set in parallel
Ke = k1 + k2 + k3 + k4
= 2+6+5+8 = 21kN/m
= 21000 N/m
Natural frequency = 1/(2 )*(k/m)1/2

= 3.262 Hz
T = 1/f = 0.307 s
32
(3) Springs are in series and mass is set between the
springs
a. 1/ke1 = 1/k1 +1/k2 = 1/2 +1/6 = 0.667,
ke1 = 1.5
k1
(springs K1 and K2 are considered)
k2 b. 1/ke2 = 1/k3 +1/k4 = 1/5 +1/8 = 0.325,
ke2 = 3.08
k3
(springs k3 and k4 are considered)
k4
Now the springs are in parallel
ke = ke1 +ke2 = 4.58 kN/m= 4580N/m
Natural frequency = 1/(2 )(k/m)1/2
= (1/2 )(4580/50)1/2 = 1.523Hz., T = 1/f = 0.656 s 33
(4) Springs k1 & k2 parallel and are above k3 & k4
are also parallel and mass is below k3 and k4
springs
k1 k2
ke1 = k1+k2 = 2+6 = 8
k3 k4
ke2 = k3+k4 = 8+5 = 13
50kg
34
1/ke = 1/ke1 +1/ke2
ke1 ke
= 1/8 +1/13
ke2 50kg Hence, ke = 0.202
50kg
f = 1/(2 )*(k/m)1/2 = 1/(2 )*(202/50)1/2 = 0.32Hz

T = 1/f = 3.126 s
35
WORK POWER ENERGY
1
Work
Work is measured by the product of force (F) and
displacement (S), both being in the same direction.
Work done = Force * Displacement = F * S

Graphical representation of work:
Area under the F-S curve gives the work done.
Force
2
Displacement
Power
Power is defined as the rate of doing work.
Power = ( F S ) / (t),
Power = F (S / t), But (S/t) = Velocity
Power = F * v
In S.I. Units, the unit of power is called Watt.

1 Watt = 1 N m/s
3
Energy
The energy of a body is it’s capacity of doing work.
(Joule)
Various types of Energy :

1. Mechanical Energy
2. Electrical Energy
3. Thermal Energy
4. Magnetic Energy
5. Nuclear Energy
4
MECHANICAL ENERGY
A body may posses one or both of the following types
of mechanical energy.
1. Potential Energy
2. Kinetic Energy
Potential Energy:
The energy which a body possesses by virtue of it’s
position is called Potential Energy
m (P.E.) = m g h
h
Datum (P.E.) = 0
m
5
Familiar examples of potential energy:
• A wound-up spring
• A stretched elastic band
• An object at some height above the ground
6
Kinetic Energy:
The energy which a body posses by virtue of it’s motion
is called Kinetic Energy.
It is measured by the amount of work required to be
done to bring the body to rest.
K.E. = Work Done by the Force

= F * ds = m*a*ds = m (v * dv)
By integration: F * S = ½ m v²
So, Kinetic Energy (K.E.) = ½ m v²
7
Familiar examples of kinetic energy:
• A car moving
• An object falling due to gravity
• A box moving on inclined plane.
8
Work-Energy Principle
If we write the acceleration in terms of the

velocity and the distance, we find that
F = ma
F = mv (dv/ds)
F ds = mv dv
𝐬𝟐 𝐯𝟐
𝐅 𝐝𝐬 = 𝐦𝐯 𝐝𝐯
𝐬𝟏 𝐯𝟏
9
Hence, net work done is
𝟏 𝟏
𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐 − 𝒎𝒗𝟏 𝟐
𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
We define the kinetic energy:

𝟏
𝑲𝑬 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝟐
10
This means that the work done is equal to the

change in the kinetic energy:
𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 = ∆𝑲𝑬
• If the net work is positive, the kinetic energy

increases.
• If the net work is negative, the kinetic energy
decreases.
11
Work of a Spring Force
Stiffness (k) is
defined as the
force required to
cause the unit
deformation of the
spring.
• If an elastic spring is elongated to a distance

ds, then the work done by the force that acts
on the attached particle is
• dU = -Fs ds = -k s ds
12
Work of a Spring Force
• The work is negative since Fs acts in the opposite

sense to ds. If the particle displaces from s1 to s2,
the work of Fs is then
𝐬𝟐 𝐬𝟐
𝑼𝟏−𝟐 = 𝐅𝒔 𝐝𝐬 = −𝐤𝐬 𝐝𝐬
𝐬𝟏 𝐬𝟏
𝟏 𝟏
𝑼𝟏−𝟐 = −( 𝒌𝒔𝟐 − 𝒌𝒔𝟏 𝟐 )
𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
13
Law of Conservation of Energy
“ The total amount of energy in the universe is

constant”
“ Energy cannot be created nor destroyed though
it may be converted into various forms.”
14
Conservation of Mechanical Energy
y1 = h
KE = 0 In the animation of stone
shown, the total
mechanical energy is:
𝟏
Half KE,
h E = KE + PE = 𝒎𝒗𝟐 + mgy
Half PE 𝟐
PE = 0
y2 = 0
15
Example 1
A man weighing 650 N dives into a swimming
pool from a diving board of 15 m height. The man
was found to go down in the water by 1.8 m. Find
out the resistance offered by the water. Neglect
air resistance. (g = 9.81 m/s2)
15 m
16
Potential energy of the man with respect to water
level = mgh = 650*15 = 9750Nm _ _ _ (1)
Work done by water
= resistance of water * vertical distance moved by
man in water
= WR * 1.8 _ _ _ _ (2)
Equating (1) = (2), WR = 5416.67N
The weight of the person is 650N so total resistance
of the water = 6066.67N
17
Considering datum at 1.8m depth from water level
Work done by person = work done by water
resistance.
650 (15 +1.8 ) = R*1.8, gives R = 6066.67N
18
As per Newton’s second Law
Or velocity of the person just before striking the
water = (2*9.81*15)1/2 = 17.155m/s
V2- V02 = 2 a s, 02- 17.1552 = 2 a h
02- 17.1552 = 2 * a * 1.8, a = - 81.75 m/s2
Using the relation, net force = mass * acceleration
Resistance of water – weight of man = mass of man
* acceleration of man
R – 650 N = (650/9.81) * (81.75)
R = 6066.67 N
19
Example 2
A small block starts from rest ( at A ) and slides
down the inclined plane AB as shown in the fig.
What distance along the horizontal plane BC will it
travel before coming to rest at C.  =0.3
A
30m
 =0.3
36.86˚
B C
20
Considering motion of the block along the
inclined plane;
W . sin  - Ff = (W/g) . a
W. sin  - .N = (W/g) . a
(N = W . cos )
W. sin  -  . W . cos  = (W/g) . a
sin  -  . cos  = a / g
 a = 3.53 m/s2
21
V2 = V02 + 2*a*S
V2 = 0 + 2 * 3.53 * 50
VB = 18.79 m/s.
OR
At A : Potential Energy = m g h
At B : Kinetic Energy = ½ m v2
[P.E. at A] – [Work done in overcoming
frictional resistance in AB] = K.E. at B
22
 m g h - *N*S = ½ m v2
 (W/g)*g*h -  . W . cos  *S = ½ (W/g) v2
 h -  .cos  *S = ½ (1/g) v2
 30 – 0.3 cos 36.86 * 50 = ½ *(1/9.81) * v2
 v = 18.79 m/s
23
So the block at B will be moving with a velocity
of 18.79m/s.
Distance travelled by the block = BC:

 K.E. lost by the block = Work done in
overcoming the frictional resistance.
 ½ m V2 = Force * Distance Travelled
 ½*(W/g)*18.792 = *N*d ( N =W )
 ½*(1/9.81) *18.792 = 0.3*d
 d = 59.98 m
24

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1

(AF-117) Engineering Mechanics

4. Resultant of coplanar non-concurrent forces

 Engineering Mechanics by - A.K.Tayal

Mechanics can be defined as the branch of physical science which

STATICS:-The science which deals with bodies which are at rest.

• The concept of applied mechanics is useful when it

• The concept of Space is associated with the notion of the

• A particle does not mean the small corpuscles. What it means is

• In short, a particle has mass but no volume.

• Most of the bodies considered in mechanics are assumed to

(1) The Principle of Transmissibility of forces

(1)The Principle of Transmissibility of forces

(2) NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION

(3) NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION

(4) NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION

• where r = distance between the two particles

• If parallel forces have same F2 F2

CASE:1 Resultant of Two Forces

1. Law of Triangle of Forces

1 LAW OF PARALLELOGRAM OF FORCES

• Two forces acting on a particle may be replaced by a single

From above figure : in triangle ODC ,

=  502 +402 +2*50*40*cos40 =84.64N (Magnitude)

tan  = Q sin /(P + Q cos)

= 40 sin 40 / (50+40cos40) = 0.3188

so,  = 22°31’ is inclination of Resultant with P.

Using law of triangle

Ex-2 A hook is subjected to two forces P & Q . If the resultant force

Solution:(1) Applying sine rule,

1. Draw horizontal axis XY as shown. D

Ex-4 Find P And Q For Minimum Value of Q in the above

CASE:2 Resultant of several coplanar concurrent forces

• The resultant of more than 2 forces can be found analytically by

Ex-5 A particle is acted upon by five forces as shown in fig. Find

Fx = 40cos30 + 65cos90 + 80cos135+ 25cos240 + 10cos290

Ex-7 Find resultant force in magnitude and direction if a particle is

35N 30° 24N

• Taking same reference of θ N

Fy • Sign convention

Ex-8 Find resultant force in magnitude and direction if a particle is

AC /sin 70 = AB / sin (110 - ) = BC / sin 

• Equilibrium of a body is a condition in which the resultants of all forces

Fx = 20cos165 ̊ + 80cos75 ̊ + 45cos30 ̊ = 40.35 kN

60o A Tbc Tac

25kN Rd 25kN Rc 70o

For P to be Minimum Denominator

• Consider force F acting at point A and the

Let us take Anti-Clockwise moment as +ve

Let, take Anti-Clockwise moment as +ve

Let us take Clockwise moment as +ve

Assume, Anticlockwise : +ve & Clockwise: -ve

• if ‘a’ is the lever arm(distance between P,Q) then;

Thus here all the couples have moment of 100 kN-m 15

• Here a force F is applied at point B. we want to find equivalent

The moment at point C, due to 50kN force = 50 x 0.3

• To find point of application of the force, Varignon’s principal of

Horizontal distance from A Fy F

1. Make all the forces concurrent at any one point (preferably

2. While making the forces concurrent, consider their

3. Now at a given point, there is a system of concurrent

4. Find out resultant force in magnitude and direction.

7. To convert this system to a system of single force, Use the

8. Calculate horizontal and vertical distances from a given

=  502 +402 +25040*cos40 =84.64N (Magnitude)