Introduc)on to

building façade
 What is a building envelope?

From the first crea-on of architecture, building envelopes offer protec-on

from the weather and enemies and a place to store provisions, and were the
first and most important reason for building.

Tradi5onal tropical house: Tradi5onal European house (Tudor style):

effort involved in building envelope construc-on is much the more divergent the outdoor climate and indoor
less in regions where the outdoor climate condi-ons clima-c requirements are, the greater the technical effort
considered comfortable. required to meet the requirements of people living inside
structures.

h=ps://i.pinimg.com/originals/65/7f/25/657f25a7c8ab1b16f65ac65e5b2513b1.jpg | h=ps://c.stocksy.com/a/84v800/z9/2125988.jpg
A shift of meaning

... was

The word “wall”, especially the term “exterior wall”, is

associated with a stable, robust, usually heavy element.

It separates the private from the public and determines a

building’s exterior character.
Exterior wall made of local natural stone,
Auvergne (FR)
A shi& of meaning

now …

A building’s exterior surface was now also a

counterpart to its inner surface.

Exterior walls are o8en called “facades” in

common speech, so apart from their basic
func>ons of protec>on from the weather
and shaping of the indoor climate, another
aspect comes to the fore: our percep>on of
a building based on its “face”.

Façade become a medium to pass

important message of the building.
Facade style development

Façades can be either ‘heavy’, as they were in the past or ‘light’, as they are
more and more today

façade from natural façade panels from facades from thin facades from thin
stone (very heavy) precast concrete (heavy) dimension stone (heavy- aluminium (very light)
ish) to very thin aluminium
(very light)
 ’Heavy’ façade:

Manchester Town Hall

a façade of a load-bearing brick and
bonded-in stone structure.
h;ps://>amanasek.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Town-Hall.jpg | h;ps://i2-prod.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/incoming/arHcle12255353.ece/ALTERNATES/s615b/JS94708382.jpg
 Early ‘lightweight’ façade:

London’s Natural History Museum

a façade of thin stone and faience (8n-
glazed terra-co;a cladding panels, shapes
and forms) hung on a cast iron structure
of columns and beams
https://st2.depositphotos.com/1817276/5575/i/950/depositphotos_55752671-stock-photo-natural-history-museum-facade-in.jpg } https://c.pxhere.com/photos/a8/0f/blue_orange_detail_london_closeup_museum_architecture_design-475592.jpg!d
 Façade and structure rela.onship: seismic hazard

The exterior of the damaged facade of the Be:y Burgers building The windows in this San Francisco building probably
on Chapel Street is seen following an earthquake in Melbourne, broke because its frame flexed too much in the Loma
2021. Prieta earthquake of 1989.
Source: California Seismic Safety Commission

Façades have come tumbling down from 7me to 7me, usually when a:acked
by seismic ac7vity…

h:ps://resources.stuff.co.nz/content/dam/images/4/y/u/w/b/k/image.related.StuffLandscapeSixteenByNine.710x400.4yuw7v.png/1632285066457.jpg?format=pjpg&op7mize=medium | h:ps://www.earthquakecountry.org/step1/largewindows/
 Facade as a structural sub-system

In general, all buildings must have one

kind of structure or another to hold
themselves up from dead loads
(weights, the mass of the materials
themselves working as gravity loads)
and eccentric loads (wind and seismic
ac<ons).

When such loads take place on the

building enclosure (as in the case of
wind loads), the façade must act as a
structural sub-system which transmits
the loads to founda<on systems.

http://www.urbanphysics.net/2013_BAE_HM_BB_balconies__Preprint.pdf }} https://www.aluglass.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/page_002_wind_loads-1.gif
 Facade as a main structural system

In some choices of structural system,

one can u3lize facade systems as the
main structural system.

For example, by using tube-in-tube

system with large trusses that
supported the floor’s construc3on from
the facade back to the building’s core.

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Facade as a building skin

In other )me, façade could also

disguise what goes on beneath the
skin. This has become a characteris)c
of some contemporary architectural
design, as computer design facilitates
the modelling and crea)on of unusual
shapes and forms which architects then
need others to add both flesh and
bones.

The structure is likely to be the

skeleton on which a façade is hung,
placed within or is directly suppor)ve
of.
 Centre Pompidou in Paris by Renzo Piano and Richard Rogers:
an exoskeletal façade (for structure and services)

h6ps://media.cntraveler.com/photos/5a85a096c5f2863a6e7b97d5/16:9/w_2560,c_limit/Centre-Pompidou_2018_Ge6yImages-535471213.jpg | h6ps://aws-Sqets-cdn.imgix.net/images/content/08995a054b2c4bf28868a996131f5c65.jpg?auto=format&fit=crop&h=800&ixlib=python-
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 Lloyds Bank in London by Richard Rogers:
an exoskeletal façade (for structure and services)

h6ps://media-cdn.tripadvisor.com/media/photo-s/04/06/51/bf/lloyds-bank.jpg } h6ps://media-cdn.tripadvisor.com/media/photo-s/04/06/44/6d/lloyds-bank-rear.jpg
 HSBC in Hongkong by does Foster and Partners:
an exoskeletal façade (for structure)

h4ps://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/HK_HSBC_Main_Building_2008.jpg/240px-HK_HSBC_Main_Building_2008.jpg | h4ps://theforeignarchitect.com/assets/staMc/hsbc-building-hong-kong.ab26bee.2dd5ca751d33313479ae0ddf66460140.jpg |
h4ps://staMc.dezeen.com/uploads/2020/02/hsbc-norman-foster-high-tech-architecture_dezeen_2364_col_5-852x652.jpg
Façade
structural
principles
 Among the criteria to be taken into
account in selec3ng a suitable principle
are:

• Load-bearing capacity, depending on

structural requirements.
• The overall structural context: the
component’s size, workability,
connec3on op3ons, joints,
deforma3ons, changes in length,
degree of prefabrica3on, resistance to
moisture and frost etc.
• Structural physical proper3es: specific
weight, thermal conduc3vity, thermal
storage capacity, resistance to moisture
vapour diffusion, translucence etc.
• Visual effect

hJps://i.pinimg.com/originals/be/7b/3d/be7b3dfab4377e5c38795aa5c6fd6983.jpg | hJps://igsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/al-bahar-towers-_360-of-410_-edit.jpg__1160x800_q85_crop_upscale.jpg
1. Type of facade

The spa(al planning of surfaces is determined by various factors that rarely arise
alone, but are usually combined and have different weigh(ng, such as:

• The geometry of floor plans and eleva(ons in the building

• Usage aspects (e.g. the crea(on of niches for open spaces screened from view)
• Planning of the shell support structure itself (e.g. folded structure)
• Thermal insula(on aspects (e.g. minimising the ra(o of enveloping surface to
volume)
• Structural aspects (e.g. channelling of water)
• Specific material aspects
• Design inten(ons
2. Principles of load bearing
All facade structures must be planned and built to a scale that enables them to
func4on as secondary support structures that can manage the following loads:

• Ver4cal loads: the structure’s own weight, special loads (e.g. sun protec4on
devices, plants, temporary scaffolding), traffic loads (e.g. live loads), snow and
ice loads (these must be calculated for every plan4ng or greening of a facade)
• Horizontal loads: Wind loads (there is generally an 8:5 ra4o of pressure to
suc4on, suc4on loads may be higher around edge areas), traffic loads (e.g.
impact loads)
• Other loads: loads resul4ng from constraining forces caused by changes in
volume due to varia4ons in temperature or humidity

Facade surface loads are usually transferred into the support structure’s floors,
walls and supports. Ver4cal and horizontal loads can be borne and transferred
separately into different structural components within the support structure.
 Support structures:

Gravity walls

In walls whose structure cannot transfer tensile

forces, the resul2ng ver2cal and horizontal forces
must lie at the core of the wall’s base area to ensure
that the structure remains stable and to prevent the
forma2on of gaping joints. Horizontal forces
neutralise the pressure from ver2cal loads.

Here it can be advantageous for the structural

component to bear not just its own weight but also
ver2cal loads from roof and floor slabs, i.e. be part of
the primary support structure (= load-bearing
facade). Masonry exterior walls usually comply with
this principle.

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 Slabs

A “slab” is a planar load-bearing element that

transfers horizontal loads through bending loads (in
one or two direc;ons) perpendicular to its plane.

Bending resistance and stability (with superimposed

compressive forces) are determined mainly by the
structural component’s depth (i.e. the component’s
effec;ve thickness perpendicular to plane of the
facade).

hDps://wfmmedia.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Double-skin-fa%C3%A7ade.jpg
 Slabs + trussing

Architects can use trussing to form a force-fit

structural unit with slabs to increase components’
structural depth and also save materials.

Trussing can be fixed to one or two sides. The slabs

are addi=onally subjected to compressive forces in
their planes. Connec=ng compression and tension
members produces point loads, so poten=al
problems caused by piercing have to be taken into
account.

Trussing does not cause any addi=onal support forces

that the primary support structure would have to
absorb.

hCps://www.glasscon.com/sites/default/files/projects/images/spider-glass-curved-curtain-wall-on-mero-space-frame-3d-truss-glasscon-13.jpg | hCps://5.imimg.com/data5/SELLER/Default/2021/3/ZU/CZ/RX/1173518/structural-facade-250x250.jpg
 Slabs + bending beams

Linear support structures subjected to bending, and

possibly compressive forces as well, limit the spans of
planar structural components.

The beams accumulate the point and/or line loads of

planar structural components (slabs) and transfer
them as single loads by means of bending to
structural components higher in the load-bearing
hierarchy.

h@ps://arquitecturaviva.com/assets/uploads/obras/40923/av_83754.jpeg?h=5cb774a5
 Slabs + linear structures, exposed only
to normal forces

Linear support structures include:

• Planar and three-dimensional trusses: structures

made up of compression and tension members,
suitable for broad spans

• Cable trusses and nets: These prestressed

structures can only absorb tensile forces and are
only advisable if the building’s support structure
can absorb the powerful tensile forces required
for pretensioning without costly and complex
addi>onal measures. These delicate-looking
structures are especially ideal for surfaces
designed to look very transparent.

• Grid shells

hCps://www.lsaa.org/images/sliders/Frei_OCo_Cablenets/LSAA_FreiOCo_cablenet_015.jpg } hCps://www.architecturalrecord.com/ext/resources/Issues/2019/12-December/1912-CEU-Omega-and-Swatch-Headquarters-BielBienne-Switzerland-Shigeru-Ban-Architects-152.jpg?1575299706
 Folded plate structures, shells,
membranes

Planar load-bearing structures that are only able to

absorb tensile and/or compressive loads and stresses
in their plane are especially suitable for absorbing
evenly distributed planar loads.

These systems are also designed to absorb bending

loads when subjected to alterna=ng planar loads
and/or point loads.

Appropriate prestressing ensures that membranes

that can only absorb tensile loads and stresses will
deform only slightly, even when they are subjected to
alterna=ng loads.

h@p://www.fourthdoor.co.uk/unstructured/unstructured_09/extra/9a3a/ibois_1.jpg | h@ps://i.y=mg.com/vi/uQAEKebe2lk/maxresdefault.jpg
3. Planar facade structural components

Continuous structures

In this context, a continuous

structure is a solid section with an
anisotropic or isotropic form.

These planar structural components

are prefabricated in factories or on
site in formwork with joints between
individual production steps.

The structural components’ size and

form depend on their materials and
manufacture
Structures containing large propor0ons
of air or cavi0es

Various manufacturing technologies can

increase the amount of air in structural
components with the following goals:
• Reduc7on of weight and material
• Decrease in thermal conduc7vity (=
improving thermal insula7on)
• Crea7on of cavi7es for installa7ons
Layered structures with frictional
and/or positive form-fit bonding

Layering small-format, irregular units

without a binding agent is a
traditional construction method
which is still used in building facings.

Enclosing units in metal mesh

(gabions) section by section greatly
increases their stability.
“Sandwich structures”

Bonding thin-walled surface layers

resistant to tensile and compressive
forces together with a shear-
resistant core (usually in a very open
or porous structure) produces a
structural unit that is highly resistant
to bending and makes economical
use of materials.

Structures with well-insulated

intermediate layers are generally
suitable for producing light, opaque
facade panels.
Profiled components

This principle can be used to

produce very rigid units with a
minimal use of materials.

A U-shaped or Z-shaped element is

a profiled component, and they can
be put together to form larger planar
units.
 4. Principles of joint sealing
Joint sealing is designed to curb or prevent
a mix of air and water (fluid) entering into a
joint.

Joint sealing relies on a few basic principles

that can be implemented in a wide range of
ways.

In choosing a sealing system, the extent to

which and direc@on in which structural
components will move or are expected to
move is crucial.

hAps://www.construc@onspecifier.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/HoffArch01.jpg | hAps://www.researchgate.net/profile/Michael-Lacasse-2/publica@on/44068438/figure/fig1/AS:466820193886208@1488310015375/Recessed-angled-joints-showing-cohesive-spliYng-of-sealant-bead-
233-North-facing-wall_Q320.jpg
Contactless sealing systems

Structural components are

deliberately kept at a specific
distance from each other and their
edges formed to impede flows due
to turbulence in the joint.

Overlapping

Overlapped elements must follow

the flow direction of facade water.
Some versions allow for horizontal
movement between structural
components (e.g. for opening
sashes).
Bonded material seals

Bonded material seals are

connections made with grouting or
adhesive bonding or by welding,
soldering, brazing or milling and
can provide a complete seal in
some cases. They can generally
not withstand relative movements.

Sealing compounds

Sealing compounds are suitable for

uneven surfaces. Rigid sealing
compounds can produce load-
bearing, friction-locking
connections. Sealing compounds
with plas3c or elas3c deforma3on
proper3es can absorb slight rela3ve
movements.
Combinations

The basic principles outlined above

can be combined to form more
complex, very effective, usually
multilayer sealing systems.
5. Connec1ng layers and shells

Layers and shells must be put together to form a structural unit, the facade.

Layers are not or only somewhat load-bearing and/or parts of a superordinate

structural unit, such as structurally-irrelevant foils and coa:ngs, layers of air,
insula:on, layers of plaster, individual panes in mul:-pane insula:ng glazing and
individual membranes in a pneuma:c structure.

Shells are largely load-bearing structures ranging from partly up to en:rely three-
dimensional and/or structurally autonomous. A shell can consist of several layers,
such as the inner and outer skin of a double facade, structural components
separated by air layers (e.g. rear ven:la:on) or non-load-bearing layers of
insula:on.
Structures /assemblies of layers and shells
perpendicular to the plane of the facade, le#: outside
6. A%achments of planar structural components

a. Planar
b. Linear, perpendicular
c. Linear, horizontal
d. Linear, circumferential
e. Point by point
f. Point by point
 7. Changing permeability
Structural devices can influence permeability of the building. Rigid and modifiable,
i.e. moveable elements can be used to do this.

Ernst Giselbrecht + Partner’s Kiefer Technic Showroom

is featuring 112 large metal Ales that morph
throughout the day to create opAmal shading
condiAons.

Users can control these condiAons from

within the building, adapAng the façade to
match their preferences exactly.

h<ps://encrypted-tbn0.gstaAc.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQyB_6juDMtwWwOD63aSD-OpnfW2mULYXeTMA&usqp=CAU | h<ps://images.ads<c.com/media/images/5d52/7281/284d/d173/7600/0047/newsle<er/kiefertechnic_6.jpg?1565684347
 Rigid element

Solar radiation and climatic conditions vary

over the course of the day and year, so the
effects of immovable elements change with
them (shading, reflection, light refraction)
depending on the sun’s height.

Various principles can be used to provide

shade:

• Complete direct coverage of the façade

surface
• A projecting element
• The addition of other, smaller elements
(e.g. louvre or grid structures)

h"ps://www.lightmetalage.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Hongkou-SOHO-exterior.jpg
a. Horizontal louvres angled
appropriately can prevent
sunrays hitting a south-facing
surface at a steep angle from
penetrating inside a building.

a. Vertical louvres can keep

sunlight striking an east or west-
facing facade at a shallow angle
out of the building.

Both principles can provide shade

while also allowing building occupants
to see out
 Moveable elements

The various kinds of window openings can be

further classified as types by defining four
considera9ons:

• Movability
• Degree of movability
• Type of movement
• Other dis9nguishing characteris9cs

h@ps://i.pinimg.com/originals/11/3d/e0/113de04c6798697b89d0d31df3e57c1f.jpg } h@ps://images.ads@c.com/media/images/5d52/e8e8/284d/d173/7600/008a/large_jpg/close-up_final_lores.jpg?1565714657