Thermal Aspect, Tool Wear and Tool Life: By: Dr. Pawan Sharma Assistant Professor SVNIT, Surat

Thermal aspect, Tool
Wear and Tool Life

By: Dr. Pawan Sharma
Assistant Professor
SVNIT, Surat
Tool Wear and Tool Life by Dr. Pawan Sharma 1

Thermal aspects in Machining
 Energy dissipated in machining gets
converted into:
1) Heat in shear zone. 1
2
2) Heat in chip-tool interface.
3
3) Heat in tool and workpiece.
Figure: Zones of heating in

machining
 As in all metalworking processes where plastic deformation is involved, the
energy dissipated in cutting is converted into heat that, in turn, raises the
temperature in the cutting zone.
 Approximately 98% of the energy in machining is converted into heat. The
remaining energy (about 2%) is retained as elastic energy in the chip
2
Tool Wear and Tool Life by Dr. Pawan Sharma
Source of Heat in Machining
 The main sources of heat in machining are:
a) the work done in shearing in the primary
shear zone,
b) energy dissipated as friction at the tool–chip
interface, and
c) heat generated as the tool rubs against the
machined surface, especially for dull or worn
tools. Figure: Heat distribution in
Machining.
 About 80-85% heat is generated in the shear zone.

 Chip tool interface contribute 15-20% heat.
 While tool work interface contributes 1-3% heat.
3
Adverse Effect of Temperature Rise
Temperature rise is a very important factor in machining because of its
major adverse effects, such as the following:
 Excessive temperature lowers the strength, hardness, stiffness, and
wear resistance of the cutting tool; tools also may soften and undergo
plastic deformation; thus, tool shape is altered.
 Increased heat causes uneven dimensional changes in the part being
machined, making it difficult to control its dimensional accuracy and
tolerances.
 An excessive temperature rise can induce thermal damage and
metallurgical changes in the machined surface, adversely affecting its
properties.
4
Mean temperature in orthogonal cutting
 A comprehensive expression for the mean temperature 𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 , in orthogonal cutting
is
where the mean temperature is in ℉, 𝑌𝑓 is the flow stress in psi, 𝜌𝑐 is the volumetric
specific heat in 𝑖𝑛. −𝑙𝑏 𝑖𝑛.3 ℉, and 𝐾 is the thermal diffusivity (ratio of thermal
conductivity to volumetric specific heat) in 𝑖𝑛.2 𝑠.
 It can be seen from above Eq. that the mean cutting temperature increases with
workpiece strength, cutting speed, and depth of cut, and decreases with increasing
specific heat and thermal conductivity of the workpiece material.
5
Mean temperature in turning
 An expression for the mean temperature in turning on a lathe is given
by:
𝑻𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 ∝ 𝑽𝒂 𝒇𝒃
where 𝑉 is the cutting speed and 𝑓 is the feed of the tool.

 Approximate values of the exponents a and b are
 𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟓 and b= 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟓 for carbide tools
 𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟓 and b= 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕𝟓 for for high-speed steel tools.
6
Temperature Distribution
Figure: Typical temperature distribution in the cutting zone. Note the

severe temperature gradients within the tool and the chip, and that the
workpiece is relatively cool. Source: After G. Vieregge.
7
Techniques for Measuring Temperature
 Techniques for measuring temperature in machining process
includes:
 Tool work thermocouple technique
 Infrared photograph technique
 Radiation pyrometers
8
Tool work thermocouple technique
9
Tool work thermocouple technique
 Tool and work material are dissimilar and the temperatures in the cutting zone is
higher than the rest of the tool or work.
 Hence, the tool work contact area serves as the hot junction in a thermo-electric
circuit.
 The thermocouple is formed at the junction of cutting tool and workpiece with
chip-tool interface as the hot junction.
 The emf generated is taken as a measure of temperature in this region.
 While using this technique it is important to insulate the thermocouple circuit from
the rest of the machine.
 This technique has been extensively used for investigating the effect of cutting
conditions on cutting temperature.
 However, it gives no indication of the temperature distribution.

Infrared photograph technique
 This technique was employed by Boothroyd
(1963) for determining the temperature
distribution in the cutting zone.
 The technique involved taking an infrared
photograph of the side surface of the cutting
zone along with a heated strip of known
temperature distribution.
 By comparing the optical density of the strip
photograph with known temperatures, the
calibration of optical density with temperature
was obtained.
 The calibration was then used to obtain the temperature distribution in the cutting zone.
11
Tool life: Wear and Failure
There are three possible modes by which a cutting tool can fail in
machining:
1. Fracture failure: This mode of failure occurs when the cutting force at
the tool point becomes excessive, causing it to fail suddenly by brittle
fracture.
2. Temperature failure: This failure occurs when the cutting temperature
is too high for the tool material, causing the material at the tool point to
soften, which leads to plastic deformation and loss of the sharp edge.
3. Gradual wear: Gradual wearing of the cutting edge causes loss of tool
shape, reduction in cutting efficiency, an acceleration of wearing as the
tool becomes heavily worn, and finally tool failure in a manner similar to a
temperature failure. 12
Tool life: Wear and Failure
Cutting tools are subjected to:
(a) high localized stresses at the tip of the tool,
(b) high temperatures, especially along the rake face,
(c) sliding of the chip along the rake face, and
(d) sliding of the tool along the newly cut workpiece surface.
 These conditions induce tool wear, which is a major consideration in all
machining operations.
 Wear is generally defined as the loss of material from surfaces in sliding
contact.
 Tool wear and the changes in tool geometry during cutting manifest themselves in
different ways, generally classified as flank wear, crater wear, nose wear,
notching, plastic deformation of the tool tip, chipping, and gross fracture
(Figure on next slide).
Tool Wear: Wear patterns
Figure: (a)
Features of
tool wear in a
turning
operation. The
VB indicates
average
flank wear.
(b)–(e)
Examples of
wear in cutting
tools: (b) flank
wear, (c) crater
wear, (d)
thermal
cracking, and
(e) flank wear
and built-up
edge.
14
Tool Wear: Wear patterns
Figure: Diagram of worn cutting tool, showing the principal locations and types of wear that occur.
15
Tool Wear: Mechanisms for Wear
 Abrasion. This is a mechanical wearing action caused by hard
particles in the work material gouging and removing small portions
of the tool. This abrasive action occurs in both flank wear and crater
wear; it is a significant cause of flank wear.
 Adhesion. When two metals are forced into contact under high
pressure and temperature, adhesion (welding) occurs between them.
These conditions are present between the chip and the rake face of
the tool. As the chip flows across the tool, small particles of the tool
adhere to the chip and are broken away from the surface, resulting in
attrition of the surface.
16
 Diffusion. This is a process in which an exchange of atoms takes
place across a close contact boundary between two materials.
In the case of tool wear, diffusion occurs at the tool–chip boundary,
causing the tool surface to become depleted of the atoms responsible
for its hardness.
As this process continues, the tool surface becomes more susceptible
to abrasion and adhesion.
Diffusion is believed to be a principal mechanism of crater wear.
17
 Chemical reactions. The high temperatures and clean surfaces at the
tool–chip interface in machining at high speeds can result in
chemical reactions, in particular, oxidation, on the rake face of the
tool. The oxidized layer, being softer than the parent tool material, is
sheared away, exposing new material to sustain the reaction process.
 Plastic deformation. Another mechanism that contributes to tool
wear is plastic deformation of the cutting edge. The cutting forces
acting on the cutting edge at high temperature cause the edge to
deform plastically, making it more vulnerable to abrasion of the tool
surface. Plastic deformation contributes mainly to flank wear.
Most of these tool-wear mechanisms are accelerated at higher cutting speeds and temperatures.
Diffusion and chemical reaction are especially sensitive to elevated temperature.
18
Crater Wear
Figure: Crater wear on a cemented carbide

tool, as seen through a toolmaker’s microscope.
 Crater wear occurs on the rake face of the tool.

 The most significant factors influencing crater wear are
(a) the temperature at the tool–chip interface and
(b) the chemical affinity between the tool and workpiece materials.
 Crater wear generally is attributed to a diffusion mechanism.
 Additionally, the factors influencing flank wear may affect crater wear.
19
Flank Wear
Figure: flank wear on a cemented carbide tool,

as seen through a toolmaker’s microscope.
 Flank wear occurs on the relief (flank) face of the tool.

 It generally is attributed to
(a) rubbing of the tool along the machined surface, thereby causing adhesive or
abrasive wear and
(b) high temperatures, which adversely affect tool-material properties.
 The entire area subjected to flank wear is known as WEAR LAND (VB), occurs on
tool nose, front and side relief faces
20
Other Types of Wear, Chipping, and Fracture
 Nose wear is the rounding of a sharp tool due to
mechanical and thermal effects. It dulls the tool,
affects chip formation, and causes rubbing of the
tool over the workpiece, raising its temperature and
possibly inducing residual stresses on the machined
surface. A related phenomenon is edge rounding, as
shown in Fig.
 Notches or grooves observed on cutting tools have been attributed to the fact that
the region they occupy is the boundary where the chip is no longer in contact
with the tool. Known as the depth-of-cut line (DOC) with a depth VN, this
boundary oscillates because of inherent variations in the cutting operation.
Scale and oxide layers on a workpiece surface also contribute to notch wear,
because these layers are hard and abrasive.
21
Other Types of Wear, Chipping, and Fracture
 Chipping: a small fragment from the cutting edge
of the tool breaks away.
 This phenomenon occurs in brittle tool materials
such as ceramics.
 Chipping also may occur in a region of the tool where a small crack or defect
already exists.
 Unlike wear, which is a gradual process, chipping is a sudden loss of tool
material and a corresponding change in its shape.
Two main causes of chipping are the following:
• Mechanical shock (i.e., impact due to interrupted cutting, as in turning a splined
shaft on a lathe)
• Thermal fatigue (i.e., cyclic variations in the temperature of the tool in interrupted
cutting).
Types of wear observed on various cutting tools
Figure: (a) Schematic illustrations of types of wear observed on various cutting tools.
(b) Schematic illustrations of catastrophic tool failures. A wide range of parameters influence
these wear and failure patterns. 23
Tool Life
 Tool life represents the useful life of the tool, expressed generally in
time units from the start of a cut to some end point defined by a failure
criterion.
 Tool life is defined as the length of cutting time that the tool can be
used.
 The tool life can be specified by any of the following measurable
quantities:
 Actual cutting time to failure
 Length of work cut to failure
 Volume of metal removed to failure
 Number of components produced
 Cutting speed for a given time to failure. 24
Tool Life: Wear Growth Curve
 The general relationship
of tool wear versus
cutting time is shown in
Figure.
 Three regions can
usually be identified in
the typical wear growth Figure: Tool wear as a function of cutting time. Flank wear
(FW) is used here as the measure of tool wear. Crater wear
curve. follows a similar growth curve.
 The first is the break-in period, in which the sharp cutting edge wears
rapidly at the beginning of its use. This first region occurs within the first
few minutes of cutting.
25
Tool Life: Wear Growth Curve
 The break-in period is followed by wear that occurs at a fairly uniform
rate. This is called the steady-state wear region.
 In the figure, this region is pictured as a linear function of time,
although there are deviations from the straight line in actual machining.
 Finally, wear reaches a level at which the wear rate begins to
accelerate.
 This marks the beginning of the failure region, in which cutting
temperatures are higher, and the general efficiency of the machining
process is reduced. If allowed to continue, the tool finally fails by
temperature failure.
 The slope of the tool wear curve in the steady-state region is affected
by work material and cutting conditions. 26
Tool Life
Tool failure criteria
 Based on tool wear:
 Chipping or fine cracks developing at the cutting edge.
 wear land size
 Crater depth, width or other parameters
 a combination of the above two
 Volume or weight of material worn off the tool
 Total destruction of the tool
 Based on consequences of worn tool

 Limiting value of surface finish
 Limiting value of change in component size
 Fixed increase in cutting force or power required to perform a cut
Taylor’s Tool Life Equation
Figure: Effect of cutting speed on tool flank wear (FW) for three cutting speeds.
Hypothetical values of speed and tool life are shown for a tool life criterion of 0.50 mm
flank wear.
 If the tool life values for the three wear curves in Figure (a) are plotted on a natural
log–log graph of cutting speed versus tool life, the resulting relationship is a
straight line as shown in Figure (b).
 It can be expressed in equation form and is called the Taylor tool life equation:
V𝑇 𝑛 = 𝐶
28
𝐕𝑻𝒏 = 𝑪
 Here, V is the cutting speed, 𝑇 is the time (in minutes) that it takes to develop a
certain flank wear land (shown as VB), 𝑛 is an exponent that depends on tool and
workpiece materials and cutting conditions, and C is a constant.
 The value of 𝑛 is relative constant for a given tool material, whereas the value of
𝐶 depends on tool material, work material, and cutting conditions.
 Cutting speed is the most important process variable associated with tool life,
followed by depth of cut and feed, f. For turning, above equation can be modified
to: 𝐕𝑻𝒏 𝒅𝒙 𝒇𝒚 = 𝑪
 where 𝑑 is the depth of cut and 𝑓 is the feed in 𝑚𝑚/𝑟𝑒𝑣 or 𝑖𝑛./𝑟𝑒𝑣

30
Tool-life Curves
 Tool-life curves are plots of experimental
data obtained by performing cutting tests
on various materials under different
cutting conditions, such as cutting speed,
feed, depth of cut, tool material and
geometry, and cutting fluids.
 Note in Fig., for example, that (a) tool life
decreases rapidly as the cutting speed
increases, (b) the condition of the
workpiece material has a strong influence Tool-life curves for a variety of
cutting-tool materials. The negative
on tool life, and (c) there is a large reciprocal of the slope of these curves
is the exponent n in the Taylor tool-life
difference in tool life for different
Equation, and C is the cutting speed at
workpiece-material microstructures. ranging from about 200 to 10,000
ft/min in this figure. 31
Effect of tool geometry on Tool Life
Rake angle (degrees) Clearance angle (degrees)
(a) Effect of rake angle (b) Effect of clearance angle

Cutting conditions: Work Material: mild steel; tool material: cemented carbide; cutting
speed: 100m/min; uncut thickness:0.13 mm; width of cut: 8 mm
Figure: Dependence of tool life on tool geometry

Effect of Workpiece Hardness and Microstructure on
Tool Life
Figure: Effect of workpiece hardness and microstructure on tool life in turning

ductile cast iron. Note the rapid decrease in tool life (approaching zero) as the
cutting speed increases. Tool materials have been developed that resist high
temperatures, such as carbides, ceramics, and cubic boron nitride
33
Numerical on tool life
Q1. If in turning of a steel rod by a given cutting tool (material and geometry) at
a given machining condition under a given environment (cutting fluid
application), the tool life decreases from 80 min to 20 min due to increase in
cutting velocity, V from 60 m/min to 120 m/min., then at what cutting velocity the
life of that tool under the same condition and environment will be 40 min.?
Q2. Using the Taylor Equation for tool life and n=0.5 and C=400. Calculate the
percentage increase in tool life when the cutting speed is reduced by 50%.

Surface Roughness
 The final surface roughness obtained during a practical machining operation
may be considered as the sum of two independent effects:
1) The “ideal” surface roughness, which is a result of the geometry of the tool
and the feed or feed speed
2) The “natural” surface roughness, which is a result of the irregularities in the
cutting operation
Total roughness=ideal roughness + natural roughness
 Ideal roughness indicates the best possible finish that can be obtained in a
given operation
35
Measurement of Surface Texture
 Before discussing the measurement of surface roughness, it is important to
realize that other kinds of deviation from a perfectly smooth surface can occur.
These deviations are called surface flaws and waviness.
 Flaws or defects are random irregularities, such as scratches, cracks, holes,
depressions, seams, tears, or inclusions.
 Lay (directionality) is the direction of the predominant surface pattern,
usually visible to the naked eye.
36
Terminologies related to Surface Texture
 Roughness — Roughness consists of surface irregularities that result from the machining
process. These irregularities combine to form the surface texture.
 Roughness height — This is the height of the irregularities with respect to a reference
line. It is also known as the height of unevenness.
 Roughness width — This is the distance parallel to the nominal surface between
successive peaks or ridges that make up the predominant pattern of the roughness.
 Roughness width cutoff — Roughness width cutoff is the greatest spacing of respective
surface irregularities to be included in the measurement of average roughness height. This
effectively determines the sample length for measurements and should always be greater
than the roughness width.
 Waviness — Waviness is a form of regular deviation where the wavelength is greater
than a specified magnitude (usually about 1 mm). Roughness is a finer irregularity than
waviness and is superimposed upon waviness. Waviness may result from workpiece or
tool deflection, vibrations or run out.
Terminologies related to Surface Texture
 Lay — The lay of a surface is the direction of the predominant surface pattern and is
usually determined by the machining method used to produce the surface. Measurements
of a surface are made at right angles to the lay.

Measurement of Surface Roughness
 Surface roughness is generally characterized by two methods. The arithmetic mean

value (𝑹𝒂 ) is based on the schematic illustration of a rough surface, as shown in Fig.
above, and is defined as
where all ordinates a,b,c,.. are absolute values and n is the number of readings.
 The root-mean-square roughness (𝑹𝒒 , formerly identified as RMS) is defined as
The datum line AB in above Fig. is located so that the sum of the areas above the line is equal
to the sum of the areas below the line.
39
Surface Roughness
Figure: Machined surfaces produced on steel (highly magnified), as observed with

a scanning-electron microscope: (a) turned surface and (b) surface produced by
shaping. Source: Courtesy of J T. Black and S. Ramalingam.
40
Surface roughness in Machining (with sharp tool)
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐼+𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐼𝐼
 𝑅𝑎 =
𝑓
Now areas I and II are equal,

(𝜸𝒆 )
𝑓
therefore
D C
(𝜸𝒔 ) A 𝜸𝒆 𝜸𝒔
2 ℎ h
𝑅𝑎 = =
𝑓 4
B
Now from geometry;
𝑓 = 𝐴𝐷 + 𝐷𝐶
𝑓
ℎ=
tan 𝜸𝒔 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜸𝒆
Idealized model of surface roughness for a cutting
𝑓 tool with a sharp corner,
𝑅𝑎 =
4(tan 𝜸𝒔 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜸𝒆)
41
Surface roughness in Machining (with nose radius)
From ∆𝑂𝐴𝐵
𝑂𝐵2 = 𝑂𝐴2 + 𝐴𝐵2
2
𝑓
𝑟2 = + (𝑟 − 𝐻)2
2
Since H is small, therefore

𝐻2 ≃0
𝑓2
− 2𝑟𝐻 = 0
4
𝒇𝟐
𝑯=
𝟖𝒓
Idealized model of surface roughness for a cutting

tool with a nose radius
Surface roughness in Machining
 In a turning operation, as in other cutting
processes, the tool leaves a spiral profile
(feed marks) on the machined surface as it
moves across the workpiece, as shown in
Figure.
 Higher the feed, f, and the smaller the tool-
nose radius, R, the more prominent these
marks will be. Table: Schematic illustration of feed
marks on a surface being turned.
 It can be shown that the surface roughness
for such a case is given by
where 𝑅𝑡 is the roughness height.
43
Effect of tool geometry on surface finish
Effect of geometric factors in determining the theoretical finish on a work surface for
single-point tools: (a) effect of nose radius, (b) effect of feed, and (c) effect of end cutting-
edge angle.

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Thermal aspect, Tool

Wear and Tool Life

Tool Wear and Tool Life by Dr. Pawan Sharma 1

Figure: Zones of heating in

 About 80-85% heat is generated in the shear zone.

where 𝑉 is the cutting speed and 𝑓 is the feed of the tool.

Figure: Typical temperature distribution in the cutting zone. Note the

Tool Wear and Tool Life by Dr. Pawan Sharma 10

Figure: Crater wear on a cemented carbide

 Crater wear occurs on the rake face of the tool.

Figure: flank wear on a cemented carbide tool,

 Flank wear occurs on the relief (flank) face of the tool.

 Based on consequences of worn tool

Tool Wear and Tool Life by Dr. Pawan Sharma 29

Rake angle (degrees) Clearance angle (degrees)

(a) Effect of rake angle (b) Effect of clearance angle

Tool Wear and Tool Life by Dr. Pawan Sharma 32

Figure: Effect of workpiece hardness and microstructure on tool life in turning

Tool Wear and Tool Life by Dr. Pawan Sharma 34

Tool Wear and Tool Life by Dr. Pawan Sharma 38

 Surface roughness is generally characterized by two methods. The arithmetic mean

Figure: Machined surfaces produced on steel (highly magnified), as observed with

Now areas I and II are equal,

Since H is small, therefore

Idealized model of surface roughness for a cutting

where 𝑅𝑡 is the roughness height.

Tool Wear and Tool Life by Dr. Pawan Sharma 44

Tool Wear and Tool Life by Dr. Pawan Sharma 45

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