Abstraction Losses

1
Abstraction
• Abstraction of rainfall is defined as the amount of rainfall that does not turn into runoff.
• It includes, the interception of rainfall by vegetation, evaporation, transpiration from plants, small
depressions on the surface and infiltration to the soil.
• After deduction of these losses from the rainfall, the surface runoff can be obtained.

Evaporation
• Evaporation is a process by which a liquid on a free surface is transferred into gaseous state below the
boiling point through the transfer of heat energy.
✓ Dalton’s law of Evaporation: In atmosphere, the rate of evaporation depends on the difference of
saturation vapour pressure and actual vapor pressure.
𝑬 = 𝑪 𝒆𝒘 − 𝒆𝒂
Where 𝐸 is the evaporation rate, C is constant, 𝑒𝑤 is saturated vapour pressure at water temperature and 𝑒𝑎 is
the actual vapour pressure in the air. Saturation vapour pressure can be taken from the Table 1.

2
 Temperature ℃ Saturation Vapour Pressure 𝒆𝒔 Slope 𝑨 of plot between
𝑪𝒐𝒍. 𝟏 and 𝑪𝒐𝒍 𝟐
(mmHg) (mbar)
mm/℃
Col 1 Col 2 Col 3 Col 4
0.0 4.58 6.11 0.30
5.0 6.54 8.72 0.45
Table 1. Saturation Vapour Pressure of Water

7.5 7.78 10.37 0.54

10 9.21 12.28 0.60
12.5 10.87 14.49 0.71
15.0 12.79 17.05 0.80
17.5 15.00 20.00 0.98
20.0 17.54 23.38 1.05
22.5 20.44 27.95 1.24
25.0 23.76 31.67 1.40
27.5 27.54 36.71 1.61
30.0 31.81 42.42 1.85
32.5 36.68 48.89 2.07
35.0 42.81 57.07 2.35
37.5 48.36 64.46 2.62
40.0 55.32 73.14 2.95
42.5 62.18 84.23 3.25
45.0 71.2 94.91 3.66 3
Factors Influencing Evaporation
• Vapour Pressure: Evaporation rate rises directly with the difference of vapour pressure between air and
water. Higher the difference between saturation vapour pressure and the existing vapour pressure, the
higher rate of evaporation.

• Temperature: An increase in temperature helps the water molecule in escaping from liquid to gaseous
state, thereby increasing evaporation.

• Wind speed: Wind having greater velocity helps in removing the vapour particles more efficiently from the
water body, increasing the rate of evaporation.

• Atmospheric pressure: Decrease in atmospheric pressure or increase in the altitude increase the
evaporation. At lower pressure, the evaporation rate will be higher.

• Other factors include the exposed surface area of water, soluble salts etc.

4
Example 1
Compute the daily rate of evaporation for the catchment area 𝟖𝟎 𝐤𝐦𝟐 of an irrigation tank for July month. In a
given month, the uniform precipitation over the catchment was recorded to be 110 mm. The constant water
spread during this month was 𝟐. 𝟓 𝐤𝐦𝟐 and the irrigations canal discharge at a uniform rate of 1.5 cumecs.
Assume 55% of the precipitation reaches the tank and seepage losses are 54% of the evaporation losses.

Solution: Given, water spread = 2.5 km2 , precipitation over the catchment= 110 mm
Percentage of precipitation reaches the tank= 55%, discharge of irrigation canal= 1.5 cumecs.,
seepage loss= 54% of evaporation loss

Runoff that reaches the tank= 0.55 ∗ 80 ∗ 106 ∗ 110 ∗ 10−3 = 4840000 𝑚3 (inflow)
Let evaporation losses be 𝑒
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 + 𝑆𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
= 𝑒 + 0.54𝑒 = 1.54𝑒

Water discharging in the canal = 1.5 ∗ 31 ∗ 24 ∗ 60 ∗ 60 = 4017600 𝑚3

𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 − 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
4840000 − 1.54𝑒 = 4017600
𝑒 = 534025.974 𝑚3
Evaporation losses (depth)= e/Water spread= 534025.974/2.5 x106 = 0.21361 m or 213.61 mm (for 31 days)

Evaporation losses (depth) per day= 213.61/31= 6.89 mm/day

5
Measurement of Evaporation
Measurement of evaporation can be carried out using evaporimetres in the field. These evaporimetres are large
pan in which water is kept and exposed to the atmosphere and the depth of loss of water is measured using a
point gauge at regular intervals.
Class A Evaporation Pan ISI standard Pan
• The US Weather Bureau Class A Pan is a standard pan • It is a standard Pan consists of a circular vessel of 1220
of 1210 mm diameter and depth 255 mm. mm diameter and 255 mm depth.
• It is normally installed on the wooden platform of 150 • This pan has stilling well for measuring the depth of
cm height on the ground level away from the bushes, water.
trees and other obstacles. • At the top of the pan, a wire meshing is provided.
• The measurement day begins with the pan filled to • Evaporation from this pan is about 14% lower as
exactly two inches (5 cm) from the pan top. At the end compared to that from an unscreened pan
of 24 hours, the amount of water to refill the pan to
exactly two inches from its top is measured.

6
Figure 1. Class A Evaporation Pan Figure 2. ISI standard Pan
Limitation of pan evaporimetres:
• Since the heat transfer and heat storage characteristics of a pan is different from that of a reservoir/lake and
pan contains a very little volume of water as compared to the reservoirs, therefore, the pan normally
overestimates the evaporation in comparison to nearby lake/reservoir.

• Also, the height of rim affects the wind action over the water surface.

• So, the evaporation data from the pan has to be corrected to obtain the actual evaporation from the water
body by multiplying a coefficient (𝐶𝑝 ) called pan coefficient.

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟

𝐶𝑝 =
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑛

The value of evaporation coefficient 𝐶𝑝 is always less than or equal to 1.0 having average value around 0.7

7
Example 2
Determine the rate of evaporation from an evaporation pan of 1.9 m diameter. The drop in water level in
evaporation pan during 24 h is 15 mm. The precipitation recorded during this period is 25 mm.

Solution: Given, diameter of evaporation pan = 1.9 m, time period = 24 h, drop in water level = 15 mm,
precipitation = 25 mm

1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑛 = 𝐴 = ∗ 𝜋 ∗ 1.92 = 2.835 𝑚2
4
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑛 = 2.835 ∗ 15 ∗ 10−3 = 0.04253 𝑚3
1
𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑛 = ∗ 1.9 ∗ 25 ∗ 10−3 = 0.07088 𝑚3
4
𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 − 𝑂𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤

= 0.07088 − 0.04253 = 0.02835 𝑚3

𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 − 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 0.02835
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = = 0.01 m. day −1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 2.835

8
Example 3
It was found that the rate of evaporation from a 1.5 m pan having a pan coefficient of 0.9 was 2. 𝟓 𝒎𝒎/𝒎𝟐 /h.
Compute the total evaporation from a reservoir in a week, having a water spread of 3 ha.
Solution: Given, diameter of evaporation pan = 1.5 m. Pan coefficient = 0.9, rate of evaporation = 2. 𝟓 𝑚𝑚/𝑚2 /h
time period = 7 days and water spread = 3 ha
1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑛 = 𝐴 = ∗ 𝜋 ∗ 1.52 = 1.7671 𝑚2
4
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑛 = 1.7671 ∗ 2.5 = 4.41775 𝑚3
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓rom reservoir = 0.90 ∗ 3 ∗ 104 ∗ 4.41775 ∗ 10−3 ∗ 7 ∗ 24 = 20038.914

9
• Empirical Equations for Evaporation Estimation
✓ Meyer’s Formula
𝑢
𝐸 = 𝐾𝑚 𝑒𝑤 − 𝑒𝑎 1 + 16𝑎
Where 𝐸 is the evaporation (mm), 𝑒𝑤 is saturated vapour pressure at the water surface temperature (mm Hg), 𝑒𝑎 is the
prevailing vapour pressure (mm Hg), 𝑢𝑎 is wind velocity at 9m above the ground level and 𝐾𝑚 is parameter accounting other
factors such as size of water body. It is generally taken as 0.36 for large lakes and as 0.50 for small water bodies.
✓ Fitzgerald’s formula
𝑬 = 𝟎. 𝟒 + 𝟏. 𝟐𝟒𝒖𝟎 𝒆𝒘 − 𝒆𝒂
Here, 𝑢0 is wind velocity at the land surface.
✓ Rohwer’s formula
𝑬 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟏 𝟏. 𝟒𝟔𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟑𝟐𝒑𝒂 𝟎. 𝟒𝟒 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟑𝟑𝒖𝟎 𝒆𝒘 − 𝒆𝟎
Here, 𝑝𝑎 is the mean barometric reading (mm Hg)
• Analytical Methods of Evaporation Estimation
✓ Water budget method
This method is the simplest analytical method to determine evaporation from ponded water such as lakes, etc. but seldom
produces reliable results. The Equation is given as
𝑬 = 𝑰 + 𝑷 − 𝑸 − 𝑸𝒈𝒘 + ∆𝑺
Where E is daily evaporation, I is daily inflow, P is daily precipitation, 𝑄 is daily outflow, 𝑄𝑔𝑤 is daily inflow to groundwater
and ∆𝑆 is change in lake storage in a day.
10
✓ Energy budget method
In this method, the available energy for evaporation is determined by considering incoming, outgoing and stored
energy in water body at one time. This method illustrates an application of continuity equation written in terms of
energy.
It is given as,
𝑸 = 𝑸𝒉 + 𝑸 𝒆 + 𝑸𝒈 + 𝑸𝒔 + 𝑸𝒊
Where, 𝑄𝑛 is net heat energy received by water surface, 𝑄ℎ is sensible heat transfer, 𝑄𝑒 is evaporation energy, 𝑄𝑔 is
heat flux into ground, 𝑄𝑠 is heat stored in water body, and 𝑄𝑖 is advected energy .

In order to calculate 𝑄ℎ Bowen’s ratio 𝛽 is used which is defined as:

𝑸𝒉 𝟒
𝑻𝒘 − 𝑻𝒂
𝜷= = 𝟔. 𝟏 ∗ 𝟏𝟎 𝝆𝒂
𝑸𝒆 𝒆𝒘 − 𝒆𝒂
Where 𝜌𝑎 is the atmospheric pressure (mm of mercury), 𝑒𝑤 is saturated vapour pressure (mm of mercury), 𝑒𝑎 is
actual vapour pressure (mm of Hg), 𝑇𝑤 is temperature of water surface (℃) and 𝑇𝑎 is temperature of air (℃).

11
✓ Thornwaite and Holzman (1939) provided the follow equation to compute water vapour transferred to atmosphere
from a lake surface
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟏𝟗 𝒆𝟏 − 𝒆𝟐 𝒖𝟐 − 𝒖𝟏
𝑬=
𝒉𝟐 𝟐
𝒑 ∗ 𝒍𝒏
𝒉𝟏
Here, 𝑢1 and 𝑢2 are wind velocities (m/s) at heights ℎ1 and ℎ2 , respectively, and 𝑒1 and 𝑒2 are vapour pressures (Pa) at
heights ℎ1 and ℎ2 respectively and 𝑝 is air pressure.

Example 4
For air temperature of 𝟐𝟓 ℃, relative humidity of 𝟗𝟖%, air pressure of 𝟏𝟎𝟏. 𝟑 ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑷𝒂 and wind speed of 𝟐 𝒎/𝒔
measured 𝟐 𝒎 above water surface, calculate the evaporation loss from the water surface. Assume saturation height
𝐡𝟏 as 0.025 m.

Solution: Given, 𝑢1 = 0, u2 = 2 m/s.

Vapour pressure 𝑒1 = 𝑒𝑠 = 31.67 𝑚 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 25℃ 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝑒2 = 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ℎ𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 𝑒𝑠 = 0.98 ∗ 3167 = 3104 𝑃𝑎

𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟏𝟗 𝒆𝟏 − 𝒆𝟐 𝒖𝟐 − 𝒖𝟏
𝑬= 𝟐
𝒉
𝒑 ∗ 𝒍𝒏 𝟐
𝒉𝟏 12
 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟏𝟗 𝟑𝟏𝟔𝟕 − 𝟑𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝟐 − 𝟎
𝑬= 𝟐
𝟐
𝟏𝟎𝟏. 𝟑 ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒍𝒏
𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓

0.01499
𝐸= = 7.706 ∗ 10−9 m/s
1945178.5

𝐸 = 7.706 ∗ 10−9 ∗ 1000 ∗ 24 ∗ 3600 𝑚𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 0.67 𝑚𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦

• Measures to reduce evaporation

✓ Storing water in covered reservoirs: Water losses through evaporation can be reduced by using covered
reservoir (no or less exposure to solar radiation).
✓ Storage reservoirs with less surface area: Surface area storage may be reduced, since the evaporation
depends on the exposed surface area.
✓ Applying chemical films: By spreading chemicals such as cetyl alcohol over the reservoir surface such that a
thin layer is formed to prevent escaping of molecules from the surface. It reduces evaporation by 20-50%.

13
❑TRANSPIRATION
Transpiration is a process by which water leaves the plants and enters the atmosphere. As temperature goes up, plants
transpire more rapidly because sunlight stimulate the opening of stomata where water is released to atmosphere.
Factors affecting the transpiration include
✓ Temperature
✓ Relative humidity
✓ Wind movement
✓ Soil moisture availability
✓ Plant type

❑ EVAPOTRANSPIRATION Figure 4 Relation between AET/PET and available soil moisture

Evapotranspiration of crops is the total lost water due to evaporation from the soil and transpiration by the plants. It is
usually expressed as depth over area.
Potential Evapotranspiration (PET) is the quantity of water that is removed from the surface through the process of
evaporation and transpiration when unlimited water covers the soil. The value of potential evapotranspiration is
computed at a local climate station on a reference surface. This is called as reference evapotranspiration (RET)
𝑃𝐸𝑇 = 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 x𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Actual Evapotranspiration (AET) Is the quantity of water that is actually removed from a surface due to the processes
of evaporation and transpiration. Thus, PET is the maximum value of AET.
14
• Estimation of Evapotranspiration
Empirical methods
These are based on the climatological data available and not applicable universally
1. Blaney-Criddle method: this is one of the oldest theoretical method which assumes that the PET is related to the
mean monthly temperature and daylight hours as shown in table below and
𝒌𝑻𝑷
𝑬𝑻 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎
where 𝐸𝑇 is 𝑃𝐸𝑇 monthly (inch) , 𝑘 is monthly consumptive use coefficient, 𝑇 is mean monthly temperature, 𝑃 is
monthly percent annual daytime hours (depends on the latitude of the place)

2. Thornwaite method: He developed the following formula from fata of eastern USA to estimate potential
evapotranspiration on per month basis
𝟏𝟎𝑻𝒎 𝒂
𝑬𝑻 = 𝟏. 𝟔 𝑳𝒐 𝑰
Where 𝐸𝑇 is monthly 𝑃𝐸𝑇(𝑐𝑚), 𝐿𝑎 is adjustment for the number of hours of daylight and days in the month related
to latitude of the place, 𝑇𝑚 is mean monthly air temperature (℃). 𝐼 is the heat index
𝑻𝒎 𝟏.𝟓𝟏𝟒
= σ𝟏𝟐
𝒊=𝟏 𝑰𝒊 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒊 =
𝟓

And a is empirical constant= [ 𝟔. 𝟕𝟓 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝑰𝟑 − 𝟕. 𝟕𝟏 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝑰𝟐 + 𝟏. 𝟕𝟗𝟐 ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟐 𝑰 + 𝟎. 𝟒𝟗𝟐𝟑𝟗]

15
 North latitude (degree)
Month 0 10 20 30 40 50
January 12.1 11.6 11.1 10.4 9.6 8.6
February 12.1 11.8 11.5 11.1 10.7 10.1
March 12.1 12.1 12 12 11.9 11.8
April 12.1 12.4 13.1 12.9 13.2 13.8
May 12.1 12.6 13.1 13.7 14.4 15.4
June 12.1 12.7 13.3 14.1 15 16.4
July 12.1 12.6 13.2 13.9 14.7 16
August 12.1 12.4 12.8 13.2 23.8 15.4
September 12.1 12.9 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.7
October 12.1 11.9 11.7 11.5 11.2 10.8
November 12.1 11.7 11.2 10.6 10 9.4
December 12.1 11.5 10.2 10.2 9.1 8.1
Table 1 Mean monthly value of possible sunshine hours (N)

16
3. Hargreave Equation He developed the following formula on the basis of data collected from the grass lysimeter
as follows:
𝑬𝑻𝒈 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟑𝟓 𝑻 + 𝟏𝟕. 𝟕𝟗 𝑹𝒔
where 𝐸𝑇𝑔 is the reference crop potential consumptive use. 𝑇 is mean daily temperature and 𝑅𝑆 is the incident solar
radiation = 0.10𝑅50 𝑆 where 𝑆 is percent possible sunshine hour and 𝑅50 is the clear day solar radiation in
𝐿𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 (𝐿𝑦/𝑑𝑎𝑦)
• Lysimeters and Field plots
• Lysimeters: They can be used to measure potential evapotranspiration from a vegetated surface when water supply
is ultimated. These Lysimeters are watertight tanks filled with soil in which crops are grown under natural conditions
and set in a field as shown in figure. The evapotranspiration is measured by using water balance equation of all
parameters. Limitation of using Lysimeters are
✓ Time Consuming
✓ Expensive
✓ Soil sample is disturbed
✓ Non convenient in water and snow cover.
In the field plots, evapotranspiration can be measured as

𝑬𝒗𝒂𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒑𝒊𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑹𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒇𝒂𝒍𝒍 + 𝑰𝒓𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 − 𝑹𝒖𝒏𝒐𝒇𝒇 − 𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒊𝒏

𝒔𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆
Figure 4 Lysimeter 17
Penman equation for evapotranspiration
This is a semi-empirical equation based on the combination of energy balance and mass transfer approach from open water surface.
This method is relatively tedious but is more accurate.
∆𝑄𝑛 + 𝛾𝐸𝑎
𝑃𝐸𝑇 =
∆+𝛾

∆
(𝛾 𝑄𝑛 + 𝐸𝐴 )
𝑃𝐸𝑇 =
∆
𝛾+1
∆
Where 𝛾 is empirical parameter depending upon temperature.
𝑑𝐸
The 𝑃𝐸𝑇 is in (mm/day) , ∆ is the slope of saturation vapour pressure verses temperature curve at the mean air temperature
𝑑𝑇
𝑇𝑎 (𝑚𝑚Hg/℃). Q n is the net radiation (in mm of evaporable water per day), 𝛾 is the psychometric constant or the ratio of specific
heat of air to latent heat of evaporation of water 0.49 for 0℃ (mmHg) and 𝐸𝑎 is the parameter including wind velocity and
saturation deficit. The parameter 𝐸𝑎 is computed as
𝑬𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓 𝒆𝒘 − 𝒆𝒂 𝒍 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟐𝟓𝒖𝟐
Where 𝑢2 is mean wind speed at 2m height from ground 𝑘𝑚/day and 𝑒𝑤 is saturation vapour pressure at mean air temperature
(mmHg)
The net radiation 𝑄𝑛 is given as
𝑏𝑛 𝑛
𝑄𝑛 = 𝑄𝑎 1 − 𝑟 𝑎 + − 𝜎𝑇 4 0.56 − 0.0092 𝑒𝑎 0.10 + 0.90
𝑁 𝑁
Where 𝑄𝑎 is the mean monthly extraterrestrial incident radiation (mm of water per day), 𝑟 is the reflection coefficient of
evaporating surface (0.05 for open water surface, a is constant depending on latitude, b is constant with average value of 0.55, 𝑛/𝑁
is ratio between actual and possible hours of bright sunshine, 𝜎 is Stefan-Boltzman constant, 𝑇 is mean air temperature in 𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛
and 𝑒𝑎 is actual mean vapour pressure in the air (mmHg) 18
 North Latitude in Degree
Month 𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝟕𝟎𝟎 𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝟗𝟎𝟎
January 14.5 12.8 10.8 8.5 6.0 3.6 1.3 - - -
February 15.0 13.9 12.3 10.5 8.3 5.9 3.5 1.1 - -
March 15.2 14.8 13.9 12.7 11.0 9.1 6.8 4.3 1.8 -
April 14.7 15.2 15.2 14.8 13.9 12.7 11.1 9.1 7.8 7.9
May 13.9 15.0 15.7 16.0 15.9 15.4 14.6 13.6 14.6 14.9
June 13.4 14.8 15.8 16.5 16.7 16.7 16.5 17.0 17.8 18.1
July 13.5 14.8 15.7 16.2 16.3 16.1 15.7 15.8 16.5 16.8
Aug 14.2 15.0 15.3 15.3 14.8 13.9 12.7 11.4 10.6 11.2
Sep 14.9 14.9 14.4 13.5 12.2 10.5 8.5 6.8 4.0 2.6
October 15.0 14.1 12.9 11.3 9.3 7.1 4.7 2.4 0.2 -
November 14.6 13.1 11.2 9.1 6.8 4.3 1.9 0.1 - -
December 14.3 12.4 10.3 7.9 5.5 3.0 0.9 - - -

Table 4. Mean monthly solar radiation Incident on Earth’s Outer Space ( Extra-terrestrial Radiation in mm of Evaporable Water Per
Day ) (After Criddle 1958)
19
Example 5
Using Penman’s formula, calculate the consumptive use of rice for the month of February for the following data
Wind velocity measured at 2m height = 30km/day
Elevation of the era =220 m
Relative humidity for February = 50%
Latitude= 22 °𝑵
Mean observed sunshine hours = 7.2 h
Mean Monthly temperature= 16 ℃

Solution: From Table 1, for temperature of 16℃, ew = 13.67 mm/Hg

Slope of the saturated vapour pressure verses temperature curve ∆= 0.86 mm/℃
From Table 4, 𝑄𝑎 = 11.94 𝑚𝑚 of water per day for 220 𝑁 latitude
From Table3 N= 11.42 h for latitude of 220 𝑁

𝑛 7.2
Therefore 𝑁 = 11.42 = 0.63
Vapour pressure in air= 𝑒𝑎 = 𝑒𝑠 × 𝑅𝐻 = 13.67 × 0.50 = 6.88 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔

Drying power of air, 𝐸𝑎 = 0.35 𝑒𝑤 − 𝑒𝑎 1 + 0.00625𝑢2 = 0.035 1 + 0.00625 ∗ 30 13.67 − 6.88 = 2.82mm/day

The reflection coefficient for close crop like paddy is assumed as 0.20 20
Take 𝛾 = 0.49, 𝜎 = 2.01 × 10−9 𝑚𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦. 𝑇𝑎 = 273 + 16 = 289 𝐾
0.55𝑛 𝑛
Therefore 𝑄𝑛 = 𝑄𝑎 1 − 𝑟 0.29 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ + − 𝜎𝑇 4 0.56 − 0.0092 𝑒𝑎 0.10 + 0.90
𝑁 𝑁
0
0.55 × 7.2
= 11.94 1 − 0.2 0.29 𝑐𝑜𝑠22 + − 2.101
11.42
−9 4
7.2
× 10 × 289 0.56 − 0.092 6.88 0.10 + 0.90
11.42
= 11.94 × 0.8 × 0.269 + 0.347 − 14.02 0.56 − 0.24 0.1 + 0.568
= 5.88 − 3.00 = 2.88 𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦

∆𝑄𝑛 + 𝛾𝐸𝑎
𝑃𝐸𝑇 =
∆+𝛾

0.86 × 2.88 + 0.49 × 2.82 3.858

𝑃𝐸𝑇 = = = 2.86 𝑚𝑚𝑑𝑎𝑦 −
0.86 + 0.49 1.35
1
𝑃𝐸𝑇 = 2.86 × 28 × cm/month = 8.00 cm for February
10
Consumptive use of rice for February is 8.00 cm= 80 mm of water

21
❑Interception
Interception is defined as the amount of gross precipitation that is captured by vegetation or surface cover, and
subsequently, evaporated back to the atmosphere. Interception loss is high in the beginning of storms and gradually
decreases. Intercepted water does not reach the ground surface. The factors affecting the interception are:
✓ Types of Storm
✓ Plant
✓ Season and prevailing wind

❑Infiltration
It is defined as the flow of water into the ground through soil
surface layer. It replenishes the soil moisture deficiency. Percolation
Is the movement of water under gravity and percolation starts after
infiltration.

Figure 5. Typical interception loss curve

Infiltration capacity
The maximum rate at which the soil in any given condition at a given time is capable of absorbing water is called infiltration
capacity. The antecedent presence of moisture in the soil affects the infiltration capacity 𝑓𝑝 . This can be expressed as

𝒇 = 𝒇𝒑 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒊 ≥ 𝒇𝒑
𝒇 = 𝒊 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒊 ≤ 𝒇𝒑
Where, 𝑖 is the intensity of rainfall.
22
The infiltration capacity of soil depends on the following factors
➢ Soil type (texture, structure, hydrodynamic characteristics)
➢ Condition of soil surface
➢ Crop rotations
➢ Tillage operations
➢ Variation in the temperature of the soil
➢ Soil moisture
Figure 6. Variation of infiltration capacity
The plot of instantaneous rate of water entering into the soil shows that a loose, permeable, sandy soil has large
infiltration capacity than a tight clayey soil. At the beginning of rainfall, the intake rate is higher and then it reduces
with time.
❑ Methods of Determining Infiltration
The following methods are most commonly used for
determining the infiltration of soil at a given location.
1. Infiltrometers methods There are two different
Infiltrometers for the measurement of infiltration known as
Single Cylinder infiltrometer: In this, only one cylinder is used.
The metal cylinder is driven into the ground with the help of
hammer and the water is poured into the cylinder to maintain
a constant water level to 7cm. We keep adding measured
amount of water till constant infiltration is obtained.
23
Figure 7. Single cylinder infiltrometer
Double Cylinder infiltrometer: In this type of infiltrometer, two
concentric cylinders are driven into the ground up to a depth
of 15 cm leaving 10 cm above the ground level. Water is
applied to both cylinders and the same level of water is
maintained in both cylinders by adding measured quantity of
water at successive intervals. To prevent any sealing of the
ground surface inside the inner cylinder, a jute matting is
recommended to be placed while adding the water.

The limitations of using Infiltrometers are

1. The soil is disturbed while cylinders are driven into the ground
2. Lateral flow of infiltrated water occurs Figure 8. Double cylinder infiltrometer
3. Effect of slope of ground is not accounted

Measurement in pits and ponds

Depression in water level in the pits and ponds is observed. Infiltration rate of soil may be computed with the use of water
level in pond by deducing loss due to evaporation.

Rainfall simulator
In a small area of land of about 0.1 to 50 𝑚2 , especially designed nozzles are used to apply artificial showers at a uniform rate.
Experiments are carried out in a controlled condition with various combinations of intensities and durations. Resulting surface
runoff is measured and then infiltration rate of soil is determined.
24
Hydrograph Analysis
If rainfall record and runoff hydrograph for a given storm is available, then infiltration capacity may be determined
using water balance equation

❑ Infiltration Equations
Horton’s Equation : Horton (1939) developed the following equation for computing infiltration rate at any time period
as an exponential decay:
𝒇 = 𝒇𝒄 + 𝒇𝟎 − 𝒇𝒄 𝒆−𝒌𝒕
Where, 𝑓 is the infiltration rate at any given time 𝑡 , 𝑓0 is initial rate at time 𝑡 = 0, 𝑓𝑐 is constant infiltration rate at time
𝑡 = 𝑡𝑐 , 𝑘 = Horton’s decay coefficient depends on the soil and vegetation, and 𝑡 is the time from beginning of the
storm.
When 𝑡 = 0, 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 = 1 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑜
When 𝑡 = ∞, 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 = 0 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑐
The limitations of Horton’s equation is that it is difficult to find the variation in the three parameters 𝑓0 , 𝑓𝑐 and 𝑘
based on the soil characteristics and antecedent moisture content and is not popular.

Philip’s Equation: Philip (1957) developed the following expression for computing the cumulative infiltration depth:
1
𝐹𝑝 = 𝑠𝑡 2
+ 𝐾𝑡
Where 𝐹𝑝 is the cumulative infiltration, 𝑠 is soil property known as sorptivity, 𝐾 is Darcy’s hydraulic conductivity.
By differentiating the previous equation, the infiltration rate 𝑓 can be given by
1 −1
𝑓 = 𝑠𝑡 2 + 𝐾
2 25
Kostiakov’s equation
He developed the following expression to determine the cumulative infiltration capacity
𝑭𝒑 = 𝒌𝒕𝒏
Where 𝑘 and 𝑛 0 < 𝑛 > 1 , are constant
Lewis and Milne equation
It is given as,
𝑭𝒑 = 𝒂𝒕 + 𝒃 𝟏 − 𝒆−𝒏𝒕
Where a, b and n are constant 0 > 𝑛 > 1
Green-Ampt equation
They proposed the following equation for computing infiltration rate based on Darcy’s law
𝜼𝑺𝑪
𝒇=𝒌 𝟏+
𝑭𝒑
Where 𝜂 is the porosity of soil, 𝑆𝐶 is capillary suction at the wetting front, 𝑘 = Darcy’s hydraulic conductivity of soil, and 𝐹𝑝
is cumulative infiltration
❑Infiltration Indices
In hydrological processes, estimation of runoff from large catchment is made by using constant value of infiltration rate of
duration of storm, although in actual practice, the infiltration varies with time. This average value of infiltration rate is called
infiltration index. Following three types of infiltration indices are commonly used

26
• 𝝓 Index
This is defined as the rate of rainfall above which the rainfall volume is equal to the runoff volume as shown in the figure.
In this, all losses arising out of infiltration, interception and depression storage are accounted. This index can be derived
from the rainfall hyetograph with the knowledge of resulting runoff volume

𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒐𝒊𝒍

𝝓 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒙 =
𝑫𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒇𝒂𝒍𝒍
W-index
The W-index is the average infiltration rate when the time rainfall intensity
exceeds the infiltration capacity rate
𝑷−𝑹−𝑰𝒂
𝑾=
𝒕𝒓
Where 𝑃 is the total rainfall, 𝑅 is the total runoff, 𝐼𝑎 represents initial losses,
and 𝑡𝑟 is duration of storm during which 𝑖 > 𝑓𝑝 . Figure. 𝝓 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒙
In the 𝑊 − 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 , initial losses are separated from the total abstraction, thus W-index is essentially equal to 𝜙 − 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥
minus the average value of initial losses (𝑊 < 𝜙). Since, it is difficult to find the correct values of the initial abstraction,
the 𝑊 − 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 method is not popular.

𝒇𝒂𝒗𝒈 − 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒙
In this method, an average infiltration loss is assumed throughout the storm for the period 𝑖 > 𝑓

27
Example 6
The quantity of water added to a double ring infiltrometer of 1.5 m diameter at 30 min interval to keep the water
level constant is as follows. Compute the rate of infiltration for every 30 min

Time 0 30 60 90 120 150 180

Quantity of Water 0 15 14.2 12.2 11.8 11 11

added
Solution: Area of ring= 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜋 × 1.52 = 1.767 𝑚2
The calculations are shown in the table below

Quantity of water
Time(min) 𝑸𝒊𝒏 area (𝒎𝟐 ) Depth (mm) = Q/A Intensity (mm/h)
added (mm)
0 0 1.767 0.000000 0.00
30 15 1.767 8.488964 16.98
60 14.2 1.767 8.036220 16.07
90 12.2 1.767 6.904358 13.81
120 11.8 1.767 6.677985 13.36
150 11 1.767 6.225241 12.45
180 11 1.767 6.225241 12.45 28
Example 7
The value of 𝒌 in the Horton’s equation for infiltration is 3. The maximum and the minimum rates of infiltration
are 3 cm/h and 0.7 cm/h. Plot the infiltration rate curve.

Solution: Given, maximum infiltration= 3 cm/h, minimum infiltration = 0.7 cm/h, k= 3

𝑓1 = 𝑓𝑐 + (𝑓0 −𝑓𝑐 )(𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 )
𝑓𝑐 = 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 0.7 cm/h
𝑓0 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 3𝑐𝑚/h
𝑓0 − 𝑓𝑐 = 2.3 𝑐𝑚/h
𝑓 𝑡 = 0.7 + 2.3𝑒 −3𝑡
The computation for the infiltration rate and the infiltration rate curve is
Time (h) Infiltration rate
3
0 3.00
1 0.81
2

Infiltration rate (cm/h)

2 0.71
3 0.70
1
4 0.70
5 0.70
0
6 0.70 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
TIme (h)
29
7 0.70
Example 8
The storm over a catchment of 60 𝒌𝒎𝟐 was having the following intensity
a) 45 mm/h for 1 h
b) 80 mm/ h for 2 h
c) 37 mm/ h for 1 h
The catchment area had infiltration rate as follows
a) 25% area, 𝝓 = 15 mm/h
b) 55% area, 𝝓 = 29 mm/ h
c) Balance impervious
Determine the runoff due to storm
Solution: Given, Total area of catchment= 60𝑘𝑚2 , net runoff for different duration of rainfall
a) 𝑃1ℎ = 0.25(45-15)+ 0.55(45-20)+0.2x45= 30.25 mm
b) 𝑃2ℎ = 0.25(80-15)+0.55(80-20)+0.2 x80= 62.25 mm for 1 h
So, for 2 h, i.e., 65.25 x 2= 130.5 mm
c) 𝑃1ℎ = 0.25(37-15)+0.55(37-20)+0.2 x37= 22.25 mm
The total net runoff = 30.25+ 130.5+22.25= 183.25 mm
30
Runoff= 183 x 10−3 x 60x106 = 10980000 𝑚3
 Examples
Q1. The Penman’s evapotranspiration equation is based on IES 2002
a) Water Budget method
b) Energy balance method
c) Mass transfer method
Solution: (d)
d) Energy balance and mass transfer approach

Q2. The rainfalls during three successive 2h periods are 0.5, 2.8 and 1.6 cm. The surface runoff resulting from this storm is
3.2 cm. The 𝜙 index value of the storm is GATE, 2004
a) 0.20 cm/h
b) 0.28 cm/h
c) 0.30 cm/h
d) 0.80 cm/h Solution: (c)

31
Q 4. The total observed runoff volume during a 4 h storm with a uniform intensity of 2.8 cm/h is 25.2 x 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒎𝟑 from
a basin of 280 𝒌𝒎𝟐 area. What is the average infiltration rate for the basin?

Solution: The average infiltration rate is also called 𝑊 − 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥. We know that IES ,2007

𝑃 − 𝑅 − 𝐼𝑎
𝑊=
𝑡𝑟
𝑆𝑜, 𝑃 = 2.8 × 10 × 4 = 112 𝑚𝑚

2.8 × 106 × 103

𝑅= = 90 𝑚𝑚
280 × 106
𝑡𝑟 = 4 ℎ
𝐼𝑎 = 0

112 − 90
𝑊= = 5.5 𝑚𝑚/h
4

32
Q 5. The average surface area of a reservoir in the month of June is 20 𝒌𝒎𝟐 . In the same month, the average rate of
inflow is 10 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔, outflow rate is 𝟏𝟓 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔, monthly rainfall is 𝟏𝟎 𝒄𝒎, monthly seepage loss is 1.8 cm and the
storage change is 16 million 𝒎𝟑 . The evaporation (in centimeter) in that month is
Solution: GATE,2015

∆𝑆 = 𝑄𝑡 + 𝑄𝑅 − 𝑄𝑜 − 𝑄𝑠 − 𝑄𝐸
16 × 106 = 10 × 86400 × 30 + 0.1 × 20 × 106 − 15 × 86400 × 30
− 1.8 × 10−2 × 20 × 106 − 𝑄𝐸

27320000
𝑄𝐸 = = 136.6 𝑐𝑚
20 × 106

33