MSE 1101

Electrical Properties of Materials &

Concept of Semiconductors
Lecture Topic 15
06 May, 2018
Electrical Conductivity
•
Electronic and Ionic Conduction
• An electric current results from the motion of electrically charged particles in
response to forces that act on them from an externally applied electric field.
• Positively charged particles are accelerated in the field direction, negatively
charged particles in the direction opposite.
• Within most solid materials a current arises from the flow of electrons, which is
termed electronic conduction.
• In addition, for ionic materials a net motion of charged ions is possible that
produces a current; such is termed ionic conduction.
• In all conductors, semiconductors, and many insulating materials, only electronic
conduction exists, and the magnitude of the conductivity is strongly dependent
on the number of electrons available to participate in the conduction process.
Energy Band Structures in Solids
• According to quantum mechanics, energies of electrons are quantized; that is,
electrons are permitted to have only specific values of energy.
• An electron may change energy, but in doing so it must make a quantum jump
either to an allowed higher energy or to a lower energy.
• These allowed electron energies as being associated with energy levels or states.
• Energy levels of electrons are arranged into shells and subshells. Shells are
designated by integers (1, 2, 3, etc.), and subshells by letters (s, p, d, and f).
• However, as the atoms come within close proximity of one another, electrons
are acted upon, by the electrons and nuclei of adjacent atoms. This influence is
such that each distinct atomic state may split into a series of closely spaced
electron states in the solid, to form what is termed an electron energy band.
Energy Band Structures in Solids
Atomic Model of Materials
the gap can be
crossed
the gap is smaller
only when
and can be
breakdown the conduction band
crossed
conditions occur and valence band
when a photon
is absorbed overlap, so there is no
gap

6
Semiconductivity
• There are some materials whose electrical conductivity is not as high
as that of the metals. The electrical properties of these materials are
extremely sensitive to the presence of even minute concentrations of
impurities.
Semiconductors can be:
• Intrinsic semiconductors, in which the electrical behavior is based
on the electronic structure inherent in the pure material.
• Extrinsic semiconductors, where electrical characteristics are
dictated by impurity atoms.
Intrinsic Semiconductors
• At 0 K, they have a completely filled valence
band, separated from an empty conduction
band by a relatively narrow forbidden band gap,
generally less than 2 eV.
• The two elemental semiconductors are silicon
(Si) and germanium (Ge); both are of group IVA.
• Some compounds also show intrinsic behavior.
Groups IIIA and VA, for example, GaAs and InSb;
these are frequently called III–V compounds.
• The compounds of Groups IIB and VIA also
display semiconducting behavior; these include
CdS and ZnTe.
Concept of a Hole
• An intrinsic (pure) silicon crystal at room temperature has sufficient heat energy
for some valence electrons to jump the gap from the valence band into the
conduction band, becoming free electron called ‘Conduction Electron’.
• It leaves a vacancy in valance band, called hole.
• Recombination occurs when a
conduction-band electron loses
energy and falls back into a hole
in the valence band.
Electron Hole Current
• In conduction band when a voltage is
applied across a piece of intrinsic silicon, the _ +
thermally generated free electrons in the
conduction band, are now easily attracted
V
toward the positive end.
• This movement of free electrons is one type of current in a semiconductive
material and is called electron current.
• In valance band holes are generated due to free electrons. Electrons in the
valance band are although still attached with atom and not free to move,
however they can move into nearby hole with a little change in energy, thus
leaving another hole where it came from. Effectively the hole has moved from
one place to another in the crystal structure. It is called hole current.
Electron Hole Current
Extrinsic Semiconductors
• Virtually all commercial semiconductors are extrinsic; i.e. the electrical behavior
is determined by impurities, even when present in minute concentrations,
introduce excess electrons or holes.
• For example, an impurity concentration of one atom in 1012 is sufficient to render
silicon extrinsic at room temperature.
• Adding impurities in materials like Si or Ge can drastically increase the
conductivity of material. The process is called doping.
• Extrinsic semiconductors can be classified as
• n-Type Extrinsic Semiconduction
• p-Type Extrinsic Semiconduction
n-Type Extrinsic
Semiconduction
An Si atom has 4 electrons. When an impurity
atom with a valence of 5 is added as a
substitutional impurity (e.g. P,As, & Sb), only 4
of 5 valence electrons of these impurity atoms
can participate in the bonding.
The extra nonbonding electron is loosely bound
to the region around the impurity atom by a
weak electrostatic attraction.
The binding energy of this electron is relatively
small and is easily removed from the impurity An antimony (Sb) impurity
atom is shown in the center.
atom, in which case it becomes a free or The extra electron from the Sb
conducting electron. atom becomes a free electron.
p-Type Extrinsic
Semiconduction
An opposite effect is produced by the addition
to silicon or germanium of trivalent
substitutional impurities such as aluminum,
boron, and gallium from Group IIIA of the
periodic table.
One of the covalent bonds around each of
these atoms is deficient in an electron; such a
deficiency may be viewed as a hole that is
weakly bound to the impurity atom.
Trivalent impurity atom in a
This hole may be liberated from the impurity silicon crystal structure. A boron
atom by the transfer of an electron from an (B) impurity atom is shown in
adjacent bond. the center.
End for Today