CHAPTER IV Foodborne Illnesses

In this chapter you will learn about the following foodborne illness, hazardous foods and
categories of food contamination so that you will know what to do if incase that your food is
contaminated or not.

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES:

After the completion of this chapter, the students shall achieve the following:

1. Determine the health hazards posed by biological, chemical and physical contaminants of
food and how microorganisms and chemical and physical hazards are acquired during food
handling
2. Demonstrate the correct ways in purchasing and receiving food and employ the
appropriate method of storing perishable, semi-perishable, and non-perishable food
3. Recognize the importance of the HACCP system as a food protection tool and the principle
involved in implementing an HHACCP system

LESSON 11: Sources of Food Safety Hazards

a.
Food Safety Hazards

There are four primary categories of food safety hazards to consider: biological, chemical,
physical, and allergenic. Understanding the risks associated with each can dramatically reduce
the potential of a foodborne illness. Each have their own unique characteristics, but all can be
avoided through a robust food safety management system (FSMS).
Biological Hazards

Biological hazards are characterized by the contamination of food by microorganisms. Found in

the air, food, water, animals, and in the human body, these incredibly tiny organisms are not
inherently unsafe – many provide benefits to our anatomy. Despite this, foodborne illness can
occur if harmful microorganisms make their way into the food we eat. There are several types of
microorganisms, each of which can negatively impact health: bacteria, viruses, and parasites.

Bacteria colonies on a petri dish

There are a variety of factors that influence

dangerous microorganism growth,
including temperature, pH levels, and
moisture of the food. The USDA has
coined a term for the temperature range
that encourages bacterial growth: the
Danger Zone. This temperature range, 40°
F – 140° F, enables bacteria to grow most
rapidly, nearly doubling its number in 20
minutes. In addition, the pH level of a food, or its acidity, can accelerate growth. Foods that are
less acidic, such as milk, tend to foster bacteria at higher rates than more acidic foods, like lemon
juice. Microbes prefer warmer, wetter environments, which make moist foods hotbeds for
microorganism growth.

Biological Hazard Examples

Biological
Commonly found in
Hazard

Eggs, poultry, meat, unpasteurized milk or juice, cheese, fruits and

Salmonella
vegetables, spices, and nuts

Norovirus Produce, shellfish, ready-to-eat foods

Raw and undercooked poultry, unpasteurized milk, contaminated

Campylobacter
water

Undercooked ground beef, unpasteurized milk or juice, raw milk

E. coli
cheeses, raw fruits and vegetables, contaminated water
 Ready-to-eat deli meats and hot dogs, unpasteurized milk or juice, raw
Listeria
milk cheeses

Clostridium
Beef, poultry, gravies
perfringens

Biological Hazard Prevention

The best way to prevent biological hazards from affecting customers is to implement robust
processing and storage strategies. Kill steps used prior to packaging is necessary, such as cooking
thoroughly or pasteurization of milk and juices. Use of packaging technologies during processing
like vacuum sealing hinders bacterial growth. Proper temperature management for storage
can dramatically reduce microbe growth. Finally, effective sanitation practices throughout the
distribution chain will reduce cross-contamination of food products.

Chemical Hazards

Chemical hazards are identified by the presence of harmful substances that can be found in food
naturally, or unintentionally added during processing. Some chemical hazards include naturally
occurring chemicals, such as mycotoxins, intentionally added chemicals, including the
preservative sodium nitrate, and unintentionally added chemicals, like pesticides

Tractor spraying pesticide, which can inadvertently

find its way into the food we consume

Chemical Hazards Examples

Chemical Hazard Examples

Produced by fungi and can be toxic to humans and animals. They

Mycotoxins are formed by moulds which grow on crops and foods under
certain conditions.

Biochemical compounds produced by plants in response to

Natural Toxins
certain conditions or stressors.
 Decomposition or microscopic marine algae accumulated in fish
Marine Toxins
and shellfish.

Environmental Accidentally or deliberately enter the environment. Typically

Contaminants manufactured for industrial use.

Any chemical substance that is added to food during preparation

Food Additives
or storage.

Undesirable chemicals can be formed in certain foods during

Processing-induced
processing as a result of reactions between compounds that are
Chemicals
natural components of the food.

Pesticides/Agricultural Used to control, destroy, or repel a pest, or to mitigate the effects

Products of a pest.

Used in food-producing animals to control and/or prevent illness

Veterinary Drug Residues
in the animal.

Chemical Hazards Prevention

Similar to preventing biological hazards, proper cleaning procedures and sanitation requirements
are the best methods of prevention. Training employees to follow strict guidelines is essential in
preventing a chemical hazard. Additionally, limiting the use of chemicals to those generally
recognized as safe (GRAS), and ensuring that chemicals are stored in designated areas
separated from food products.

Physical Hazards

Physical hazards are foreign objects that are found in food products. They are either naturally
found in the specific item, such as stems in fruit, or not normally part of the food item, such as
hair or plastic. Unnatural physical hazards are generally more dangerous to health, whereas
natural physical hazards can be harmless.

Recently, sewing needles were maliciously inserted in

strawberries throughout Australia
Physical Hazards Examples
Physical
Examples
Hazard

Unnatural Insects, hair, metal fragments, pieces of plastic, wood chips, and glass

Stems in blueberries, microscopic airborne debris, dirt on potatoes, or

Natural
minute insect fragments in figs

Physical Hazards Prevention

Prevention of physical hazards focus primarily on thorough inspection of food, and strict
adherence to food safety regulations, such as Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP)
discussed below. Organizations can also take proactive steps in eliminating the potential of a
physical hazard. Light bulbs, for instance, can be manufactured using different materials. Acrylic
is both lighter and stronger than glass, and tends to shatter into larger, blunter fragments than
glass.

Allergenic Hazards

The final, and perhaps the most deadly, are allergenic hazards. Allergies are the 6th leading
cause of chronic illness in the U.S., with more than 50 million people suffering from allergies
each year. Allergic reactions occur when the human body produces an abnormal immune
response to specific proteins found in food.

Source: https://www.owensborohealth.org/services/community-wellness--
education/nutrition-weight-management-/food-allergies/
Allergenic Hazards
Allergenic
Commonly found in
Hazard

Milk Butter, cheese, cream, milk powders, and yogurt

Cakes, some meat products, mayonnaise, mousse, pasta, quiche, sauces,

Eggs
and foods brushed with egg

Breads, biscuits, crackers, desserts, ice cream, marzipan, nut oils, sauces,
Nuts
and curries or stir fries

Soy Desserts, ice cream, sauces, and vegetarian products

Baking powders, batter, breadcrumbs, brea, cakes, couscous, pasta,

Wheat
pastries, sauces, soups, and foods dusted with flour

Fish sauces, pizzas, relishes, salad dressings, stock cubes, and

Fish
Worcestershire sauce

Shellfish Shrimp paste, and curries or salads

Prevention

Unfortunately there is no way to prevent allergies, but it is possible to reduce the risk of an allergic
reaction. So long as companies embrace proper sanitation techniques and present potential
allergenic ingredients obviously on product packaging, allergic reactions will be minimized.
Preventing an allergic reaction falls primarily on the consumer, but they can only do so effectively
if businesses do their part with effective sanitation and labeling of ingredients.

Regulations and Laws

Regulatory bodies including the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the United States
Department of Agriculture (USDA) have implemented laws that help minimize food safety risk and
ensure safer food safety practices. In doing so, food safety practices have become significantly
more robust and effective.

Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP)

HACCP, implemented in 1997, changed food safety methodology to be science-based as opposed

to conventional “sight, smell, and touch” inspection. HACCP’s core principles provides a means to
analyze biological, chemical, and physical hazards along the supply chain. This prevents outbreaks
before they can occur rather than responding to them after the fact, and helped to accelerate
technology used to manage food safety. Foodborne illnesses reduced dramatically as a result of
HACCP.

Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA)

Similar to HACCP, FSMA has enabled additional methods of preventing food contamination. The
Sanitary Transportation of Human and Animal Food has three methods of preventing foodborne
illness: vehicles and transportation operations must validate temperatures in transit, staff must
be trained properly to prevent practices that create food safety risk, and new record keeping
requirements created efficient mechanisms to demonstrate proper temperature control. Through
proactive management of food safety, distributors are better equipped to prevent foodborne
illness.

LESSON 12: General Categories of Contamination

a.

b. important to understand what the potential hazards are when it comes to food, especially if
It's
you are preparing or serving food for someone else. When you know how food can become
contaminated, you can take steps to prevent it.

Food-borne illness and its business-destroying cousin, a food-borne illness outbreak, are caused
by food contamination. Food contamination refers to when something gets into food that
shouldn't be there, thereby making the food unsafe to eat.

While there are many food safety hazards that can cause food contamination, most fall into one
of three categories: biological, physical or chemical contamination. In many cases, a single hazard
can introduce more than one type of contamination to food.

Types of food contamination

BIOLOGICAL CONTAMINATION

Biological contamination occurs when food becomes contaminated by living organisms or the
substances they produce. This includes biological matter produced by humans, rodents, insects
and microorganisms. Biological contamination is the leading cause of food-borne illness and
food poisoning*, and a common cause of food spoilage and food waste. There are six types of
microorganisms that can cause food-borne illness: bacteria, viruses, parasites, protozoa, fungi
and prions.
Most food-borne illnesses in Canada are caused by bacteria or viruses, with the most common
being:

▪ Norovirus

▪ Listeria

▪ Salmonella

▪ E. coli

▪ Campylobacter

Food-borne illness occurs when disease-causing microorganisms, also called pathogens, get into
food and multiply to unsafe levels before being eaten. This can happen remarkably quickly; in
conditions ideal for bacterial growth, one single-cell bacteria can become two million in just seven
hours.

Bacteria and other pathogens thrive in foods that are:

▪ moist

▪ high in protein or starch

▪ neutral in acidity

Foods that meet these criteria are called potentially hazardous or high-risk foods. All high-risk
foods are teeming with pathogens and other bacteria; it is your responsibility to stop bacteria
from multiplying to unsafe levels and, where possible, to destroy them via the cooking process.

To slow down the growth of bacteria and prevent food safety risks, you need to follow food safety
best practices designed to control bacterial growth through proper food handling techniques,
rigorous cleaning and sanitizing procedures and time and temperature control of food.

Food poisoning occurs when specific toxins are consumed, such as those produced by Salmonella,
Staphylococcus or Listeria; microbial toxins are extremely potent toxins that can disable the
immune system and damage tissues if they are consumed. Many microbial toxins are heat-
resistant, so even if bacteria are destroyed in the cooking process, the toxins remain in the food
and can cause violent, almost-instantaneous symptoms.

To minimize the risk of biological food contamination occurring in your food business, always:
▪ keep high-risk foods (e.g. meat, poultry, dairy, eggs) out of the Temperature Danger
Zone**

▪ purchase, store, thaw, prepare, cook and serve high-risk foods properly

▪ regularly clean and sanitize all food contact surfaces and equipment

▪ maintain good overall hygiene and sanitation of the premises

▪ maintain high standards of personal hygiene (and ensure all employees do the same)

*The terms “food-borne illness” and “food poisoning” differ slightly in meaning but are often used
interchangeably to describe any food-related illness caused by microorganisms or their
byproducts.

**In Manitoba, the Temperature Danger Zone is 5°C – 60°C (41°F – 140°F). In all other provinces
and territories in Canada, it is 4°C – 60°C (40°F – 140°F).

PHYSICAL CONTAMINATION

Physical contamination occurs when a physical object enters food at some stage of the production
or preparation process. Physical objects in food can be a choking hazard and often introduce
biological contaminants as well. Even if the object is not likely to injure your customer, finding an
object in their food can be very distressing for a customer (who knows that harmful
microorganisms on the object could make them ill).

Common examples of physical contaminants in food businesses include:

▪ hair

▪ fingernails

▪ bandages

▪ jewellery

▪ broken glass, staples

▪ plastic wrap/packaging

▪ dirt from unwashed fruit and vegetables

▪ pests/pest droppings/rodent hair

To minimize the risk of physical food contamination occurring in your food business, always:
▪ wear hair neatly tied back or wear a hair/beard net

▪ keep jewellery to a minimum

▪ when necessary, wear brightly coloured bandages that can be easily seen if they fall off

▪ throw out and replace cracked, chipped or broken dishware, glassware and equipment

▪ use a plastic or metal scoop for ice (never use the glass!)

▪ wash fruits and vegetables thoroughly

▪ establish pest prevention and control procedures as part of your Food Safety Plan
CHEMICAL CONTAMINATION

Chemical contamination occurs when food comes into contact with or produces toxic chemicals,
which can lead to chemical food poisoning. Chemical contaminants fall into one of two categories:
natural and artificial.

Common chemical contaminants include:

▪ cleaning products (e.g. detergent, sanitizer)

▪ pesticides/herbicides

▪ toxic chemicals in metals and plastic

▪ preservatives

▪ naturally occurring toxins

Naturally occurring toxins are toxic compounds that are produced by living organisms, some of
which are staples of the human diet (e.g. shellfish, potatoes, fish). These toxins are not harmful
to the organisms themselves but can be harmful to us if we eat them.

Minimal contamination with natural toxins might not lead to illness, but Food Handlers should be
aware of which foods produce toxins and take all reasonable precautions to ensure that food is
safe for consumption. Potatoes, for example, produce glycoalkaloids that are toxic to humans.
The majority of these toxins are contained in or just under the peel, and in any eyes or sprouts
on the potato. Green skin can indicate the presence of toxins, so be sure to remove any eyes,
sprouts or green skin if you decide to use potatoes that have greened or sprouted.
There are many ways that food can become contaminated by artificial/synthetic chemicals in a
commercial kitchen. Food Handlers can accidentally cause chemical contamination if they:

▪ don't store cleaning products and other chemicals properly

▪ use too much detergent or sanitizer to clean food preparation surfaces, glassware, dishes
or cutlery (follow the manufacturer's instructions!)

▪ don't rinse surfaces, glassware, dishes or cutlery properly after cleaning and sanitizing (if
applicable)

▪ don't properly wash fruits and vegetables to remove pesticides

▪ use kitchen equipment or containers made from materials that are not suitable for food or
not designed to be reused (use only food-grade plastic and metals)

▪ use pest control products (e.g. spray, poisonous bait) improperly

To minimize the risk of chemical contamination occurring in your food business, always:

▪ label and store chemicals separately from food

▪ use the appropriate chemical for the job you're doing

▪ follow the chemical manufacturer's instructions with regards to dilution, contact time and
water temperature

▪ use chemical pest control products with extreme care or outsource pest eradication to a
professional pest control service
CROSS-CONTAMINATION

Cross-contamination is the accidental transfer of contaminants from one surface or substance to

another, usually as a result of improper handling procedures. In a food setting, the term refers
to the transfer of contaminants from a surface, object or person to food. Cross-contamination
usually refers to biological contamination but can also be physical or chemical.

Cross-contamination in a food business often occurs as a result of:

▪ Food Handlers (e.g. microorganisms from sweat, sneezing/coughing, hands, hair, clothing)

▪ improper food handling techniques (e.g. reusing cutting boards or utensils for raw and
cooked food or for different types of food)
▪ improper cleaning and sanitizing (e.g. not properly rinsing cleaning chemicals from
preparation surfaces, dishware, glassware or equipment)

▪ improper food storage (e.g. storing raw meat on shelves above ready-to-eat food)

▪ improper waste disposal (e.g. allowing garbage containers to overflow)

▪ pests

Cross-contamination can also pose a risk to customers with food allergies, as trace amounts of
an allergen can be transferred in the same way that microorganisms can. Even trace amounts of
an allergen can cause a serious allergic reaction — in some cases, a lethal reaction. As a food
business owner, manager or employee, it is your responsibility to serve customers a safe meal,
including customers with food allergies.

To minimize the risk of cross-contamination occurring in your food business, always:

▪ move around the business in accordance with the Food Safety Plan (e.g. change soiled
kitchen clothing before moving from raw food to ready-to-eat prep stations)

▪ cover and store raw food on shelves below cooked or ready-to-eat food in the refrigerator

▪ use separate equipment or utensils to prepare raw and cooked foods

▪ use separate equipment or utensils to prepare different types of foods

▪ prepare allergen-free meals separately

▪ establish allergen management procedures as part of your Food Safety Plan

▪ maintain high standards of personal hygiene

▪ wash hands frequently using the correct hand washing technique

▪ handle and dispose of food scraps and waste properly (e.g. ensure garbage containers are
sealed and stored away from food)

Pests deserve a special mention in this regard, as they are notorious sources of cross-
contamination in food businesses. Rodents, flies and cockroaches carry untold numbers of
disease-causing bacteria and other pathogens on their bodies, in their droppings and in urine and
saliva, including Salmonella, E. coli and Listeria.

As such, pest prevention and control is vitally important in the workplace. Download the CIFS
Guide to Pest Prevention and Control to find out more about the risks that common pests
pose to a food business, how to prevent pests from entering your business and what to do if they
get in.

LESSON 13: Potentially Hazardous Foods (PHF)

b.
Potentially Hazardous Foods (PHF)
c.
Some types of foods have the ability to support the rapid and progressive growth of infectious
and toxin-producing microorganisms These foods are called "potentially hazardous." Potentially
hazardous foods (PHF) are usually high in protein or carbohydrates and have a pH above 4.6 and
a water activity above 0.85. KEY CONCEPT

Common examples of potentially hazardous foods are red meats, poultry and raw shell eggs, fish
and shellfish, and dairy products (Figure 2.15). Other potentially hazardous foods are vegetables
such as cooked rice or potatoes, refried beans, and fruits such as cut cantaloupe.

The FDA Food Code classifies the following as potentially hazardous foods:

Foods of animal origin that are raw or heat-treated

Foods of plant origin that are heat-treated or consist of raw seed sprouts

Cut melons

Garlic and oil mixtures that growth of microorganisms.

Potentially hazardous foods always require special handling. If these foods are held at
temperatures between 41°F (5°C) and 140°F (60°C) for four hours or more, harmful
microorganisms can grow to dangerous levels. Potentially hazardous foods have been associated
with most foodborne disease outbreaks. It is critical that you control the handling and storage of
potentially hazardous foods to prevent bacterial growth.

LESSON 14: Symptoms of Foodborne Illnesses

WHAT IS FOODBORNE ILLNESS?

Foodborne illness is a common, costly, sometimes life threatening—yet largely preventable—

c.
public health problem.
d.
HOW IS IT CAUSED?

Many outbreaks and individual cases of foodborne illness result from consuming the two most
common types of foodborne pathogens: l Bacteria, like Salmonella, Listeria, or E. coli l Viruses,
such as norovirus or hepatitis A
WHAT ARE THE SYMPTOMS?

Symptoms range from relatively mild discomfort to very serious, life-threatening illness.

WHO IS AT RISK?

Anyone can get a foodborne illness. But, some people have a higher risk, such as pregnant
women, young children, older people, and those with weak immune systems.

Common Foodborne Disease Causes

E. COLI Escherichia coli is a major bacteria species and can live in human intestines. Some E.
coli species do not cause disease. But, there are other types of E. coli that can cause severe
illness.

E. coli can enter your body through contaminated food or water, and is often involved in major
foodborne outbreaks around the world.

Protect yourself and others—Avoid illness from E. coli by practicing safe food handling, cooking
meats thoroughly and avoiding unpasteurized—raw—milk and unpasteurized juices such as fresh
apple cider.

NOROVIRUS

In the US, norovirus is the most common cause of illness from contaminated food or water—but
food isn’t the only way people can get norovirus. It also spreads easily from person-to-person.

Symptoms usually start within 1 or 2 days of eating the contaminated food, but may begin in as
few as 12 hours. Projectile vomiting is often the first symptom, along with diarrhea and cramps.
Headache, mild fever, and muscle aches may also occur. Protect yourself and others—To avoid
norovirus, practice safe food handling and good handwashing.

SALMONELLA

Salmonella causes two kinds of illness: (1) Salmonellosis—usually characterized by nausea,

vomiting, diarrhea, cramps, and fever, with symptoms generally lasting a couple of days and
tapering off within a week. l Many kinds of food can become contaminated, from meats and eggs
to fruits and vegetables, spices and nuts.

(2) Enteric fever—high fever, diarrhea or constipation, aches, headache, and drowsiness. l Enteric
fever includes typhoid fever and paratyphoid fever. l The vast majority of enteric fever infections
occur in travelers who were infected outside of the US. l Up to 10% of people with enteric fever
who don’t get treatment may die. l Enteric fever usually is associated with sewage-contaminated
drinking water. Protect yourself and others—Cooking foods thoroughly, good handwashing,
keeping raw foods separated from cooked foods, and keeping foods at correct temperatures are
good ways to avoid salmonella. Get vaccinated against typhoid fever if you are traveling to an
area of the world with typhoid fever.
CAMPYLOBACTER

Campylobacter is a species of bacteria that is one of the most common causes of foodborne illness
in the US. Most cases of foodborne illness caused by Campylobacter are sporadic, and not part
of outbreaks. Campylobacter can enter your body through contaminated water, unpasteurized
milk or cheese, and raw or undercooked poultry (and sometimes other kinds of meats and
seafood). If an individual is infected, gastrointestinal symptoms—nausea, vomiting, diarrhea
(sometimes bloody), cramps—as well as a fever typically appear within 2 to 5 days and may last
up to 10 days. In some cases, Campylobacter may spread to the bloodstream and cause a life-
threatening infection. Protect yourself and others—To avoid Campylobacter, cook meat
(especially poultry) thoroughly, practice safe food handling and good handwashing, and avoid
raw or unpasteurized milk and cheese.

HEPATITIS A

Hepatitis A is an illness caused by the Hepatitis A virus. One way to become infected is by eating
or drinking contaminated food or water. Contaminated water, shellfish, and salads are the foods
most often linked to outbreaks, although other foods have also been involved. The illness is
usually mild. It starts about 2 to 4 weeks after the contaminated food or water is consumed and
resolves itself in 1 to 2 weeks. Symptoms may include fever, low appetite, nausea, vomiting,
diarrhea, muscle aches, and yellowing in the whites of the eyes and the skin. Protect yourself and
others—Good handwashing is a good way to avoid Hepatitis A.

LISTERIA

Although foodborne Listeriosis is not common, it is one of the leading causes of death from
foodborne illness. Listeria can cause two forms of disease in humans: (1) One can range from
mild to intense symptoms of nausea, vomiting, aches, fever, and, sometimes, diarrhea, and
usually resolves itself. (2) Invasive Listeriosis is a more deadly form that occurs when the infection
invades beyond the gut to sites like the blood or brain. This can cause blood infection,
meningitis—infection around the brain—and other potentially fatal problems. In pregnant women,
Listeria infection can cause miscarriage, stillbirth, preterm labor, and severe illness or death in
the newborn. Protect yourself and others—Good handwashing, keeping your refrigerator clean
and at 40⁰ F, separating raw foods from cooked foods, and avoiding unpasteurized—raw—milk
and cheese are good ways to stay away from Listeria.

LESSON 15: Risk Factors of Foodborne Illnesses

Did You Know? There are 48 million people in the United States who get foodborne illnesses each
year.
d. These illnesses result in an estimated 128,000 hospitalizations and 3,000 deaths.

e.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) have identified the top 5 factors
contributing to foodborne illnesses:

1. Poor Personal Hygiene

- Poor personal hygiene practices serve as the leading cause of foodborne illnesses. Food
establishments must promote a culture of food safety by developing an employee illness policy,
proper handwashing procedure, and a no barehand contact policy with ready to eat foods.

2. Improper Holding Temperatures

- Cold foods shall maintain ≤41°F and hot foods shall maintain ≥135°F. If foods stay in between
those temperatures for any period, ensure they are time and temperature controlled and
documented. Time and temperature control for safety (TCS) foods must be date marked and
stored no longer than 7 days. Remember, first day of preparation or when a food package is
opened, counts as day 1. When in doubt, throw it out!

3. Improper Cooking Temperatures

- The Food and Drug Administration has established minimum internal cooking temperatures for
foods to ensure pathogen counts are reduced to safe levels. Ensure metal stem thermometers
are conveniently stored and accessible for employees to monitor final cooking temperatures.

4. Food from Unsafe Sources

- All foods distributed in licensed food establishments must be obtained from approved sources
that comply with applicable laws and regulations. All food shall be inspected upon delivery to
ensure proper temperatures, it’s condition and overall sanitation.

5. Contaminated Equipment/Cross-Contamination

- Cross contamination can occur from a variety of sources, including chemical and raw foods. To
prevent the spread of harmful pathogens, all equipment and utensils shall be properly cleaned
and sanitized at least once every 4 hours. Ensure sanitizer solutions are monitored using their
appropriate test strips. Low sanitizer concentrations will fail in effectively removing pathogens
from surfaces, while high concentrations will leave a toxic residue.