Republic of the Philippines

Tarlac, Agricultural, University

Malacampa, Camiling, Tarlac

SWEET CORN PRODUCTION

Submitted by:

DOMINGO, LEMAR N

BSA-3B AGRONOMY

Submitted to:

Mrs. Edna Reyno

 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Corn is an important crop in the Philippines. Just like rice, it is also a staple for Filipinos
specifically those from the Southern Philippines. Data from the Bureau of Agricultural Statistics
reveal that the country is almost sufficient in corn at 99%. Our sufficiency ratio has gone up
over the years from 96% in 2001 to 99% in 2004-2005. However, if you look at the country’s
needs on a per corn variety basis, the country is deficient in yellow corn production. The
general varieties of corn planted are yellow and white corn. Yellow corn is the one used for
feeds. White corn is the variety preferred for food in the country although yellow is edible as
well.

The requirement for yellow corn for feeds is pegged at 3.414 MMT in 2005 while
production was at 3.01 MMT only. This places our self-sufficiency ratio for yellow corn at 88%.
Our demand for feeds is around 64% of the total demand for corn and only about 22% of supply
is consumed as food. Other uses of corn are for seeds (1%) and processing (13%). The
production doesn’t seem to match this demand for yellow corn. About 43% of the total corn
production is devoted to white while the rest is for yellow. In terms of production areas, 61% of
the total area for corn is devoted to white corn production and only 39% was devoted for
yellow corn production.

The corn sector is a vital industry. Addressing the needs of the corn sector would also
lead to benefiting its allied industries livestock and poultry sectors, etc. The competitive
advantage of local livestock and poultry in the domestic and export markets will depend on the
cost-efficiency of the domestic corn industry. Corn, on the other hand will have to contend with
cheaper imported corn and feed substitutes. Corn in terms of importance, remains second only
to rice. The sector received very little public investment compared to rice.

Standard sweet corn is a mutant type of corn that differs from field or dent corn by a
mutation at the sugary (su) locus. The sweet corn (su) mutation causes the endosperm (storage
area) of the seed to accumulate about two times more sugar than field corn. Today several
hundred sweet corn varieties are available. Recently, a number of new mutants have been used
to improve sweet corn eating quality, particularly the sugary enhanced (se) and shrunken-2 (sh2)
genes.

Sweet corn is the result of a naturally occurring recessive mutation in the genes which
control conversion of sugar to starch inside the endosperm of the corn kernel. Unlike field corn
varieties, which are harvested when the kernels are dry and mature (dent stage), sweet corn is
picked when immature (milk stage) and prepared and eaten as a vegetable, rather than a grain.
Since the process of maturation involves converting sugar to starch, sweet corn stores poorly
and must be eaten fresh, canned, or frozen, before the kernels become tough and starchy.

A major economic pest of corn in the Philippines is the Asian corn borer of the stem
borer complex. Measuring only 1/50 of an inch, parasitoids are the Asian corn borer's worst
enemy and the corn farmers' dearest ally in their war against Asia's most important corn pest.
Parasitoids kill by laying their eggs inside the pupa of the Asian corn borer. The hatched
newborns feed off the body, eventually killing the host or the borer. Yield reduction due to a
40–60 % corn borer infestation can reach as high as 27%. In 1986, BT corn, originally developed
to control the European corn borer, was proven to also confer a high level of resistance against
the Asian corn borer. BT stands for Bacillus thuringiensis, a bacteria that produces a powerful
insecticide. The gene traits of the bacteria have been integrated into the corn genes to resist
the corn borer. However, the introduction of BT in the Philippines has been controversial due to
environmental and consumer concerns.

The most common control strategies in corn production – sweet corn or ordinary variety
of corn, are the mechanical and biological control strategies.

Mechanical strategies in corn production involve weed control. Weed control is still one
of our most useful weed control tools. Both primary tillage and cultivation should be considered
for specific weed problems. Perennial broadleaf weeds are an increasing problem in no-till corn
production. In some cases, these weeds cannot be controlled without tillage to disrupt
underground perennial parts. The use of the moldboard plow is an effective method of control
and, for some weeds, represents the only practical method of control. The first step in an
effective weed control program is proper weed identification. Only by knowing the exact
identities and relative infestations of weeds on a field-by-field basis can the proper weed
control strategy be developed. Continued use of the same program, or use of reduced tillage
practices, can result in changes in weed infestations.

Biological control strategy in corn production involves the use of Trichogramma.

Trichogramma are among the smallest of insects, having a wingspread of about 1/50th of an
inch. Despite its size, it is an efficient destroyer of eggs of many moths and butterflies which are
the leaf-eaters in the larval stage. These parasitic insects disperse readily in their search for
over 200 species of eggs to parasitize. The Trichogramma seeks out eggs but does not feed on
or harm vegetation. It is effective tool because it kills its host before the plant can be damaged.
They can be used in a variety of crops as well as in horticultural and ornamental plants.
Trichogramma are used extensively in a variety of crops including cotton, corn, tomatoes,
avocados, walnuts, pecans, apples, alfalfa, etc. The cost is so low that it is feasible to purchase
them for massive releases.

The main purpose for the development of these control strategies is to provide effective
resistance/protection against pests. As stated above, one of the major pests that is dominant in
Philippine corn farms is the Asian corn borer. Studies have shown that yield losses due to corn
borer infestation could range from a low of 4.3% to a high of 30.9%. The damage was more
pronounced during the wet season. Farmers commonly apply insecticides to protect corn plants
against the Asian corn borer. But this practice has now become less appealing due to health and
environmental concerns. It is therefore expected that farmers will find other means wherein
they will lessen cost and, at the same time, increase yield.

Farmers adopt new technologies mainly to improve their financial performance in

farming. At the farm level, the reduction in pest damage translates to better yield and income
in corn farming. The experiences in many countries revealed that the resistance of corn plants
to the corn borer reduces pesticide application and damage to corn plants, thereby, increasing
yields. Concern about present levels of pesticide use has prompted many agriculturalists to
reevaluate current practices and policies. Water quality concerns and the trend to use fewer
inputs have renewed interest in mechanical weeding to reduce herbicide use and weed control
costs. This study aims to provide an accurate and appropriate assessment on the effects of the
mechanical and biological control strategies on sweet corn production in Davao City. Results of
this study would most likely help farmers assess whether or not to stick to these two current
control strategies.

OBJECTIVES

A. General Objective of the Study: This study generally aims to assess the effects of the
mechanical and biological control strategies in sweet corn production in Davao City.

B. Specific Objectives of the Study: This study has the following specific objectives.

1. To know what sweet corn is and to be able to differentiate it from other existing corn
varieties:

2. To be acquainted with the current status of sweet corn production in Davao City.

3. To be familiar with the pests that attack corn fields, to be able to distinguish these pests with
the corn borer, and consequently, to identify how the latter affect the quality and quantity of
sweet corn produced.

4. To identify the government agency tasked in remedying this pest problem and likewise
outline the present efforts of this agency vis-à-vis the problem.

5. To be on familiar terms with the mechanical strategies institutionalized to control the pests
that attack corn fields.

6. To determine what are the biological strategies institutionalized to control the pests that
attack corn fields; and
7. To establish how is the effectiveness of these a forementioned control strategies being
assessed.

OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS

Biological control strategies involve the use of Trichogramma. Trichogramma are among
the smallest of insects, having a wingspread of about 1/50th of an inch. Despite its size, it is an
efficient destroyer of eggs of many moth and butterflies which are the leaf-eaters in the larval
stage. These parasitic insects disperse readily in their search for over 200 species of eggs to
parasitize. The Trichogramma seeks out eggs but does not feed on or harm vegetation. It is
effective tool because it kills its host before the plant can be damaged. BT stands for Bacillus
thuringiensis, a bacteria that produces a powerful insecticide. The gene traits of the bacteria
have been integrated into the corn genes to resist the corn borer. The first commercial release
of BT corn in the Philippines was approved by the Department of Agriculture in 2002. An ex-
ante analysis also revealed a yield advantage of as much as 41% of BT corn over non-BT
varieties with profitability gains of 15–86%.

Sweet corn (Zea mays convar. saccharata var. rugosa It is also called Indian corn, sugar corn, and
pole corn) is a variety of maize with a high sugar content. Sweet corn is the result of a naturally
occurring recessive mutation in the genes which control conversion of sugar to starch inside the
endosperm of the corn kernel. Unlike field corn varieties, which are harvested when the kernels
are dry and mature (dent stage), sweet corn is picked when immature (milk stage) and
prepared and eaten as a vegetable, rather than a grain. Mechanical control strategies in corn
production involve weed control. The organic farmer has many options to reduce weed
problems such as crop rotation, intercropping, allelopathy, mulches, clean seed, cultivar
selection, and can also play around with seeding rate, seeding date, and row spacing to
minimize weed invasion. Despite all these tools, many will still have to rely on some form of
mechanical weed control. In crops such as soybean, corn, and small grains (wheat, barley, oats)
many organic farmers are turning towards two types of mechanical weeding equipment,
namely the rotary hoe and the finger-weeder (flex-tine harrow).
 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

PHILIPPINE CORN INDUSTRY

Data from the Bureau of Agricultural Statistics reveal that the country is almost
sufficient in corn at 99%. Our sufficiency ratio has gone up over the years from 96% in 2001 to
99% in 2004-2005. However, if you look at the country’s needs on a per corn variety basis, the
country is deficient in yellow corn production. The general varieties of corn planted are yellow
and white corn. Yellow corn is the one used for feeds. White corn is the variety preferred for
food in the country although yellow is edible as well. According to Mr. Jess Binamira, former DA
Corn Director, yellow corn is highly preferred in Mexico for food because of its yellow fat while
in the Philippines, it is preferred for feeds also for the yellow fat because it gives poultry and
hogs a good color.

The requirement for yellow corn for feeds is pegged at 3.414 MMT in 2005 while
production was at 3.01 MMT only. This places our self-sufficiency ratio for yellow corn at 88%.
Our demand for feeds is around 64% of the total demand for corn and only about 22% of supply
is consumed as food. Other uses of corn are for seeds (1%) and processing (13%). The
production doesn’t seem to match this demand for yellow corn. About 43% of the total corn
production is devoted to white while the rest is for yellow. In terms of production areas, 61% of
the total area for corn is devoted to white corn production and only 39% was devoted for
yellow corn production. Food use is only about 1.147 million metric tons while the white corn
production was 2.251 MMT leading to a surplus of about 1.1 million metric tons in 2005. In a
roundtable discussion on the corn industry, Director Binamira however failed to give a concrete
answer on where the surplus in white corn goes.
 The biggest corn producing provinces are Isabela and Bukidnon. Corn productivity over
the last 5 years is said to be low at an average of 1.98 tons per hectare. Farmers are largely
using native Tinigib varieties and Open Pollinated Varieties (OPV) corn seeds. Over the last two
years, the yield per hectare has reached the 2 tons per hectare mark.

SWEET CORN

Field corn is produced primarily for animal feed and industrial uses such as ethanol,
cooking oil, etc. In contrast, sweet corn is produced for human consumption as either a fresh or
processed product. The specific time when sweet corn originated cannot be pin-pointed;
however, sweet corn was grown by the American Indian and first collected by European settlers
in the 1770's. The first variety, Papoon, was acquired from the Iroquois Indians in 1779.

Standard sweet corn is a mutant type of corn that differs from field or dent corn by a
mutation at the sugary (su) locus. The sweet corn (su) mutation causes the endosperm (storage
area) of the seed to accumulate about two times more sugar than field corn. Today several
hundred sweet corn varieties are available. Recently, a number of new mutants have been used
to improve sweet corn eating quality, particularly the sugary enhanced (se) and shrunken-2 (sh2)
genes.

These varieties, also called Everlasting Heritage (EH), are well-suited for local market
production because they contain more sugars than the normal (su) sweet corn and therefore
will remain sweet about two to four days after harvest if refrigerated. The se varieties can be
grown in the same manner as su corn. Sugary enhanced hybrids and normal sweet corn
varieties do not require isolation from each other. The shrunken 2 (sh2) sweet corn, also called
super sweet, has two main advantages over the other types: 1) it is at least two to three times
sweeter, and 2) the conversion of sugar to starch is negligible, thus this corn type will remain
sweet up to 10 days after harvest if cooled properly, then refrigerated. Because of these
advantages, sh2 varieties exclusively should be grown for sales to distant markets. The demand
for sh2 corn is increasing at local markets, also. The sh2 sweet corns must be isolated at least
300 ft from all corn types, otherwise the corn will be starchy if cross pollinated. Besides
isolation, cross pollination can be prevented by varying planting dates or selecting varieties
such that the pollination stage (silking date) does not coincide among corn types. For varieties
requiring similar time for development, planting dates for each variety must be more spread
apart early than later in the growing season to avoid cross pollination. This is because
temperatures are cooler (less heat unit accumulation) in the early versus late spring plantings.

INNOVATIONS AND CHALLENGES AGAINST THE CORN INDUSTRY

Since many of the corn farmers are subsistence in nature, addressing their issues would
help improve their lot. Their production issues are also not very different from rice and other
crops. Their yield per hectare is relatively low according to Mr. Butch Umengan of the National
Corn Competitiveness Board. Almost all of the corn farms are rainfed. Obviously, the yellow
corn production has to be increased.

Corn quality needs to be improved also. According to PAFMI, they prefer imported corn
than locally grown corn. The imported corn normally meets the 14 percent moisture content
requirement that would prevent the formation of cancer-causing aflatoxin. The productivity
issue also brings to fore the contentious issue of the use of BT corn. The commercialization of
BT corn is still allowed although the Department of Agriculture has not pursued it with the
same vigor as during the time of Sec. Cito Lorenzo. This implies that the BT corn issue will
remain, and this is something that organizations, like R1, that are opposed to genetic
engineering of life forms, such as crops should think about as it tries to develop further its
campaign and analysis on GMOs.

BT CORN and ITS EFFECT

A major economic pest of corn in the Philippines is the Asian corn borer of the stem
borer complex. Yield reduction due to a 40–60 % corn borer infestation can reach as high as
27% (Logroño 1998). In 1986, BT corn, originally developed to control the European corn borer,
was proven to also confer a high level of resistance against the Asian corn borer (Fernandez et
al. 1997). BT stands for Bacillus thuringiensis, a bacteria that produces a powerful insecticide.
The gene traits of the bacteria have been integrated into the corn genes to resist the corn borer.
 However, the introduction of Bt in the Philippines has been controversial due to
environmental and consumer concerns. The first commercial release of BT corn in the
Philippines was approved by the Department of Agriculture in 2002. An ex-ante analysis also
revealed a yield advantage of as much as 41% of BT corn over non-BT varieties with profitability
gains of 15–86% (Gonzales 2002). While initial studies indicated the strong potentials of BT corn
in the Philippines under controlled conditions, yield, costs, resource use and profitability may
significantly vary from experimental results under farmers’ fields and management.

The commercial introduction of BT corn in the domestic market presents considerable

options to farmers in improving their financial performance by lowering cost of production and
increasing yields. The experiences in many countries revealed that the resistance of corn plants
to the corn borer reduces pesticide application and damage to corn plants, thereby, increasing
yields.

In 2002, the Philippines approved BT corn Mon 810. This gene is incorporated into the
different commercial local corn varieties of Monsanto Philippines and Pioneer Hi-bred
Philippines. Locally, the Monsanto Bt corn hybrids are known as Dekalb(DK) 818YG, DK9161YG,
and DK9051YG. On the other hand, the local Bt corn hybrid varieties of Pioneer Hi-bred
Philippines are sold as 30Y84, 30Y50, 30Y80, 30Y73, and 30Y34.

In 2005, another Bt corn-event Bt 11 of Syngenta Philippines was approved for planting.

The biotech crop products of Syngenta Philippines are marketed under the Agrisure trade name.
For the approved Bt 11, its commercial variety is sold as NK 5447Bt. Also in 2005, Corn NK 603
was approved for commercial use. It introduced the EPSPS gene into the chromosome of the
corn plant. Designed as a weed control option, this corn type which is developed by Monsanto
Phils. is known as RR corn or Roundup Ready Corn. It is sold as DK818RRC2.

The approval of stacked-trait corn-Bt corn Mon810/NK 603 makes it the fourth event to
be given the go signal by the Philippine government. The commercial technology
demonstration of the corn hybrid varieties bearing the dual traits will start in 2005 dry season
planting.
 Adding to the menu of agri-technology choices available to farmers, the Philippines'
Bureau of Plant Industry recently approved a new corn variety for planting. So called "stacked-
trait corn," the plant bears two introduced genes in its genetic make-up. The first one called Bt
gene (cry1ab) comes from a common soil bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis. This makes protein
that enables the corn plant to resist the attacks of Asiatic corn borer, a dreaded insect pest that
can cause as much as 80% yield reduction.

EXISTING CORN PEST CONTROL STRATEGIES

The most common control strategies in corn production – sweet corn or ordinary variety
of corn, are the mechanical and biological control strategies. Mechanical strategies in corn
production involve weed control. Weed control is still one of our most useful weed control
tools. Both primary tillage and cultivation should be considered for specific weed problems.
Perennial broadleaf weeds are an increasing problem in no-till corn production. In some cases,
these weeds cannot be controlled without tillage to disrupt underground perennial parts. The
use of the moldboard plow is an effective method of control and, for some weeds, represents
the only practical method of control. The first step in an effective weed control program is
proper weed identification. Only by knowing the exact identities and relative infestations of
weeds on a field-by-field basis can the proper weed control strategy be developed. Continued
use of the same program, or use of reduced tillage practices, can result in changes in weed
infestations.

Biological control strategy in corn production involves the use of Trichogramma.

Trichogramma are among the smallest of insects, having a wingspread of about 1/50th of an
inch. Despite its size, it is an efficient destroyer of eggs of many moths and butterflies which are
the leaf-eaters in the larval stage. These parasitic insects disperse readily in their search for
over 200 species of eggs to parasitize. The Trichogramma seeks out eggs but does not feed on
or harm vegetation. It is effective tool because it kills its host before the plant can be damaged.
They can be used in a variety of crops as well as in horticultural and ornamental plants.
Trichogramma are used extensively in a variety of crops including cotton, corn, tomatoes,
avocados, walnuts, pecans, apples, alfalfa, etc. The cost is so low that it is feasible to purchase
them for massive releases.

TRICHOGRAMMA

Measuring only 1/50 of an inch, parasitoids are the Asian corn borer's worst enemy and
the corn farmers' dearest ally in their war against Asia's most important corn pest. Parasitoids
kill by laying their eggs inside the pupa of the Asian corn borer. The hatched newborns feed off
the body, eventually killing the host or the borer. It is reported that T. cnaphalocrocis showed
the highest potential in controlling the corn borers since it was the most abundant and most
capable of parasitizing the borers in the field.

T. cnaphalocrocis parasitizes the pupa of the borers for at least 40 days starting as early
as the silk stage until the corn plant is already mature. Parasitized pupa can be distinguished
from the unparasitized pupa as smaller, rigid and darker in color. The parasitoids emerge from
the parasitized corn borer pupa 1 to 5 days after the pupal period (5 to 8 days) of the corn
borers.

The male would scratch the female's ovipositor and crawl on the dorsal part of the
abdomen touching the body of the female. Afterwards, the male would pin down the female by
gripping the female's abdomen with its legs. The female becomes still while the male continues
to scratch the female's body after which the male attaches its claspers into the serrated rear of
the female's ovipositor. When this is done, the mating pair turns away from each other while
still attached at their rear ends. This position enables the pair to fly even during copulation. The
scientists reported that T. cnaphalocrosis usually mate from 8 am to 5 pm for 3-4 hours.

The T. cnaphalocrocis female lay its eggs on corn borer larvae that are found outside the
corn stalks. Adult parasitoids emerge from the pupa and the third, fourth, and fifth instar larvae.
The scientists reported that percent parasitization could range from 60 to 86%. This means that
before corn borer larvae (3rd or 4th instar) move into the corn stalks, they already harbor the
parasitoids. It was also found that the female parasitoid prefers to lay its eggs on older than
younger larvae since adult parasitoids only emerge from the older larvae.
 Among the three larval-pupal parasitoids, T. cnaphalocrocis showed the most promise
as an effective biological control agent against the Asian corn borer. It has the potential, for
commercialization and mass rearing. The scientists are optimistic that if this potential is tapped,
T. cnaphalocrocis can be used to control Asian corn borer at the whorl stage of the corn plant.
 CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

Research Design

The process of inquiry used for this evaluation study is the descriptive correlational
design research. This design involved the collection of data to answer questions on the current
status of the subject under study, and to describe in both qualitative and quantitative terms the
degree to which the factors are related and determines whether and to what degree a
relationship exist between two or more variables.

In this study, data will be collected to determine whether and to what degree the
independent variables, such as the mechanical control strategies and biological control
strategies, are associated with the dependent variable --- quality and quantity of sweet corn
yield.

The process of inquiry used for this evaluation study is primarily participatory and
qualitative. A qualitative approach was chosen because the focus of the evaluation is to capture
the changes in the yields of the respondents. According to Merriam (1998; cited in Cagasan,
2005), qualitative study design is appropriate when researchers are interested in insight,
discovery, and interpretation rather than hypothesis testing.

Participants of the study

The participants of this study will be the randomly selected sweet corn producers. A
separate total and sample population shall be identified for each control strategy. A sample
population of twenty percent (20%) of the total number of identified sweet corn producers per
district, using the mechanical control strategy shall be surveyed by the researcher using the
survey appended.
 Likewise, a separate sample population of twenty percent (20%) of the total number of
identified sweet corn producers per district, using the biological control strategy shall be
surveyed by the researcher using the survey appended.

Locale of the Study This study shall be conducted within the different districts of Davao
City wherein majority of the sweet corn producers reside, as reflected in the records of the
implementing agency. The following districts are as follows:

District 1 – Talomo

District 2 – Buhangin, Bunawan, Paquibato

District 3 – Baguio, Marilog, Toril, Tugbok, Calinan

Research Instrument

To gather information needed for the study, a survey questionnaire will be drafted for
the target respondents. This instrument will be tested to determine its validity and reliability
prior administration. Attached as an appendix of this paper is the sample survey questionnaire
that will be used.

Procedure of the Study

Problem identification is the first stage of this study. The variables are determined and
arranged to formulate the Research Paradigm. Upon determination of the conceptual
framework, the survey questionnaire is drafted and tested for validity and propriety.

Statistical Treatment of Data

The following statistical tools will be used in the analysis and interpretation of data.

1.Descriptive statistics such as frequency counts and weighted mean to describe the
status of the mechanical control strategy, biological control strategy, and the quantity
and quality of sweet corn yield in Davao City.
2.Pearson Product Moment Correlation will also be used to find out whether a
significant relationship exists between the independent and dependent variables of the
study.

3.Multiple Regression Analysis will likewise be utilized to determine which of the

independent variables significantly influence the quantity and quality of sweet corn
yield in Davao City.
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