螢幕截圖 2021-11-26 下午12.40.57

Managing river and coastal environments
Senior Secondary Exploring Geography (Third Edition) Comprehensive worksheets

Part 2 Managing river and coastal environments
A continuing challenge
2.1 Where does water come from and go to? What is a

drainage basin?
Focus of this unit:
Water cycle Drainage basin
A What is the water cycle? Textbook pp. 4 6
1 Refer to Figure 1.
Figure 1
a Name the three major stores where water on the earth is held.
i The atmosphere (as water vapour or tiny water droplets in clouds);
ii The ocean or sea
iii The land
in lakes/ponds, vegetation, snow and ice as surface store; and
in soils or rocks as subsurface store.
© Oxford University Press (China) Ltd 2019 2-1

b The continuous circulation of water between the three stores is the
water cycle .
c Processes A D show how water moves between the three stores. Name these processes.
A Evaporation : The sun heats the water and turns it into water vapour
B Transpiration : Water leaves the plants to the atmosphere as water vapour
C Condensation : Water vapour cools and condenses to form water droplets
D Precipitation : Water falls from clouds to the earth s surface as rain or snow
2 Figure 2 shows how water (rainwater) reaches a river.
Figure 2
a Refer to Figure 2. Complete the flow chart in Figure 3 on p. 3 to show how rainwater
reaches a river.
b The three types of run-off mentioned in Figure 3 require different amounts of time to reach
the river. Put 1 , 2 and 3 (1 is the fastest and 3 is the slowest) in the circles on Figure 3
to indicate the amount of time different types of run-off need to reach the river.

Rain falls
Interception (Vegetation store)
Stem flow Drip flow
Rainwater reaches
the ground
Flow as Overland flow 1

Surface store
(surface run-off)
Infiltration
Flow as Throughflow 2
Soil moisture store
(subsurface run-off)
Percolation
Flow as 3
Groundwater store Groundwater flow
(subsurface run-off)
Rainwater reaches the river directly River flows as channel flow

(surface run-off)
Store of water
Transfer
Figure 3

c Different factors may affect the amount of overland flow. Complete Figure 4 to show
how the factors affect overland flow.
Sparse vegetation cover Steep slope gradient High soil moisture Land surface with
low permeability
High intensity of rainfall

Overland flow ( / )
Infiltration
Infiltration
Throughflow ( / )
Percolation
Groundwater flow ( / )
Figure 4
d Vegetation affects the water cycle in different ways. Refer to Figure 5 to find out its
effects.
HKDSE MCQ 2012 Q11, 2014 Q17, 2017 Q17, 2018 Q13
More vegetation ( increases / decreases )

interception and transpiration
As vegetation intercepts water, less water reaches the earth s surface. Therefore, there is
( more / less ) surface run-off
Plant roots help infiltration. Therefore, more vegetation will lead to ( more / less )
infiltration. This ( increases / reduces ) overland flow and ( increases / reduces )
groundwater store
Figure 5

B What is a drainage basin? Textbook pp. 8 10
1 a What is a drainage basin?

It is the area drained by a main river and its tributaries .
b What is the area of a drainage basin called? Why?

The area of a drainage basin is called the catchment area. It is because
all precipitation falling on a drainage basin drains into the main river.
Figure 6 A drainage basin
c The drainage basin is bounded by an imaginary line (shown by a dotted line on Figure 6).
What is it called?
It is called a watershed .
d Tributaries are small streams flowing into the main river/stream. Mark the tributaries in
BLUE in the drainage basin bounded by a dotted line in Figure 6.
e Name features A to C in a drainage basin.
A Confluence C Mouth of the river
B Distributary

2 Stream order shows the hierarchy of a river network.
1st order stream 3rd order stream and so on.
2nd order stream
a On Figure 6, mark the first order streams with 1 , the second order streams with 2 and
so on in the drainage basin bounded by a watershed.
b What is the order of the drainage basin?
It is a third order basin.
3 Drainage density refers to the average total length of the stream channels that exists in a unit
area of a drainage basin. It can be found by using the formula shown below.
Total length of the channels in a drainage basin

Drainage density =
Total area of the drainage basin
Refer to Figure 6 on p. 5. Suppose the actual length of the channels in the drainage basin is
4.6 km and the total area of the drainage basin is 1.07 km2. Calculate the drainage density of
the drainage basin.
4.6 km ÷ 1.07 km2 = 4.3 km/km2

2.2 What are the major fluvial processes?
Focus of this unit:

Different river courses Fluvial processes: erosion, transportation
Factors affecting a river s energy and deposition
How a river s energy changes downstream How fluvial processes change downstream
A What are the different sections of a river s course? Textbook p. 15
1 A river is usually divided into three distinct sections, that is the
Upper Lower
Middle
(Credit: DaLiu/iStock.com) (Credit: Robertharding/

Alamy Stock Photo)
Figure 1 The three courses of a river

(Credit: Blickwinkel/Alamy Stock Photo)
2 Among the three courses, the relief of the
upper course is the steepest.

B What is the energy of a river? What affects it? Textbook pp. 16 19
HKDSE MCQ 2016 Q17; DBQ 2015 Q2ai, ii, bi
1 Discharge is the volume of river water passing a given cross-section of its channel within a
given period of time (m3 per second). Figure 2 shows the way to calculate river discharge.
Discharge (Q) (amount of water per second) =
Stream width (W) (m) Average depth (D) (m) River velocity (V) (m/sec)
Cross-sectional area (m2)
Figure 2
a Refer to the discharge formula. The two important factors that affect discharge are
cross-sectional area of a stream and river velocity .
b A river has ( small / large ) discharge when it flows fast in a wide and deep stream.
c River energy is positively related to discharge. The larger the discharge, the ( more / less)
the energy a river has.
d Suppose the stream flows at a velocity of 2 m/sec in a channel of 4 m wide and 1 m deep.
Calculate the discharge of the stream.
(4m 1m) 2 m/sec = 8 m3/sec

2 Figure 3 shows the factors affecting the energy of a river.
Amount of channel water

Affect Affects
Discharge Energy of a river
Speed of water flow
Figure 3
a What factors affect the amount of channel water? Complete Figure 4 to show the factors
causing more channel water.
A ( Low / High ) rainfall/more

snowmelt/low evaporation rate
Channel water
B ( Small / Large ) drainage basin
(more water can be gathered)
C Steep valley slope (less infiltration

and more overland flow)
D ( Low / High ) permeability of soils

and rocks (more overland flow)
E ( Sparse / Dense ) vegetation cover

(less interception and infiltration)
Figure 4
b How do river channel characteristics affect the speed of water flow? Complete Figure 5 on
p. 10.

Channel gradient: The ( gentler / steeper ) the gradient, the faster the speed of water flow
Speed of water flow
Channel friction:
Friction occurs when water contacts the river banks and bed. To overcome friction, energy is
needed. This resists the movement of water
Therefore, the smaller the friction, the ( faster / slower ) the speed of water flow
a Channel roughness
i Wetted perimeter is the perimeter of the river banks and bed which are in contact with
water. The longer the wetted perimeter, the greater the friction.
ii Find out the wetted perimeter of Channel A.
Channel A Wetted perimeter: Channel B Wetted perimeter:

24 m 27 m
iii Which channel, A or B, has a higher speed of water flow? Why?

Channel ( A / B ) has a higher speed of water flow. It is less rough and therefore has a
shorter wetted perimeter. Shorter wetted perimeter means
smaller friction and therefore a higher speed of water flow.
b Channel shape
Channel shape affects the length of the wetted perimeter, which in turn affects friction and
therefore the speed of water flow.
i Calculate the wetted perimeter of Channel D.
Channel C Channel D
Wetted Wetted perimeter:

perimeter: 15 m 22 m
ii Which channel, C or D, has a higher speed of water flow? Channel ( C / D )
Figure 5 (Diagrams not drawn in scale)
c Study Figures 3, 4 and 5 on pp. 9 10. A river has more energy when there is a ( large /
small ) amount of channel water and ( higher / lower ) speed of water flow.

C How does the energy of a river change downstream? Textbook p. 20
1 Complete Figure 6 to show how drainage basin and channel characteristics vary among
different river courses.
2 For factors that increase river energy at the upper or lower courses, mark + in the boxes. For
those that reduce river energy, mark in the boxes.
3 According to your
answers in
Question 2, which
river course has
little energy and
which one has
great energy? Fill
in the blanks in
the last row of
Figure 6.
River course
Drainage Elevation High and ( steep / gentle ) Medium Low and ( steep / gentle )
basin and
( High / Low ) speed of and ( High / Low ) speed
characteristic gradient
water flow + moderate of water flow
Catchment ( Large / Small ) Few Medium ( Large / Small ) More

area tributaries Small tributaries Large
amount of channel amount of channel
water water +
Channel Roughness Rough ( Large / Small ) Less rough Smooth ( Large /
characteristic
channel friction Small ) channel
+
friction
Shape Narrow V-shaped Can Wider Very wide Can hold a
hold a ( small / large ) V-shaped ( small / large ) amount of
amount of water water +
Overall energy
Little Medium Great
Figure 6

D How does a river erode the land? Textbook pp. 23 5 HKDSE MCQ 2012 Q13
1 What is fluvial erosion?
The process by which running water removes rocks and other mineral particles from the banks
and bed is known as fluvial erosion .
2 Fill in the blanks in Figure 7 to show the three directions of fluvial erosion in different river
courses.
Figure 7 A *river profile (long profile) and three directions of fluvial erosion
*A river profile or a long profile shows the changes in the height of a river course from its
source to its mouth
3 Label Figure 8 on p. 13 to show the four types of fluvial erosion.

Figure 8 Four types of fluvial erosion
4 Fluvial erosion can be affected by several factors:

a Erosive power of a river
i Characteristics of load
More load More rocks and pebbles for abrasion
Heavier and angular load Greater erosive power
ii Energy of a river
Speed of water flow: Faster water flow Greater erosive power
Amount of channel water: ( More / Less ) water (e.g. during heavy rainfall)
Greater erosive power
Slope gradient: Steeper gradient Faster water flow
Greater erosive power
iii Water quality: ( Pure / Acidic ) water speeds up solution
b Type of rock
Rocks with more cracks and more soluble minerals are easily eroded
c Human activities
i Deforestation: Less vegetation cover ( reduces / increases ) overland flow More
rocks and stones washed into rivers More tools for fluvial erosion
ii Urbanisation: Land surfaces covered with cement Reduces infiltration
More overland flow Increases river discharge Greater erosive power
iii Industrial, farming and other activities: Sewage causes water pollution Increases
acidity of river water Favours solution

E How does a river carry its load? Textbook pp. 25 6
1 What is fluvial transportation?

River carries its load when it moves downstream. The downstream movement
of load is known as fluvial transportation.
2 Refer to Figure 9. Complete the table below to show how a river carries its load.
Figure 9 How a river carries its load
Transportation process Type of load
A Solution Dissolved load (soluble minerals) Lightest
Suspended load (fine, light materials carried in

B Suspension
suspension, e.g. sand, silt, clay)
Bed load (small stones and pebbles that bounce
C Saltation
along the river bed)
Bed load (large and heavy boulders and rocks
D Traction Heaviest
that are rolled and dragged along the river bed)
3 Fluvial transportation is affected by two major factors listed below. Briefly explain how these
factors affect fluvial transportation with the hint given in brackets.
a Energy of a river (affect the amount and weight of load a river can carry)
The more the energy of a river, the larger amount of and heavier load it can carry.
b Size of load (affect the amount of river energy needed for transportation)
Large load needs a large amount of river energy to move (and vice versa).

4 Complete Figure 10 below to show the factors affecting the supply of load to a river.
High rate of fluvial erosion Less resistant rocks Hot and wet climate
Amount of eroded materials Amount of weathered materials

( / ) ( / )
Load supply to a river ( / )
Soil erosion ( / ) Absence of lakes to trap sediment
Surface run-off ( / ) Bare surface
Steep gradient Sparse vegetation
Figure 10
F How does a river deposit its load? Textbook pp. 26 7 HKDSE MCQ 2012 Q13
1 a What is fluvial deposition?

When a river loses energy, it drops its load. The load will be deposited on the river bed as
sediment . This process is known as fluvial deposition.
b Under what condition will fluvial deposition occur?
It occurs when a river loses its energy because the amount of channel water and the speed
of water flow ( / ).
c i The amount of channel water reduces when
water supply reduces, e.g. during drought
water leaves the basin, e.g. due to high evaporation rate
ii The speed of water flow reduces when
a river flows into a large body of water, e.g. sea
channel friction increases
channel gradient reduces
amount of load ( / ), as the river has to use more energy to carry a large amount
of load

2 a Refer to the figure below and complete the table that follows.
Near the mouth Further away from

the mouth
Size of load Largest Finest
Deposition time Earliest Latest

Reason (extent
of falling Slight drop Large drop
energy) of energy of energy
b What is sorting?
The way a river deposits its load according to the size of it is called the
sorting process.
G How do fluvial processes change downstream? Textbook pp. 27 30
1 Fluvial processes vary among different river courses due to the changes in river energy:
a Upper course: Little river energy
Main process Erosion Deposition

The energy is insufficient to
Vertical erosion/downcutting (hydraulic
move heavy boulders,
action, abrasion and attrition) is dominant
resulting in deposition
Headward erosion may occur at the Occurs whenever there is a
river source drop of river energy, e.g.
Lateral erosion is less significant after rainstorms
Transportation
Less significant because:
- much energy is used for erosion
- discharge is little to provide sufficient energy to move large rock fragment
During rainstorms, discharge increases. Large fragments are transported by
traction and saltation

b Middle course: Energy becomes greater as discharge increases

Main process
Erosion Transportation
Channel gradient reduces Larger load is transported by traction
Lateral and saltation
erosion becomes More load is being transported by
significant, especially at the suspension
outer bank of a river (river
Deposition
flow here is fast)
Occurs whenever there is a drop of river
Major type of erosion: energy, e.g. at the inner
abrasion bank of the river (river flow here is slow)
c Lower course: Greatest amount of energy among all courses, but the very gentle relief
affects the effect of great energy on erosion
Erosion Transportation
Load is mainly transported by ( traction /
Less significant, lateral
suspension )
erosion mainly takes place
at the outer Deposition Main process
bank of the river Occurs:
at the mouth and ( inner / outer ) banks of the
Gentle relief + small river
channel friction Little at the river bed during dry season
vertical erosion on the valley floor during flooding
2 Besides fluvial processes, channel and load characteristics also change downstream. Complete
the table below to show how these characteristics change downstream.
Gradient and Upper course Lower course

Gradient, elevation and
characteristic
elevation - channel roughness ( /

Channel
Roughness ) downstream
Width and Upper course Lower course Channel width and depth
depth - ( / ) downstream
Amount Amount of load ( / )

characteristic
Upper course Lower course
- downstream
Load
Size Upper course Lower course Size of load ( / )

- downstream

H What are the characteristics of a river, river energy and fluvial

processes at different river courses?
Table below shows the characteristics of a river, river energy and fluvial processes at the three
courses. HKDSE MCQ 2013 Q14, 2017 Q16, 2018 Q14; DBQ 2014 Q1aiii, 2015 Q2bii; Essay 2019 Q6
Upper course Middle course Lower course

Elevation High Moderate Low
Gradient Steep Less steep Gentle
A bit wider and
Width and depth Narrow and shallow Wide and deep
deeper
Channel characteristic
Roughness (bed and

Rough Less rough Smooth
banks)
Relatively straight,
Path with bends around Winding Big bends occur
obstacles
Narrow and deep More open and Wide V-shaped
V-shaped asymmetrical
V-shaped
Revision table
Shape
Amount Small Moderate Large

characteristic
Load
Size Large Medium Small/Fine
Mostly fine and

Shape Mostly angular Less angular
rounded
Stream order Low Medium High
Size of catchment area Small Medium Large
Amount of channel water Small Moderate Large
High (low when the
Speed of water flow Low Moderate
river enters the sea)
Discharge Small Larger Largest
Large (except at
Amount of energy and
Little Moderate lakes or river
erosive power
mouth)
Erosion (especially
Major fluvial process headward and Transportation Deposition
vertical erosion)

2.3 How do fluvial processes shape the land?
Focus of this unit:

Landforms/Features at the upper course Landforms/Features at the lower course
Landforms/Features at the middle course
A What landforms or features are formed at the upper course?

Textbook pp. 37 40 HKDSE MCQ 2012 Q12, 2018 Q15
1 Identify the landforms/features commonly found at the upper course shown in the photos
below.
Gorge Interlocking spurs V-shaped valley
Rapid Waterfall
a Interlocking spurs
b V-shaped valley
(Credit: William Perry/Dreamstime.com)
e Gorge
c Rapid
(Credit: Christian Bicke/
Wikimedia Commons )
d Waterfall

2 Complete the descriptions in Figure 1 to show the formation sequence of a V-shaped valley.
At the upper course, gradient is ( gentle /
Rocks on the steep valley sides are slowly
steep ). Much of the energy is spent cutting
broken down by weathering
downwards. Vertical erosion is
active
Abrasion ( type of
erosion) is active as load carried
by the river rubs against the bed
Loose rock materials fall down the slope

under gravity or washed
A ( narrow / wide ), steep-sided valley
down into the river by rainwater
that has the shape of a V is formed
Figure 1
3 Complete Figure 2 to show how interlocking spurs are formed.
River energy is ( small / great ) due to

small amount of channel water. River
is unable to cut through spurs on its
path. It is forced to zig-zag Spurs become
distinct and
from side to side around obstacles
interlock with
each other
Vertical erosion lowers

the river channel
Figure 2

4 Complete Figure 3 to show the formation of rapids.
When a river flows over bands of rocks

Steps develop. They
with different resistance, ( more / less )
break up the flow of the river
resistant rocks will be eroded quickly
Water flows faster at steep

gradient, and the large bed
load increases turbulence,
forming rapids
Less resistant rock Resistant rock
Figure 3
5 a Complete the sentences below to show the formation of a waterfall and a plunge pool.
River flows over bands of rocks with different resistance
The ( resistant / less resistant ) rock erodes more quickly, forming a step
Rapid erosion continues on ( resistant / less resistant ) rock, the step becomes (smaller /
larger )
River falls down, forming a waterfall

Falling water produces strong hydraulic action which undercuts the base, forming a
circular hollow called a plunge pool

b Refer to sentences in Question a, draw annotated diagrams and label the

incomplete ones in Figure 4 (you should write the numbers and sentences on the
diagrams) to show the formation of a waterfall and a plunge pool.
River flows over bands of

rocks with different The less resistant rock erodes
resistance more quickly, forming a step
Falling water produces strong

hydraulic action which undercuts
the base, forming a circular
hollow called a plunge pool Rapid erosion
continues on less
resistant rock, the
step becomes larger
River falls down,

forming a waterfall
Figure 4
6 a A gorge is a narrow, deep, steep-sided valley formed by

the retreat of a waterfall ; or
strong downcutting at the upper course where this process
proceeds faster than lateral erosion.
b Complete the descriptions in Figure 5 on p. 23 to show one of the formations of a gorge.

Strong hydraulic action undercuts less Continued undercutting enlarges

resistant rock at the back of the waterfall, the notch. The resistant rock above
forming a notch overhangs, loses support and
eventually collapses
Repeated collapse of
Narrow, deep and steep-sided
overhanging rocks causes the
valley (a gorge)
waterfall to retreat
upstream and form a gorge
Original position of the

waterfall
Figure 5
B What landforms or features are formed at the middle course?

1 a Figure 6 shows a river section at the middle course and a block diagram of a part of the
channel. Refer to the figure and complete the table on p. 24 to compare the characteristics
of the outer and inner banks.
Figure 6

Outer bank Inner bank

Speed of water flow ( Higher / Lower ) ( Higher / Lower )
Amount of river energy ( Smaller / Greater ) ( Smaller / Greater )
Major fluvial process Erosion: Deposition
( Lateral / Vertical /
Headward ) erosion is
dominant
Resultant feature River cliff Slip off slope
b With reference to the table above, describe the formation of a slip off slope.
At the inner bank, the speed of water flow is lower than the outer bank.
The river energy is smaller . Deposition takes place here and forms a slip
off slope.
2 As different fluvial processes take place at outer and inner banks, the river starts to bend. Each
bend is called a meander .
C What landforms or features are formed at the lower course?

Textbook pp. 43 6 HKDSE MCQ 2013 Q15, 2016 Q15; DBQ 2014 1ai & ii; Essay 2019 Q6
1 Almost all landforms or features at the lower

course are formed by deposition. Refer to
Figure 7 and name these landforms/features.
Floodplain Oxbow lake

Levees Delta
Braided stream
a Oxbow lake
b Floodplain
c Levees
d Braided stream
e Delta
Figure 7

2 a Oxbow lakes are developed from meanders. Complete the chart in Figure 8 to show the
formation processes of oxbow lakes.
Outer banks are

Active
River pushed
lateral cliff
backward
erosion at the retreats
and become more
outer banks
( concave / convex )
Further
Slip off Inner banks become
deposition
slope more ( concave /
at the inner enlarges The meander bends more
convex )
banks As the above
processes
continue
Figure 8
b From the chart above, which two fluvial processes are responsible for the formation of an
oxbow lake?
Erosion/Lateral erosion and deposition

3 a What is a floodplain?
A floodplain is a large, flat piece of land on either side of a river. It is composed of
alluvium/sediment which is deposited on the valley floor after repeated floods.
b What are levees?

Levees are low ridge-like features at the river banks. They are also
formed after repeated floods.
c Floodplains and levees are often developed at the same time. Fill in the blanks in Figure 9
to show their formation.
During flood
Flood water overflows from the channel,

bringing sediment with it
Sediment is deposited on the

valley floor
and at the river banks
After repeated floods

Sediment at the river
Sediment on the valley floor
banks builds up to
accumulates and builds up to
form levees
form a floodplain
Figure 9

4 a What are braided streams?

Refer to Figure 10. Braided streams are split channels found at the section where the river
flow is blocked by ridges of sediment . The sediment is deposited during the
dry season. When the river returns to previous water level during the wet season, the river
is forced to split into separate channels.
b Under what condition are braided streams formed?

Braided streams are commonly formed in rivers with
a ( small / large ) amount of sediment; and
rapid and frequent variations in the amount of channel water , such as

between wet and dry seasons.
Figure 10 Formation of braided streams
5 Figure 11 shows a delta.
Figure 11

a What is a delta?
A delta is a gently sloping platform of sediment extended into the sea. It is a ( erosional /
depositional ) landform found at the mouth of a river. It is an important
agricultural area because the sediment deposited is fertile.
b How is a delta formed?
Rearrange the descriptions below in correct sequence to show the formation process of a
delta.
i Sediment begins to settle at the two sides of the mouth of the river.
ii A gently sloping platform of sediment gradually builds up and extends into the
sea.
iii When a river enters the sea, its speed of water flow drops.
iv Over time, sediment is deposited layer by layer.
iii i iv ii A delta is formed
c i Sediment at the mouth of a river may block the river channel. The river may then
split into many smaller channels. These channels are called
distributaries .
ii Label these channels in Figure 11 on p. 27.
d Under what favourable conditions are delta formed?

Deltas are not formed at all mouths of rivers. They need several favourable conditions to
form:
the river must carry a large amount of sediment;

the sea must have a small tidal range and ( weak / strong ) currents
which favour deposition;
the rate of deposition is faster than the rate of removal of deposits; and
the sea must be ( deep / shallow ) at the mouth of the river and is sheltered.

D What landforms/features are formed at different river courses?

1 The table below shows the landforms/features formed at different river courses.
Upper course Middle course Lower course
(Low river energy) (Moderate river energy) (High river energy)
Mainly erosional Both erosional and Mainly depositional
depositional
V-shaped valley Meander Oxbow lake

Active vertical erosion/ Erosion at the outer bank Active lateral erosion pushes
downcutting makes the and deposition at the inner two outer banks closer. Flood
valley deeper and have a bank cause the river to water cuts the narrow neck
Revision table
V shape bend and forms a meander and the two bends join. A
Landform/feature
Interlocking spurs River cliff new channel forms and the

abandoned channel is sealed
River is unable to erode Lateral erosion at the outer
by deposition to form an
laterally due to small bank undercuts the bank
oxbow lake
amount of water, and forms river cliff
therefore it has to zig-zag Floodplain and levees
Slip off slope
around the spurs Repeated deposition on the
Deposition at the inner valley floor and at the river
Waterfall bank creates slip off slope banks after several floods
River flows over bands of
builds up a floodplain and
rocks with different
levees
resistance. Less resistant
rock erodes quickly by Braided stream
vertical erosion and Sediment is deposited on the
creates a large step. Water river bed during the dry
falls down vertically to season, forming low ridges.
form a waterfall These ridges force the river
Gorge to split into separate channels
Waterfall retreats called braided streams
upstream, leaving a Delta
narrow, deep and River deposits its load layer
steep-sided valley called upon layer at the mouth of a
a gorge. Downcutting is river, forming a gently
the major process sloping platform of sediment
(mudflat)

2 The following shows the characteristics of some fluvial landforms at different river courses.
Location
Major Forming condition
where it is Description/
fluvial (Gradient, load, river energy,
typically Characteristic
process erosion/deposition)
found
Waterfall Upper Erosion Part of a river Steep gradient where vertical
course (downcutting that takes a erosion is active
/vertical steep drop over River flows over bands of rock
erosion) a rocky edge with different resistance (i.e.
or cliff different rates of erosion)
Oxbow lake Lower Erosion A former Gentle gradient where the river
course (lateral) and meander of a starts to bend (usually on flat and
deposition river that has low-lying valley)
been isolated Presence of pronounced
Shape: meanders on the plain
Ribbon-like/ Active lateral erosion at the
Horseshoe/ outer banks
Crescent/
River carries a large amount of
U-shaped
load
Occurrence of flooding which
Revision table
allows the river to cut across the

neck between two outer banks
Floodplain Lower Deposition A large, flat Very gentle gradient (usually
course piece of land wide and flat, low-lying valley)
on either side River carries a large amount of
of a river load
Alluvium on Repeated flooding which allows
the floodplain sediment to be deposited on the
is fertile for valley floor layers by layers
farming
Delta Lower Deposition A gently At the mouth of a river where
course sloping gradient is very gentle
platform of River carries a large amount of
sediment load
extends into
Small tidal range and weak sea
the sea
currents
Sediment on
Rate of deposition is faster than
delta is fertile
the rate of removal of deposits
for farming
Shallow sea at the mouth of the
river

2.4 How do humans influence and manage river

environments?
Focus of this unit:
River environment in Hong Kong Flood control measures: Hard strategies
Human impacts on the river environment Flood control measures: Soft strategies
Storm hydrograph Continuing challenge of managing the river
Factors that lead to flooding environment
A What is the river environment in Hong Kong? Textbook p. 50
1 In Hong Kong, most of the rivers are ( long / short ) and small. The few large rivers are found
in the ( south-east / north-west ), such as the Kam Tin River and the Sheung Yue River.
2 All rivers in Hong Kong have a steep upper course and very gentle lower
course. The middle course is not distinctive.
B How does human activity influence the river environment in Hong

Kong? Textbook pp. 51 3 HKDSE MCQ 2015 Q17
Complete the table below to show the impact of human activity in our river environment.
Construction of reservoirs Farming and fisheries Development of new
and catchwaters towns and
infrastructure
Description Large rivers at the upper Wetlands on the River mouth and
course are dammed to build floodplains are floodplains are
reservoirs converted into fish reclaimed and rivers are
Catchwaters are built to ponds and farmland paved or modified for
divert water from streams at
urban development
the upper course to the
reservoirs
Negative Amount of channel water at Reduces the ability of Impermeable land

impact the lower course ( / ) wetlands to absorb surface ( increases /
as the water is diverted to reduces ) infiltration
the reservoirs Worsens flood water
Increases overland flow
water pollution at the lower ( Increases /
course Increases the risk of
Reduces ) the risk of
flooding
Reduces amount of silt and flooding
nutrients that move
downstream Degrades
farmland downstream

C What is a storm hydrograph? How does it show the risk of flooding?

1 What is a storm hydrograph?

A hydrograph shows the amount of discharge of a river over a given period of time, while a
storm hydrograph shows how the discharge of a river responds to a rainstorm .
2 How can we read a storm hydrograph?

By studying storm hydrographs, we can predict when flooding may occur. Figure 1 shows
how we can read a storm hydrograph.
The structure of a storm
hydrograph:
a , c , d show how the
discharge of a river
changes with time
the bars show the amount
of rainfall in a particular
period of time
b is the time lag. It
indicates when flooding is
possible
e shows the water-
holding capacity of a river
a Rising limb shows an increasing discharge
the steeper the curve, the ( shorter / longer ) the time for water to reach the channel
flooding is ( less likely / likely ) to occur
b Time lag the amount of time between peak rainfall and peak discharge
the shorter the time lag, the more likely to have flooding as discharge
rises quickly in a short period of time
c Peak discharge the maximum amount of water in a river after heavy
rain
d Falling limb shows the falling of discharge
e Bankfull discharge water-holding capacity of a river channel
when the discharge exceeds the bankfull discharge, flooding occurs
The storm hydrograph shown above indicates that the river ( floods / does not flood )
Figure 1

D Why is flooding common in Hong Kong? Textbook p. 57 HKDSE Essay 2012 Q5
1 Flooding commonly occurs in lower course of a river. The following are factors that may lead
to flooding: Much sediment on the river bed
Silting Water-holding capacity
Characteristics of lower course:
gentle gradient/ Sudden increase in
low-lying channel water, e.g. heavy
large amount of water flow rainstorms > bankfull

discharge
Figure 2
2 Flooding occurs in low-lying areas. Complete the table below to show the factors leading to
flooding in Hong Kong.
Factor Effect on drainage Effect on storm hydrograph of a
river at its lower course
Steep ( Less / More )
infiltration ( Less /
slopes
More ) overland flow
Most river valleys have
steep slopes at the
Natural
upper course
Intense ( Less / More )

and prolonged infiltration as soil is
rainfall in summer saturated ( Less /
More ) overland flow
Development of new ( Less / More )

towns and infiltration as land
infrastructure surface becomes
Paved natural land ( permeable / ( Steep / Gentle ) rising limb
surface for urban impermeable More
( Long / Short ) time lag
Human
development overland flow

( Low / High ) peak discharge
Farming Reduces the amount of

and fisheries flood water absorbed by
Convert wetlands on wetlands Flood water ---
floodplains to farmland flows to nearby areas
and fish ponds causing flooding

E How do we tackle flood problems in Hong Kong?

Textbook pp. 59 64 HKDSE MCQ 2013 Q16, 2016 Q14, 2018 Q16; Essay 2019 Q6
1 Flood control strategies in Hong Kong can be divided into two main types:
a hard strategy involving the building of structures to manage the river
environment
b soft strategy working with nature to manage flooding, no structural
measures are built
2 Complete the table on pp. 34 6 to show how hard strategies work, and their benefits and
limitations.
How this measure works, and the Limitations and
Measure
benefits disadvantages
a Channelisation Deepening + Expensive
Altering the natural Widening the Artificial structures
shape of the river channel Water-holding may be an eyesore
channel
capacity of the channel
Concrete lining
( / ) destroys river
Straightening the channel habitats
River velocity ( / ) Loss of natural river
Concrete lining Bed and banks
bank erosion ( / ) River
velocity ( / ) as friction is
Hard strategy
reduced + Deposition ( / )
b Dredging Deepening the river channel Only suitable for

Removing Water-holding capacity of the small river sections
sediment channel ( / ) Costly
from the channel and time consuming
Less sediment Channel
roughness ( / ) River Needs to be carried
velocity ( / ) out periodically
Stirs up
sediment
on the river bed
Disturbs aquatic life
Cannot prevent
large-scale flooding


Measure
c Dykes/Embankments Raising the height of the river Quite expensive

Building an elongated banks Increases water- Looks unnatural
structure to increase the holding capacity
height of the river banks Collapse of dykes/
of the channel
embankments may
Embankments can be used as lead to
cycling or walking trails to flooding
provide recreational space
Dykes/Embankments
Hard strategy
d Bypass floodway Catches run-off and diverts the Expensive

Building a floodway to water to the downstream section of Needs a large land
divert water from the the main river without passing area to build
channel that flows to
through populated areas
populated areas Suitable area is not
Reduces/Regulates discharge
always available
in the main river
Damages
the natural habitats
along the floodway
Flooding
may occur in other
areas where the
floodway passes
Yuen Long Bypass Floodway
(Credit: Drainage Services Department)


Measure
e Adoption of Village Building embankments Involves building

Flood Pumping surrounding the village and
Scheme in low-lying maintenance
Prevents flood
villages costs
water from the
Building embankments Needs a large area to
nearby stream flowing into the
and flood build the pond and
storage ponds village embankment
Building stormwater drainage Flood storage ponds
system to convey rainwater to a can be a drowning
flood storage pond. Stormwater hazard for children
is stored in the pond and is later
released to the nearby stream
Regulates discharge
in the nearby stream +
( Reduces / Increases ) the time
lag
Hard strategy
f Gabions Stabilises river banks and Cannot prevent

Placing gabions (wire reduces bank erosion flooding
cages filled with rocks) Reduces load Looks unnatural
at river banks supply and therefore silting
Minimize the risk of flooding Cages will rust and
break over time,
Relatively cheap causing injury risk
Gaps between rocks may filled Needs regular
with soil and vegetation as time maintenance
passes, making it blend with the
environment and further High-velocity water
reinforce the structure will damage the
gabions
Gabions
River

3 Complete the table below to show how soft strategies work, and their benefits and limitations.

Measure benefits disadvantages
a Land use Restricts development Difficult to restrict

management in flood-prone areas, e.g. only development in areas
Controlling land use allows recreational land use with a shortage of
in flood-prone Reduces potential damage and land
losses when flooding occurs
areas to reduce In areas with complex
Regulates the reclamation of fish land ownership,
losses
ponds and wetlands enforcement
on floodplains Restores the of land use control is
ability of wetland to absorb flood difficult
water
Assesses the impact of
development on drainage
Prevents possible flooding during
heavy rainstorms
b Afforestation Increases interception Reduces Needs time

for trees to grow
Soft strategy
Planting vegetation overland flow

to increase Young trees may not
Reduces soil erosion and mass
interception have the desired effect
wasting as trees can hold the soil
and reduce silting Cannot prevent serious
Reduces the supply of load
and therefore silting flooding
Needs large space to
Relatively low cost
plant trees
Creates wildlife habitats
Needs cost
Provides recreational grounds for afforestation and
management
c Flood warning Monitoring water Cannot prevent

systems levels + Issuing flood warnings flooding
Providing warnings Gives time for people to evacuate

Effectiveness depends
and take precautionary measures
to give time to on people s
( Increases / Reduces ) people s awareness
evacuate
awareness of flooding and the accuracy of
Reduces damage or loss caused by the warning system
flooding

4 The table below summarises how flood control measures function.
How the measure controls flood/reduces losses caused by flooding

Increase Increase Reduce Reduce Regulate/ Store/ Prevent
water- river fluvial silting Lower Hold potential
Measure holding velocity erosion/ discharge stormwater losses
capacity soil or flood when
erosion water flooding
occurs
1 Channelisation
2 Dredging
3 Dyke/
Hard strategy
embankment
4 Bypass
floodway
5 Flood storage
pond
6 Gabion
Revision table
7 Restrict land
use in
flood-prone
areas
8 Restrict
Soft strategy
reclamation of
fish ponds and
wetlands on
floodplains
9 Afforestation
10 Flood warning
system

F How does the management of a river environment pose a continuing

challenge for us?
Although flood control measures can help reduce flood risk, they make the channels look unnatural
and damage river ecology. Below are some measures to solve these problems. Write the appropriate
numbers to show how these measures help minimize the negative impacts on the river environment.
Growing vegetation along river banks Providing holes in the river wall
Holes in the river wall
River bank
Mangrove
(Credit: Drainage Services Department) (Credit: Drainage Services Department)
Build fish ladders at the water gate
Fish ladder
(Credit: Drainage Services Department)
Measures that can:

1 improve the appearance of a modified channel:
2 restore river ecology by:
providing wildlife habitat:
providing shelter to aquatic animals:
providing passage for fish and migratory animals:

2.5 How do waves shape our land?
Focus of this unit:

Type of waves
Coastal processes: wave erosion, transportation and deposition
Coastal erosional and depositional landforms/features
A How are waves generated? Textbook pp. 76 8 HKDSE MCQ 2014 Q15
1 The coast is a dynamic zone where the interaction of the sea and land processes takes place. It
can be divided into several zones as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1
The coastal
zone
a The shore is the area between the highest and the lowest water
level. It can be divided into backshore, foreshore and nearshore.
b Offshore is the submerged area extending seaward from nearshore.
2 Waves are the main source of energy that shapes the coastline. They are formed by
wind blowing over the surface of the sea. below are some features of a
wave and their descriptions. Label these features in Figure 2 using numbers.
Crest: the highest point of a wave
Trough: the lowest point of a wave
Wave height: the vertical distance between the crest and the trough
Wavelength: the horizontal distance between two successive crests or troughs
Figure 2
Wave features

3 Waves break when they approach the shore. Fill in the blanks in Figure 3 to show how they
break.
breaker
swash
backwash
Figure 3
4 Complete the following table to show the two types of waves and their characteristics.
Constructive wave Destructive wave
Formation In calm weather conditions when wind is Formed by strong winds or storms
weak
Characteristic Swash ( weaker / stronger ) than Backwash ( weaker / stronger ) than
backwash swash
Long wavelength and Short wavelength and
low wave height high wave height
( High / Low ) wave frequency (10 or ( High / Low ) wave frequency (more
less than 10 per minute) than 10 per minute)
Gain or loss of
shore ( Gain / Loss) ( Gain / Loss)
materials
Resultant Wide and flat Steep and narrow
beach shape

B How do waves erode the land? Textbook p. 78
Refer to Figure 4. Name the four types of wave erosion.
Figure 4 Four types of wave erosion
Hydraulic action
Waves hitting the rocks
Waves force pockets of air into cracks in rocks. The pressure created by
compression breaks up the rock
Abrasion
Waves pick up rocks and hurl them at the shore, wearing away the shoreline
Corrosion/Solution
Soluble minerals in rocks dissolve in seawater
Attrition
Rocks hurl against one another. The rocks are worn down and becomes
smaller and rounder
C What are the factors affecting the rate of wave erosion?

Textbook pp. 79 83 HKDSE MCQ 2015 Q16; Essay 2017 Q5
1 The rate of wave erosion depends on two factors:

Energy of waves
Resistance of the coast to erosion

2 The above two factors are in turn affected by other factors. Complete the following table
(pp. 43 4) to show how they are affected by other factors.
Factor affecting the rate of wave erosion

Winds
Waves get energy from winds . The energy of waves increases
when
- wind speed is ( high / low );
- fetch is ( short / long );
- duration of wind is ( short / long )
Extremely high wind speeds driven by storms or cyclones (e.g. typhoon in
Hong Kong) can produce waves with great erosive force
Offshore gradient
This affects the location where wave breaks and therefore the wave energy
Energy of
waves
a Steep offshore gradient b Gentle offshore gradient

When waves approach the shore, When waves approach the shore,
( little / a lot of ) energy is used ( little / a lot of ) energy is
to overcome friction with the consumed to overcome
seabed due to deep water friction with the
Waves therefore reach the shore seabed due to shallow water
with ( little / a lot of ) energy Waves therefore break
Waves plunge down onto the offshore and lose most of
their energy before reaching the
shore and produce ( weak /
shore
strong ) backwash Strong
erosion Waves spill over when they reach
the shore and create ( weak /
strong ) swash Weak erosion

Factor affecting the rate of wave erosion

Shape of coastline
Waves approach a coast
with headlands and bays
will bend or refract. This
makes wave energy to
concentrate on
headlands
and spread out in
bays
This causes strong erosion
on headlands
Energy of Roughness of seabed along the shore

waves When waves pass a rough and jagged seabed, such as one with corals growing
on it, much of their energy is used to overcome friction with
the seabed. Thus, ( less / more ) energy is brought to the shore. The erosive
power of the waves is therefore reduced
(Credit: Laika ac/

Wikimedia Commons )
Nature of rock
Resistance: Less resistant rocks have a ( lower / higher ) rate of erosion
Resistance Joints and faults: Well-jointed rocks or rocks with faults

of the coast are easily eroded
to erosion
Man-made structures
Coastal protection structures at the coast, such as sea walls, can slow down the
rate of wave erosion

D How do waves carry their load? Textbook p. 83
1 Load in the sea comes from three sources:

Eroded coastal rock debris
Load dropped by rivers
Weathered rock debris
2 Waves carry their load in much the same way as rivers carry their load, i.e.
traction , saltation , suspension and
solution .
E How do waves move sediment along the shore?

Textbook pp. 83 4 HKDSE MCQ 2018 Q17; Essay 2017 Q5
Figure 5 shows the movement of sand along the shore.
Figure 5
1 Complete the description below to show the movement of sand along the shore.
Waves approach the shore at an oblique angle. Therefore,
swash runs up the shore in a direction parallel to the prevailing wind;
backwash runs down the shore at right angles under gravity.
This process is repeated and leads to gradual zig-zag movement of

sediment along the shore.
2 Such movement pattern of sediment along the shore is called longshore

drift .
3 Draw an arrow to show the direction of this movement of sand on the beach on Figure 5.

F When and how do waves deposit their load? Textbook p. 84
1 Deposition occurs when waves lose energy and drop their load. It takes place
when:
waves enter an area of ( deep / shallow ) water;
waves enter a sheltered area, e.g. a bay;
the wind is ( weak / strong );
there is abundant supply of material for deposition, e.g. a river drops its load nearby.
2 Wave deposition is a sorting process.

The smallest sediment is found at the nearshore .
The largest sediment is usually found at the backshore .
Figure 6 Different sizes of sediment along a shore
G What major landforms/features are created by wave erosion?

Textbook pp. 85 8 HKDSE MCQ 2012 Q14, 2013 Q18, 2014 Q16, 2015 Q13, 2017 Q13, 2019 Q10; DBQ 2013 Q1ai & ii, 2016 Q1ai iii,
2018 Q2ai iii
1 Figures 7a and b show two landforms or features created by wave erosion. Name them.
B
A
Figure 7a Figure 7b
A Sea cliff B Wave-cut platform

2 Figure 8 shows the formation of landforms/features A and B. Complete the diagrams to show
their formation.
The coast is exposed to strong winds and waves
Wave erosion concentrates at the

area between high tide and low tide
Gradually, the area between the high tide

and low tide is undercut to form a notch
The rock above the notch is overhanging.

It soon collapses as it loses support
Leaves a steep rock face
Eroded materials adjoining the coast called a
deposited offshore sea cliff (Feature A)
Undercutting continues and

enlarges the notch
Repeated erosion causes

the sea cliff to retreat
As the sea cliff retreats, a flat

rocky surface called a wave-cut
platform (Landform B) is left in
front of it
Figure 8 Formation of landforms/features A and B

3 Features C E shown in Figures 9a and b are commonly found on headland.
Headland
E
Figure 9a Figure 9b
a Identify the features shown in Figures 9a and b.
C Stack E Sea arch

D Sea cave
b Complete the descriptions in Figure 10 to show the formation of these features.
Hydraulic action concentrates on The crack is enlarged to form a

line of weakness sea cave due to hydraulic
to form a crack action and abrasion
Wave erosion continues and finally The sea cave is enlarged and eventually
the roof of the arch breaks through the headland to form a
collapses, and a stack is left sea arch
Figure 10

4 Formation of coastal erosional landforms/features requires several conditions. Complete the

table below to show these conditions.
Favourable conditions required for the formation of
coastal erosional landforms/features
Revision table
Type of wave ( Destructive / Constructive ) waves
Energy of wave/Wind speed ( High / Low )
Fetch ( Long / Short )
Duration of wind ( Long / Short )
Location ( Exposed / Sheltered ) coast, such as headland
where wave energy is concentrated
Offshore gradient ( Gentle / Steep )

Depth of offshore water ( Shallow / Deep )
Rock structure Presence of lines of weakness/faults/joints/
bedding planes
H What major landforms/features are created by wave deposition?

Textbook pp. 89 92 HKDSE MCQ 2012 Q14, 2013 Q17, 2015 Q14; DBQ 2013 Q1ai & iii, 2016 Q1ai & iii, 2018 Q2ai & ii
1 Figures 11a d on pp. 49 50 show various coastal depositional landforms/features.
W Y
Figure 11a (Credit: stocker1970/Shutterstock.com)

Figure 11c
X (Credit: Vineeth Mohan/EyeEm/Getty Images)

Figure 11b

Z
Island
Island
Figure 11d
a With reference to the descriptions below, write down the name of the four coastal
landforms/features in the blanks.
b Match the following descriptions with landforms/features W, X, Y and Z shown in
Figure 11 on pp. 49 50.
Name and description of coastal landform/feature Landform/Feature
shown in Figure 11
i A beach the build-up of sand and shingle
between the lowest water level and the highest water W
level
ii A spit a long, narrow deposit of sediment
formed with one end attached to the land, and the other X
extending out into the sea
iii A bar a spit extends and completely
Y
blocks off a bay or river mouth
iv A tombolo a spit which joins two islands
Z
together
2 Refer to Figure 12 which shows Landform W. Complete the descriptions to show some factors
favourable for deposition.
Sheltered coast, e.g. a bay
( Shallow / Deep ) water
Plentiful supply of sediment
( Destructive / Constructive ) waves
Figure 12

3 a Complete the annotated diagrams in Figure 13 with the annotations given to show the
formation of Features X and Y.
i At the place where the

coastline changes, sediment
brought by longshore drift is
At the place where deposited in slack water
coastline changes,
sediment brought by
longshore drift is
deposited in slack water
ii Marshland may develop Over time, sediment

here as the energy is low
accumulates and extends to
form a spit
Area behind the spit has low
energy, marshland may
Sediment accumulates
develop there
and extends to form a
spit End of spit curves with The end of the spit may curve
change in wind direction with change in wind direction
iii Over time, the spit further

extends to the opposite
headland and eventually
blocks off the bay, forming a
bar
The spit further extends and

blocks off the bay to form a bar
Figure 13
b Besides the above formation, Feature Y can also be formed by two spits
from both sides of a bay joined together.

4 a Figure 14 shows the formation of Feature Z. Complete the figure to show how it is
formed.
A spit forms
where the shape of the
coastline changes
The spit extends and

joins the island to the mainland
to form a tombolo
Figure 14
b Feature Z on Cheung Chau is formed in another way as shown in Figure 15. With
reference to the descriptions, complete the annotated diagrams ii and iii below.
i ii iii
Initially, there were two Winter and summer monsoons Two spits finally joined
separated islands. lead to longshore drift. Two together to form Feature Z.
spits gradually built up from
the island.
Figure 15

5 Formation of coastal depositional landforms/features requires several conditions. Complete

the table below to show these conditions.
Favourable conditions required for the formation of
coastal depositional landforms/features
Type of wave ( Destructive / Constructive ) waves
Energy of wave/Wind speed ( High / Low )
Fetch ( Long / Short )
Location ( Exposed / Sheltered ) coast, such as bays where wave
energy is dispersed
Offshore gradient ( Gentle / Steep )
Depth of offshore water ( Shallow / Deep )
Supply of sediment ( Plentiful / Minimal ), which comes from eroded
coastal rock debris, load dropped by rivers and
weathered rock debris
Presence of longshore drift ( Absent / Present ), especially for features X Z
Revision table
I What are the characteristics of waves?
1 Waves break when they approach the shore. Water runs up the shore as swash, and runs back
down the shore as backwash.
2 There are two types of waves: destructive waves and constructive waves.
Destructive wave Constructive wave
Formed by strong winds or storms Forms in calm weather conditions
Backwash is stronger than swash when wind is weak
Short wavelength and high wave Swash is stronger than backwash
height Long wavelength and low wave
High wave frequency height
Loss in shore materials and Low wave frequency
results in erosion Gain in shore materials and results
Landform/feature formed: in deposition
- sea cliff Landform/feature formed:
- wave-cut platform - wide and flat beach
- sea cave - spit
- sea arch - bar
- stack - tombolo
3 Waves erode the land, carry their load from one place to another, and deposit load by sorting
process.

J What landforms/features are created by waves?

The table below (pp. 54 5) shows the landforms/features formed by wave erosion and deposition.
Coastal landforms/features
Erosional
Sea cliff
Wave erosion is concentrated at the area between high tide and low tide Over time, the
land is undercut to form a notch As undercutting continues, the notch is enlarged and the
Formation process of the landform/feature
overhanging part collapses. This leaves a steep rock face adjoining the coast, forming a sea
Revision table
cliff
Wave-cut platform
As the sea cliff retreats, a flat rocky surface called a wave-cut platform is left in front of it
Sea cave
Lines of weakness, such as joints and faults on coastal rocks are exposed to wave erosion
They are enlarged to form cracks, and gradually grow and develop into a cave, called a sea
cave
Sea arch
The sea cave becomes larger with time The cave eventually breaks through the headland,
forming a natural arch called a sea arch
Stack
The roof of the sea arch is further eroded, weakened and collapses as erosion continues A
mass of rock, called a stack, is separated from the headland
Destructive waves
High energy of wave and wind speed
Condition
Long fetch and duration of wind

Exposed coast, such as headland
Steep offshore gradient and deep offshore water
Presence of lines of weakness/faults/joints/bedding planes

Coastal landforms/features
Depositional
Beach
Beach
A beach is the result of the build-up of sand and shingle between the lowest water level and
the highest water level reached by storm waves
Formation process of the landform/feature
Spit
Longshore drift transports materials along the coast When there is a sudden change in the
shape of the coastline, deposition occurs. Sediment is deposited in slack water at the place
where the coastline changes, a spit forms
Revision table
Bar
As the spit extends, it eventually blocks off a bay or river mouth to form a bar
Tombolo
When a spit builds up and joins an island to the mainland or two islands together, a tombolo is
formed. It can also form when two spits join together
Constructive waves
Low energy of wave and wind speed
Condition
Short fetch
Sheltered coast, such as bays
Gentle offshore gradient and shallow offshore water
Plentiful supply of sediment
Presence of longshore drift

2.6 How do humans influence and manage coastal

environments?
Focus of this unit:
Coastal environment in Hong Kong Coastal protection measures in Hong
Human impacts on the coastal environment in Kong: Soft strategies
Hong Kong Continuing challenge of managing coastal
Coastal protection measures in Hong Kong: environments
Hard strategies
A What is the coastal environment in Hong Kong? Textbook p. 103
1 Hong Kong has many offshore islands, such as Cheung Chau and Lamma Island, and an
indented coastline with a ( narrow / broad ) belt of coastal land.
2 Complete the description in Figure 1 to show the general coastal environment in Hong Kong.
In general, low-lying and ( erosional / depositional ) Rugged and ( erosional / depositional )

coastline is found in the western part coastline is mainly found in the eastern part
There is modified and reclaimed coastline for

urban development
Figure 1

B How does human activity influence the coastal environment in Hong

Kong? Textbook pp. 104 5
Complete the table below to show the impact of human activity in our coastal environment.
Reclamation Recreation
Description Due to a shortage of flat land for Beautiful coastal landscapes favour
urban development, various the development of recreation and
reclamation projects have been tourism
carried out since the 19th century
The coasts are also leisure grounds for
Large-scale reclamation was carried
water sports, such as diving
out around Victoria Harbour ,
in various new towns in the New
Territories and in Chek Lap Kok
Positive Provides land for development which Provides places for people to relax
impact helps improve the quality of life
Negative Buries marine habitats and Water sports and

impact/ disturbs the marine ecosystem activities, and the removal of marine
Limitation habitats, such as mangroves and coral
Involves high costs
reefs, for building recreational
Straight coastline, reclaimed
facilities, and may damage marine
landscape and scenery look unnatural habitats
and unattractive
Speed of water current ( / ) as
the harbour becomes narrower
Affects the safety of navigation
Causes water pollution in
coastal waters at reclaimed sites as
human activities are concentrated
Improper discharge of sewage
(Credit: Sburel/Dreamstime)
Kills marine life
Excessive boating activities may
cause pollution and disturb
marine animals
Causes water and land pollution as
there is a great number of tourists and
activities

C How do people in Hong Kong protect the coast?
Textbook pp. 106 9 HKDSE MCQ 2012 Q15; DBQ 2013 Q1bi, ii & iii, 2018 Q2bi & ii; Essay 2017 Q5
1 Nearly all reclaimed sites in Hong Kong are intensively used. There are also many buildings
and infrastructure built in some natural coastal areas. Therefore, the economic value of the
coastal land is very ( low / high ).
2 Wave erosion can cause loss of life and property in unprotected coastal areas. In order to
protect the buildings and infrastructure in the coastal areas from wave erosion, different coastal
protection measures are adopted. Like flood control measures, these measures can be classified
into hard and soft strategies.
3 Complete the table on pp. 58 60 to show how coastal protection measures work, and their
benefits and limitations. You may refer to the measures listed below to complete the table.
Breakwaters Rock armour/Rip-rap Gabions
Sea walls Beach nourishment
Limitation/
Measure Benefit/Advantage Disadvantage
1 Sea walls Strong and durable Expensive to build and
Concrete walls placed parallel to maintain

Efficient and effective
the shoreline Undercutting
in reflecting
and dissipating wave by waves makes the wall
Can deflect and reflect waves
energy less durable. The wall
Hard strategy
may eventually collapse

Provides recreational
if maintenance is not
areas, such as a
carried out
promenade
Helps protect coastal Unnatural and can be an
eyesore
structures from coastal
flooding

Limitation/
2 Breakwaters Efficient and effective Expensive to build and
Partly submerged rock barriers in reflecting and maintain

dissipating wave Visually unattractive
placed offshore
energy May be easily
Can break incoming waves out at
Provides safe destroyed during a storm
sea
anchorage for ships in Weakens water
typhoon shelter currents
behind the structure,
which makes pollutants
difficult to disperse and
causes water pollution
(Credit: Ceeseven/
Wikimedia Commons) Waves deflected will
cause erosion
Hard strategy
elsewhere
3 Rock armour/Rip-rap Easy to build Looks ugly/awkward
Large boulders piled up at the foot Relatively cheap if Restricts access to

of a cliff, the top of a beach or local boulders are used beaches
along a coastline with important
Easy to maintain Needs maintenance
structures
Local boulders may
Can force waves to break and
blend with the local
absorb their energy
geology
Provides a place for

fishing

Limitation/
4 Gabions Relatively cheap and Not as effective as sea
Wire cages filled with flexible walls
rocks placed at the Blends with the local Looks unnatural

foot of a cliff or the top of a geology and reduces Cages are easily
beach the cost if
corroded by seawater.
Can absorb the energy of waves local rocks are used
Hard strategy
Therefore they require

May eventually blend regular maintenance
with the environment If the cage breaks, it
as soil is collected
poses risk of
between rocks in the
injury
cage, which allows
vegetation to Compared with other
grow measures, it has a

( shorter / longer )
life-span
5 Beach nourishment Looks natural Not effective to check
Adding sand to the Slows down the against storm

removal of waves
existing beach to make it higher
sand/beach materials Only provides a
or broader
Maintains the short-term solution
The beach acts as a buffer by
recreational ground for Constant maintenance is
Soft strategy
absorbing the wave

tourism and needed which increases
energy associated economic maintenance
activities cost
Relatively cheap if Involves high cost if
local sand is used, and sand is imported
is easy to carry out Imported sand may
contain toxic
materials which are
harmful to local species

D How does the management of coastal environments pose a

continuing challenge for us? Textbook pp. 112 4
1 Hard versus soft strategies
Both hard and soft strategies have advantages and limitations. It is not easy to strike a balance
between the different concerns involved in choosing these measures. Therefore, it is important
to apply the principles of sustainable development to coastal management
practices.
2 Threats caused by climate change
Climate change may lead to a rise in sea levels and more and stronger typhoons.
This poses threat to our coastal environment. Complete the flow chart below to show how
climate change causes threats to our coastal environment.
Climate change
Rising sea levels Amount and intensity of typhoons ( / )
Amount and height of storm surges ( / )
Coastal flooding ( / ) Destroys coastal defense
Inundates beaches and wetlands Destroys property

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Managing river and coastal environments

Senior Secondary Exploring Geography (Third Edition) Comprehensive worksheets

2.1 Where does water come from and go to? What is a

A What is the water cycle? Textbook pp. 4 6

© Oxford University Press (China) Ltd 2019 2-1

b The continuous circulation of water between the three stores is the

B Transpiration : Water leaves the plants to the atmosphere as water vapour

C Condensation : Water vapour cools and condenses to form water droplets

2 Figure 2 shows how water (rainwater) reaches a river.

© Oxford University Press (China) Ltd 2019 2-2

Interception (Vegetation store)

Stem flow Drip flow

Flow as Overland flow 1

Rainwater reaches the river directly River flows as channel flow

© Oxford University Press (China) Ltd 2019 2-3

High intensity of rainfall

More vegetation ( increases / decreases )

© Oxford University Press (China) Ltd 2019 2-4

B What is a drainage basin? Textbook pp. 8 10

1 a What is a drainage basin?

b What is the area of a drainage basin called? Why?

Figure 6 A drainage basin

e Name features A to C in a drainage basin.

A Confluence C Mouth of the river

© Oxford University Press (China) Ltd 2019 2-5

2 Stream order shows the hierarchy of a river network.

1st order stream 3rd order stream and so on.

2nd order stream

b What is the order of the drainage basin?

It is a third order basin.

Total length of the channels in a drainage basin

4.6 km ÷ 1.07 km2 = 4.3 km/km2

© Oxford University Press (China) Ltd 2019 2-6

2.2 What are the major fluvial processes?

Focus of this unit:

A What are the different sections of a river s course? Textbook p. 15

1 A river is usually divided into three distinct sections, that is the

(Credit: DaLiu/iStock.com) (Credit: Robertharding/

Figure 1 The three courses of a river

© Oxford University Press (China) Ltd 2019 2-7

B What is the energy of a river? What affects it? Textbook pp. 16 19

HKDSE MCQ 2016 Q17; DBQ 2015 Q2ai, ii, bi

Discharge (Q) (amount of water per second) =

Cross-sectional area (m2)

cross-sectional area of a stream and river velocity .

(4m 1m) 2 m/sec = 8 m3/sec

© Oxford University Press (China) Ltd 2019 2-8

2 Figure 3 shows the factors affecting the energy of a river.

Amount of channel water

Speed of water flow

A ( Low / High ) rainfall/more

C Steep valley slope (less infiltration

D ( Low / High ) permeability of soils

E ( Sparse / Dense ) vegetation cover

© Oxford University Press (China) Ltd 2019 2-9

Speed of water flow

ii Find out the wetted perimeter of Channel A.

Channel A Wetted perimeter: Channel B Wetted perimeter:

iii Which channel, A or B, has a higher speed of water flow? Why?

Wetted Wetted perimeter:

ii Which channel, C or D, has a higher speed of water flow? Channel ( C / D )

Figure 5 (Diagrams not drawn in scale)

© Oxford University Press (China) Ltd 2019 2-10

C How does the energy of a river change downstream? Textbook p. 20