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Numerical Simulation of Fresh Concrete Flow: Insight and Challenges
Numerical Simulation of Fresh Concrete Flow: Insight and Challenges
RILEM Technical Letters (2019) 4: 57‐66
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.21809/rilemtechlett.2019.92
Numerical simulation of fresh concrete flow: insight and challenges
Ksenija Vasilic a*, Annika Gram b, Jon Elvar Wallevik c
a
German Society for Concrete and Construction Technology, Berlin, Germany
b
KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
c
Innovation Center Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland
Received: 08 May 2019 / Accepted: 03 September 2019 / Published online: 23 September 2019
© The Author(s) 2019. This article is published with open access and licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Abstract
Recent developments in concrete technology are advancing into a scientific‐based approach, where both experimental studies and numerical simulations
are utilised to achieve an optimum mix design and an effective placement into formwork at the jobsite. Since the load carrying capacity and service life of
concrete structures is fully dependent on the success of the placement process, researchers all over the world have started to work on casting prediction
tools using different numerical software. However, a lot of work is still to be done in order to properly model the large‐scale flow processes. This is because
fresh concrete is a very complex material and its simulations involve complex material models and extensive computations. An exact material model of
fresh concrete does not exist, and the researchers use diverse approximations to depict concrete flow. In this paper, we identify the main challenges for
modelling fresh concrete and review the existing simulation methods. The advantages, disadvantages and application fields are discussed, including future
perspectives for having numerical tools for practical use.
Keywords: Fresh concrete flow; Rheology; Numerical simulation; Prediction
* Corresponding author: Ksenija Vasilic, E‐mail: vasilic@betonverein.de
K. Vasilic et al., RILEM Technical Letters (2019) 4: 57‐66 58
industry today. In section 2.1 the continuous approach based The early attempts to simulate standard concrete tests were
on Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) is discussed, and of concrete slump done by Tanigawa and co‐workers [22, 23]
common material models and case examples are given. In and later by Christensen [24]. Ever since numerous authors
section 2.2, the application of discrete methods based on used CFD to simulate slump flow and L‐Box [25‐33]. As an
Discrete Element Method (DEM) is reported; important topics illustration of CFD simulation of concrete tests, Figure 1 shows
like mixing or fibre modelling are discussed. To complete the the calculation of slump as a function of time (from left to
first part of this work, section 2.3 discusses the differences right at 0, 1, 2, 3 seconds) using the Bingham model, with
and similarities between the CFD and DEM approach, and τ0 = 90 Pa and of ηpl = 110 Pa∙s.
points out their advantages and limitations.
The second part of the paper (section 3) gives an overview of
advanced, computationally demanding methods, which are
now relevant for small‐scale systems and research, but might
be relevant for industrial application in the future. To start
with, multiphase methods are introduced, in which the coarse
aggregates are treated separately from the mortar. Figure 1. Simulation of concrete slump flow, concrete with τ = 90 Pa
Multiphase models based on CFD as well as special multi‐scale and of η = 110 Pa∙s (courtesy of J.E. Wallevik).
models based on Dissipative Particle Hydrodynamics (DPD),
Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) and Lattice The objective of the rheometer simulations is to investigate
Boltzmann are presented. After that, fibre orientation the flow field within the rheometer gap and to better
examples are given. Finally, a special approach for simulation interpret the measured data in terms of material properties
of casting is introduced, which consists of treating rebars in a [34‐36]. Using a self‐developed code, Wallevik in [35] studied
formwork as a porous medium. concrete rheometric flow. Assuming a viscoplastic material as
well as using a conglomeration/deconglomeration algorithm,
Mainstream computational methods
he simulated velocity and shear stress profiles for various
Continuous approach rheometer configurations. Recently, Nerella et al. [37]
In the continuous approach, the fresh concrete is represented developed a virtual tool to study the flow field in the SLIPER –
as a fluid continuum. The flow is governed by mass and a rheometer that enables prediction of pumping pressure.
momentum conservation equations: Developed within the software ANSYS Fluent®, this virtual
∇∙v 0 (1) tool includes a model to describe the lubrication layer (which
plays an important role in a pumping process) and allows for
ρ ∇∙σ ρg F (2) optimisation and pre‐estimation of the pumping processes.
where v is the velocity vector, t is time, ρ is density, g In a mixing process, the concrete is initially strongly
heterogeneous and undergoes changes from particles to a
denotes gravity, F are external body forces and is the
more continuous mixture within minutes. Both CFD and DEM
stress tensor. The stress tensor incorporates the constitutive
have their limits to describe the mixing phenomena. The
equation, which gives stress‐strain rate relationship and
attempt to develop a CFD code, strictly designed to model
describes the macroscopic non‐Newtonian behaviour of the
flow in the concrete mixers, was made at IFSTTAR [21]. The
material. For fresh concrete, the most commonly used
code combined different numerical approaches, to develop a
material equation is the Bingham equation, which assumes
robust solver for flow of Bingham material in a concrete
occurrence of yield stress and linear behaviour at the shear
mixer. Recently in [38], the authors used a modified code
stresses exceeding the yield stress [15]:
within the OpenFOAM framework, to simulate concrete flow
τ τ0 ηpl ∙ γ (3) inside a concrete truck mixer (Figure 2). They analysed the
shear rate inside a drum of the mixer, to better understand
where τ is the shear stress, γ is the shear rate, τ0 is the the effect of transport of fresh concrete on the material
yield stress and ηpl the plastic viscosity. properties.
Eqs. 1 and 2 are partial differential equations (PDE) that have
to be solved numerically, for instance by the use of
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). CFD is the method of
transforming PDE to a set of algebraic equations, which can
be solved using computers. More about CFD can be found in
[18‐20]. A comprehensive overview of CFD simulations in
concrete technology can be found in [9‐11, 21]. To simulate
concrete flow, most researchers use commercial software Figure 2. Flow of fresh concrete inside a drum of a concrete truck
such as ANSYS Fluent®, FLOW‐3D® and FIDAP®, while the mixer (courtesy of J.E. Wallevik).
most suitable open‐source software is OpenFOAM®. CFD
simulations were employed to simulate basic concrete tests,
rheometer measurements, mixing and casting.
K. Vasilic et al., RILEM Technical Letters (2019) 4: 57‐66 59
Figure 3. Simulation of a full scale wall casting: Simulated velocity field (left) compared with the observed flow behavior in the experiment
(right). The injection point is located at the bottom right corner of the formwork (reproduced with permission from [1]).
The examples of CFD simulations of concrete casting can be The authors focused on simulation of basic tests [44, 46‐49],
found in [1, 9, 28, 30, 39‐41]. The goal of a casting simulation simulation of mixing [50‐53] and simulation of industrial
is to predict the final result – if the formwork is properly filled, processes [43, 54‐56].
when the flow stops. When the flow stops, the fluid nature of Figure 5 shows an example of the simulation of the slump
the suspension (in particular its yield stress) predominates the flow experiment using the software PFC3D© [43].
flow. Consequently, the above‐mentioned examples
a)
confirmed that (for non‐blocking concretes) CFD simulations
allow for successful prediction of the formwork filling. Figure
3 shows a full‐scale wall casting simulation from [1],
performed using the software FIDAP®. The simulations
showed good correlations with the experiments, with respect
to form filling, dead zones and particle paths.
Discrete approach
The discrete approach is based on solid mechanics and
assumes that fresh concrete is an ensemble of granular b)
particles. Numerical solutions are mainly based on the
Discrete Element Method (DEM) ‐ a family of methods
proposed by Cundall in 1971 [42] to compute motion of large
number of particles (such as grains or sand). It models the
displacement, rotations, and interaction of particles, which
may attach to or detach from each other. The particles can be
rigid or soft. The motion of each particle is determined by the Figure 5. a) simulation of slump flow b) simulation of the L‐box (top
application of Newton’s second law. The contact forces and front view) (reproduced with permission from [43]).
between the particles are modelled artificially, by a set of
normal and shear springs, dashpots, no tension‐joints and Schwabe et al. in [50] employed DEM to model and analyse
shear sliders. Figure 4 shows an example of a contact point the blending of the grain ingredients in a concrete mixer.
that depicts a Bingham fluid behaviour; according to the Most recently in [53] Krenzer and co‐authors presented a new
separating distance and relative velocity of the particles, model based on DEM to simulate mixing processes. The
normal and tangential interaction forces between particles model includes addition of water, and a three‐stage transfer
can be calculated [30]. from dry particles to fluid suspension: dry bulk (friction
model), moist bulk (cohesion model) and suspension
(Bingham fluid model). The applicability was demonstrated
on two concrete mixtures, showing good qualitative
agreement between experiments and corresponding
simulations. Figure 6 shows the simulation results for the
water content as a criterion for detection of unmixed dry
zones.
Figure 4. A Bingham contact law between two particles in DEM Mechtcherine and co‐authors have showed in [43, 54‐56] that
(reproduced with permission from [43]). DEM allows to simulate the behaviour of fresh concretes with
different consistencies during various industrial processes.
Concrete has previously been modelled with separate soft Processes such as transport, placement (casting, wet spraying
mortar and hard concrete particles [44] as well as mortar and extrusion) and compaction have been simulated. The
covered aggregates (soft outside, hard inner core) [30]. correlation between mix design and rheology was also
Particles may also be merged into so‐called superparticles, in investigated. Furthermore, first attempts towards modelling
order to model non‐spherical aggregates to model blocking. air inclusions and de‐airing were carried out. Mechtcherine
An overview of the history and present of DEM simulations in and Shyshko were first who used PFC3D© to include fibres in
concrete technology can be found in [43, 45]. The mostly used the model [54] (see Figure 7).
commercial codes today are PFC2D©, PFC3D© and EDEM©.
K. Vasilic et al., RILEM Technical Letters (2019) 4: 57‐66 60
Some concretes (e.g. SCC) are very flowable and the number
of coarse particles is lower than in conventional concrete. So,
it is reasonable to use fluid approach to describe their
behaviour. Then again, in case of stiffer concretes (e.g. no‐
slump concrete), the number of coarse particles is high and
the behaviour is predominated by the granular nature of the
material. The utilisation of particle methods is therefore
reasonable in this case.
In general, it can be assumed that concretes show fluid‐like
behaviour when casting and the use of continous approach is
appropriate for this application. However, the scale of
observation is of great importance, to choose whether the
continuous approach is suitable [59]. As a first approximation,
the casting in a typical formwork can be considered as the
Figure 6. Simulation of a concrete mixer, water content as a criterion flow of a continuous matter, since the size of a typical
for detection of the dry zones (marked with blue lines) (courtesy of K.
formwork is much larger than the size of the coarsest
Krenzer, IAB‐Weimar).
particles. When the scale of observation no longer allows us
to neglect the difference in velocity between the particles and
surrounding fluid, the situation has to be simulated is in
“discrete regime” [9, 45]. This holds when analysing (on the
particle scale) processes such as mixing, compaction, de‐
airing, sedimentation, fibre distribution and orientation etc.
[45].
Table 1. Comparison of CFD and DEM techniques to simulate concrete
flow.
Multiphase suspension methods well as shear induced migration of coarse particles in non‐
Newtonian matrix.
To capture the suspension nature of fresh concrete, the best
numerical description would be the multiphase 3.1.1 Simulation of particle segregation
representation, where concrete is seen as a highly‐ Particle segregation in concrete can be either flow induced
concentrated suspension of rigid particles in a fluid. These (dynamic segregation) or gravity induced (sedimentation).
models for fresh concrete are still being developed [10, 60], Both phenomena result in inhomogeneous distribution of
but the common approach is to consider concrete as a two‐ aggregates and reduce structural performance of the
phase suspension: the “liquid phase” made of either cement concrete element [9, 12]. Thus, it is clearly important to
paste or mortar and the dispersed phase made of the coarse predict the effect of segregation for a given element.
particles (Figure 8).
One approach to threat dynamic segregation is the two‐fluid
model, where the conservation equations are solved
separately for each fluid phase i.e. for segregating coarse
aggregates (treated as a pseudo fluid) and for the surrounding
mortar. An early example of this approach is shown in [61]. To
simulate the L‐box, the authors suggested a two‐phase model
based on the code PETERA© [62], that also included
thixotropy. The results showed that segregation occurs within
the flow, and influences the solid fraction distribution as well
Figure 8. Concrete represented as a two‐phase suspension
as the material viscosity (see Figure 9).
(reproduced with permission from [60]).
In such a two‐fluid model, the solution of two momentum
When solving multiphase flows by means of CFD, the equations can lead to numerical instabilities [63]. It is
suspended particles can be included into computations using however possible to transform the two‐fluid model into the
two different approaches namely Euler‐Euler and Euler‐ so‐called Drift Flux Method (DFM) [63]. The use of DFM
Lagrange. The Euler‐Euler approach describes both the liquid simplifies the calculation, as it uses only one mixture‐
phase and the dispersed particles as a continuum. The Euler‐ momentum equation for the whole concrete. In various
Lagrange approach assumes that there is a continuous liquid literatures, the DFM has been used to calculate gravity‐
phase (Euler phase) and dispersed phase (Lagrange phase) in induced segregation in a formwork or a mould [12, 64, 65].
the form of solid particles. Due to numerical reasons, the Recently Spangenberg et al. [64, 66] used the software
Euler‐Lagrange approach is suitable only when particle size FLOW3D©, to predict dynamic segregation of coarse
and their volume fraction are small, while the Euler‐Euler particles. Continuous phase was modelled as a yield stress
description is appropriate for larger particles and dense fluid; aggregates are modelled as spherical particles with a
systems such as concrete. diameter of 15 mm. The position of the particles is calculated
Examples of multiphase modelling can be found in concrete explicitly with a one‐way momentum coupling between the
technology, where authors aimed to study heterogeneities, continuous phase and the particles. No interaction between
particle migration, blocking or fibre orientation [10, 60]. In this the particles is assumed. The illustration of the results is
subsection, we will give some examples of numerical shown in Figure 10.
simulations of dynamic and gravity‐induced segregation as
Figure 9. Numerical result of the two‐phase simulation in a L‐box: detail of the solid fraction distribution in the fluid after 0.3 s. Occurrence of
higher solid content and phase segregation is noticeable (reproduced with permission from [61]).
Figure 10. Numerical simulation of the heterogenic aggregate distribution phenomenon – casting of a concrete beam (reproduced with
permission from [66]).
K. Vasilic et al., RILEM Technical Letters (2019) 4: 57‐66 62
Gravity induced segregation is simulated in [65] using CFD and were relatively fast, but allowing for potential separation of
OpenFOAM Casting Solver with Segregation. Figure 11 shows phases and thus giving a realistic analysis. For such a case, the
a simulation of pumping of fresh concrete into a T‐beam. The benefits of open source software’s is clear due to the large
figure shows a cross section of the T‐beam and demonstrates annual licence cost of commercial software. The latter is
the coarse aggregate distribution. The red colour shows high usually licenced by the number of CPU slots available, or
concentration, grey normal concentration and blue colour, similar.
absence of coarse aggregates. Blue colour is also used for the
atmospheric air above the concrete [65].
Figure 11. Pumping of fresh concrete into a T‐beam, with segregation Figure 12. Shear rate induced particle migration in a vane rheometer
(reproduced with permission from [65]). (reproduced with permission from [65]).
Figure 13. Numerical simulation of concrete placement inside complete wall segments, using a supercomputer (courtesy of J.E. Wallevik).
K. Vasilic et al., RILEM Technical Letters (2019) 4: 57‐66 63
numerical simulations by Svec [72] as can be seen in Figure
15. Concrete is modelled as a non‐Newtonian fluid by the
Lattice Boltzman Method, LBM [6]. The fundamental idea of
LBM is that fluids can be represented as a large number of
small particles moving with random motions. Unlike the
traditional CFD methods, which solve the conservation
equations of macroscopic properties, LBM models the fluid
consisting of fictive particles, reducing the number of particles
and confining them to the nodes of a discrete lattice mesh.
The method is considered to be computational time and cost
effective. A method for slip between fluid and formwork is
also introduced. The numerical framework proves that it is
Figure 14. Mortar suspension composed of sand particles (by N. possible to model a large number of fibres during flow with
Martys, NIST, reproduced with permission from [60]). an efficient model using LBM. Most recently, orientation of
fibres was studied in [73] using the Folgar–Tucker fiber
Fibre orientation examples orientation model coupled with Smoothed Particle
Hydrodynamics.
The orientation of fibres strongly influences concrete
rheology and its mechanical properties in hardened state. It is Reinforcement as porous medium
thus essential to predict the fibre orientation in industrial
A numerical model for casting simulations was developed by
applications [69]. Evaluation after flow stoppage in the L‐box
Vasilic et al. in [4, 74, 75]. In order to shorten and simplify
as well as when casting beams, proved that rigid fibres tend
simulations of SCC casting, the authors developed a CFD‐
to align their major axis in the direction of flow i.e. in the
based computational model, where they treated the
direction of the velocity vector [70]. In [71] the authors
reinforcement bars occurring in succession as porous
proved this hypothesis numerically, though a simulation of a
medium. The model is implemented into the software ANSYS
small, L‐box like device with a Bingham fluid holding one rigid
Fluent© and validated on numerical and experimental
particle suspended vertically in the container. The simulation
studies. One of the validation studies was a large‐scale
was performed with the code OpenFOAM. In case of radial
laboratory casting of a highly reinforced beam, shown in
flow (e.g. concreting a slab by feeding the concrete through a
Figure 16. The good congruence between the simulations and
centrally placed hose, where concrete flows radially), the
the experiments, as well as reduction of the simulation time,
velocity vector is tangential to the path of moving fluid. In this
showed that this tool can be suitable for practical
case, fibres tend to orient with the direction of the velocity
applications.
vector. This phenomenon was successfully shown in
Figure 15. Results of the 3D numerical simulation using LBM: immersed steel fibres (left), the Bingham fluid (right) (reproduced with permission
from [72]).
Figure 16. SCC casting of a 3m long beam, experiments vs. numerical simulations: a) flow at t = 4 s, b) flow at t = 8 s and c) final shape
(reproduced with permission from [75]).
K. Vasilic et al., RILEM Technical Letters (2019) 4: 57‐66 64
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