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Radiation and Particle Physics: Hapter
Radiation and Particle Physics: Hapter
C
2
H A P T E R
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Proton Positron
Just as experiments in the late 1880s As Chadwick was describing the neutron
began to define the electron, similar in 1932, Anderson discovered a particle in
experiments discovered particles with a a cloud chamber whose tracks were
positive charge and a mass much greater identical to those of electrons except that
than that of an electron. Wein found that they were deflected in the opposite
the ratio e·m–1 of the charge to mass direction in a magnetic field. These
depended on the type of gas used at low positrons had been predicted by Paul
pressures in a discharge tube and was at a Adrien Maurice Dirac. Experiments by
maximum value for hydrogen. Patrick Maynard Stuart Blackett and
Based on mass spectrograph and mass G.P.S. Occhialini in 1933 revealed that
spectrometer information from Aston, cosmic rays interacted with matter to
Bainbridge, Dempster and others, the produce showers of electrons and
hydrogen ion seemed to be a basic positrons in about equal numbers.
building block for atoms. The simplest The positron is now accepted to be
atom, hydrogen, has one proton and is identical to an electron in rest mass and
atomic number one. The number of rest energy, with a positive charge
protons in the nucleus is known as the numerically equal to the electron’s
atomic number of the atom or element. negative charge.
The name proton is from the Greek Positrons in a solid are short lived (10–7
word προτοσ, protos, which means first. to 10–10 s) and combine with electrons to
Proton characteristics are given in Table 2. form annihilation radiation, which is
most often two photons with energies of
Neutron 0.51 MeV.
Other Particles
TABLE 2. Proton characteristics. In research using high energy machines
Quantity Measurement and detectors such as bubble chambers
and huge scintillation arrays, more
Charge 1.602 × 10–19 C particles have been discovered. These
Rest mass 1.673 × 10–27 kg include the mesons postulated by
Classical radius 1.534 × 10–18 m H. Yukawa in 1934, extra heavy particles
known as hyperons and the antiparticle
Magnetic moment +1.411 × 10–26 J·T–1
analogs of the known particles indicated
Compton wavelength 1.321 × 10–15 m
by E. Segre and his collaborators. This
nuclear zoo of from 30 to 40 particles is
best examined elsewhere.
FIGURE 2. Periodic table of elements.2 Three systems used to number the periods are named in the top row and are identified
in the legend below. For element symbols, see Table 4.
IUPAC 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Old IA IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA VIIIA VIIIA VIIIA IB IIB IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB
Group CAS IA IIA IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIII VIII VIII IB IIB IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA VIIIA
1 AN 1 2
ES H He
AW 1.01 4.00
2 AN 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ES Li Be B C N O F Ne
AW 6.94 9.01 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
3 AN 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
ES Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
AW 22.99 24.31 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95
4 AN 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
ES K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
AW 39.10 40.08 44.96 47.87 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.39 69.72 72.61 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80
5 AN 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
ES Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
AW 85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 (98) 101.07 102.91 106.42 107.87 112.41 114.82 118.71 121.76 127.60 126.90 131.29
6 AN 55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
ES Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
AW 132.91 137.33 138.91 178.49 180.95 183.84 186.21 190.23 192.22 195.08 196.97 200.59 204.38 207.20 208.98 (209) (210) (222)
7 AN 87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 (113) 114 (115) 116 (117) 118
ES Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Uun Uuu Uub Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo
AW (223) (226) (227) (261) (262) (266) (264) (269) (268) (271) (272) ( ) — ( ) — ( ) — ( )
Lanthanide series AN 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
ES Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
AW 140.12 140.91 144.24 (145) 150.36 151.96 157.25 158.93 162.50 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.04 174.97
Actinide series AN 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
ES Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
AW 232.04 231.04 238.03 (237) (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (262)
Legend
IUPAC = period numbering system (1 to 18) used by International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
Old = period system (with roman numerals) formerly used by International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
CAS = period numbering system (with roman numerals) used by Chemical Abstracts Service
AN = atomic number.
ES = element symbol
AW = atomic weight
= lanthanide series occurs here
= actinide series occurs here
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a. AN = atomic number
b. Element not discovered as of 30 July 2001.
example, the uranium atom has atoms have 3 electrons in the outer orbit
2 electrons in the K shell, 8 in the L, 18 in and may have more than 8 electrons in
the M, 32 in the N, 18 in the O, 12 in the an inner orbit. Such an organization of
P and 2 in the Q or outermost shell. groups or columns of elements continues
The outer shell of electrons gives atoms across the period table through group 7
the chemical properties exhibited by a known as the halogens with 7 electrons in
particular element. For instance, elements the outer orbit and group 8 already
whose atoms have a full orbit of electrons identified above as the noble gases.
(2 for the K shell or 8 for the other shells)
make up the noble gases. By arranging
elements with similar electron outer orbits
(or similar chemical properties), into sets
of columns, a periodic table of the
elements can be made as shown by
Figure 2.2 Table 4 presents a list of
element symbols for use with the periodic
table.
Group 1 has one electron in the outer
orbit of their atoms and is the very
reactive alkali metals group. Group 2
contains the alkaline earth metals, atoms
having 2 electrons in the outer orbits.
Group 3 is the aluminum family. Group 3
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shown by the equation for decay of radiography. Three of the more familiar
carbon-14 below. Beta particles are usually isotopes used in radiography are
stopped by thin layers of metal. iridium-192 (over 20 different gamma rays
with 0.310 MeV predominate),
(8)
14
C → 14
N + β− + ν cesium-137 (0.661 MeV) and cobalt-60
(1.17 and 1.33 MeV). The spectra are
discussed in the chapter on gamma
Note that there is an increase of one in radiography.
the atomic number of the daughter
compared to the parent atom when the
beta particle and neutrino are emitted. Spontaneous Fission
Nuclear species with masses greater than
Electron Capture 200 can decay by the process of
spontaneous fission. Most fission
If the nucleus is a high atomic number processes are initiated by absorption of a
and is neutron deficient as compared to neutron in the nucleus of the atom.
the stable isotopes of the element, then Uranium-138 and californium-252 decay
the nucleus can capture one of the atomic by spontaneous fission with alpha decay
orbital electrons. Because the innermost as competing processes. The large nucleus
or K shell electrons are usually caught, the splits into two smaller nuclei with the
process is often called K capture. The release of 2 to 4 neutrons and several
process creates an electron vacancy. As gamma rays. The process of spontaneous
electrons move from outer shells to fill fission becomes predominant in the
the vacancy, characteristic X-rays are extremely large nuclei and they may be
released and give evidence that the used as neutron sources.
process has occurred. In some moderate
atomic number isotopes, the electron
capture process competes with positron Secondary Processes
emission in the decay process. The During disintegration of a nucleus by any
daughter atom is the same for either of the preceding processes, secondary
process, as shown for the decay reactions processes may take place, often resulting
of zinc-65. in emission of X-ray radiation. Internal
conversion occurs when the energy of a
gamma ray usually released from the
(9) 65
Zn → 65
Cu + β + + ν
nucleus is transferred to an orbital
electron close to the nucleus. The electron
leaves the atom with the energy of the
65 EC 65
(10) Zn
→ Cu gamma ray minus the electron’s orbital
binding energy. Other electrons fill the
vacancy of the ejected orbital electron
where EC indicates electron capture. creating characteristic X-rays of the atom,
just as in the case of electron capture.
Gamma Ray Emission As high speed beta particles decelerate
Gamma ray emission generally follows in the matter they penetrate, a wide range
alpha or beta decay, except for a very few (0 to the maximum energy of the beta
radioactive isotopes where isomeric particle) of X-ray energies are produced.
transition or release of only gamma This continuum of energies is also called
radiation occurs. The gamma rays are bremsstrahlung. The radiation is very much
released from the nucleus of an atom that like the radiation generated in an X-ray
contains excess energy. In some alpha and tube. In practice, the lower energy
beta decay, no excess energy is left in the radiation is largely absorbed by the matter
nucleus. Like X-rays, the gamma rays are that produces it.
electromagnetic radiation but the gamma
rays originate in the nucleus rather than
in the electron orbits and are Attenuation of Radiation
monoenergetic. Because the gamma rays
carry neither charge nor rest mass, their Attenuation of radiation from the point
emission does not change the mass or sources of radiation used in radiography
atomic number of the nucleus but the occurs as the result of two processes:
nucleus is in a more stable state. inverse square law (radiation intensity
Gamma rays range in energy from a decreases as the square of the distance
few thousand electron volts (keV) to increases) and absorption of the radiation
several million electron volts (MeV). Each by the matter through which it passes.
gamma emitter has its own unique,
characteristic gamma energy or set of Inverse Square Law
gamma energies and is often used to
identify the isotope. The gamma rays are Radiation leaves a point source of
the chief radiation used in isotope radioactive material in all directions. It
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Absorption by Matter
Each kind of radiation is absorbed by Neutrons
matter in at least one of a variety of Neutrons produced by fission, accelerator
different ways. Alpha, beta and neutron nuclear reactions or radioisotope sources
absorption is discussed in a very simple have considerable kinetic energy. This
fashion below with absorption of kinetic energy is most often lost by
electromagnetic radiation being discussed scattering interactions with or absorption
in more detail. in the nuclei of the atoms in their path.
Absorption of the neutron is followed by
Alpha Particles release of electromagnetic radiation or
large particles such as protons, multiple
Alpha particles are easily absorbed by a neutrons, deuterons or alpha particles.
thin layer of material such as a sheet of Interactions with the orbital electrons
paper. The mass of four and the positive contribute negligibly to the absorption of
charge of two make interactions of the neutrons by matter.
alpha particles with the electron clouds The nucleus is much smaller than the
around atoms very probable. The positive electron orbits, so neutron interactions
charge interacts with the electrons either are less frequent than those of alpha or
to move them from their atomic orbits
(ionization) or to move them to higher
orbits around the atom (excitation). Either
process removes kinetic energy from the FIGURE 4. Ionization by alpha particle that ejects orbital
alpha particle equal to the energy gained electron from atom. Specific ionization is number of ion pairs
by the electron. Figure 4 illustrates the generated by particle per unit path. Total ionization
ionization of an atom by an alpha designates number of ion pairs produced by particle along
particle. its entire path.
As the alpha particle slows down, it
interacts with more atoms and slows
down faster until it slows to the molecular
motion of a helium atom when it gains
two orbital electrons. In air, the trail of an
alpha particle will be fairly straight with
tens of thousands of ion pairs (atoms
deficient in electrons and the removed
electrons) per centimeter along its path. Eo ~Eo
This trail of high ionization is what is
seen in a cloud chamber. Path length in
air is about 10 mm (0.4 in.) per 1 MeV of
original kinetic energy.
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energy and mass dependencies, there is may number three or more. These peaks
no simple way to present the total may be found mostly in the energy range
absorption effect. However, the 0.1 to 1 eV, although in a few elements
probability of any interaction between like uranium-238, they may be found up
neutrons and matter can be made to energies of 10 eV. These reactions are of
qualitative by means of the concept of the (η,γ) type. And third, with neutrons of
cross sections. The cross section σ is the high energy in the MeV range, the cross
effective target area of the nucleus as seen sections are very low, less than 10–27 m2
by the impinging neutron of a given (10 b), compared to the very high cross
energy. The number of interactions per sections of 4 × 10–25 m2 (several thousand
unit time will be nvNσ, where n is the barns, ~4000 b) at low energies.
number of neutrons per unit volume A simple example of the total
moving with velocity v towards the target absorption cross section is that of
of N nuclei. The quantity nv is the cadmium, shown in Fig. 5. The v–1 region
neutron flux density (neutrons per square is shown up to about 0.03 eV, the
centimeter second). The cross section σ is resonance at 0.176 eV and the low cross
usually expressed in square meters (m2) or section region for energies greater than
barns (b), where 1 b = 10–24 cm2 = about 2 MeV.
10–28 m2. The dramatic increase in cross sections
In discussing the variation of nuclear at the resonance have been worked out by
cross section with energy of the incident the theory of G. Breit and E.P. Wigner. In
neutrons, certain generalizations of a its simplicity, if the energy of the neutron
broad character can be made. In general, is such that a compound nucleus can be
there are three regions that can be formed at or near one of its energy levels,
distinguished. First is the low energy then the probability of capture of these
region, which includes the thermal range, neutrons will be exceptionally high. All
where the cross section decreases steadily elements do not show the resonant
with increasing neutron energy. The total absorption effect; for example, boron has
cross section is the sum of two terms, one no measurable resonance and the cross
due to neutron scattering is quite small section follows the v–1 law from 0.01 eV
and almost constant, the other to over 1000 eV. However, its cross section
representing absorption by the nucleus is for (n,α) is so large for neutrons of low
inversely proportional to the velocity. energy that this reaction is often used for
This low energy range is termed the v–1 neutron detectors. Table 6 shows the
region, where the time spent by the dramatic variation of cross section for
neutron near the nucleus is proportional absorbing thermal neutrons of some of
to v–1. Second, following the somewhat the better neutron absorbers.
indefinite v–1 region, many elements
exhibit peaks called resonance peaks,
where the neutron cross sections rise
sharply to high values for certain energies, TABLE 6. Capture cross sections σ of
then fall to lower values again. Depending strongly absorbing elements for neutrons
on the element, the number of such peaks in approximate thermal equilibrium at
300 K (27 °C = 80 °F).
Cross
FIGURE 5. Absorption of neutrons by cadmium, showing Atomic Section
resonance peak at 0.176 eV. Element Number (10–24 m2)
10–24 Lithium 3 65
Boron 5 540
Chlorine 17 40
Cobalt 27 35
Total cross section (m2)
(13) E = hv
TABLE 7. Photon characteristics.
in which E is the quantum energy of the Quantity Expression
photon, h is Planck’s constant
(6.626176 × 10–34 J·Hz–1) and ν is the Velocity c
frequency of the electromagnetic Frequency ν = c·λ–1
radiation. This equation has helped to Wavelength λ = c·ν–1
explain many physical phenomena. Energy E = hν
Penetrating electromagnetic radiation Planck’s constant E·ν–1
interactions with matter provide the Mass hν·c–2
mechanics for several familiar and
Momentum hν·c–1
important applications such as medical
radiology, thickness gaging, density
106 105 104 103 102 10 1 10–1 10–2 10–3 10–4 10–5 10–6
X–rays
Visible
light
10–9 10–8 10–7 10–6 10–5 10–4 10–3 10–2 10–1 1 10 102 103
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(Fig. 7). Most X-ray and gamma radiation Compton scattering remains the major
possess sufficient energy to remove an contribution to radiation attenuation
electron from the atom — that is, to until photon energies exceed several
ionize the atom. megaelectronvolts for high atomic
Photoelectric interactions predominate number absorbers, as seen in Fig. 8. For
when (1) the absorbing material is of high low to moderate atomic number
atomic number and density, such as lead absorbers, compton scattering constitutes
(increasing as the atomic number Z to the major interaction from below 0.5 to
between the fourth and fifth power), and above 10 MeV. This scatter produces the
(2) the energy of the photon is less than fogging of radiographic films and
1 MeV. If the binding energy of the radiation levels higher than expected
electron is greater than the energy of the outside of a radiation beam.
photon, the electron is temporarily
moved to a higher orbit. When the
photon energy equals the binding energy
of a particular shell of electrons, there is a
sharp increase in amount of absorption of FIGURE 8. Absorption and scattering curves for uranium show
those photons over lower and higher various components of total attenuation coefficient as
energies. These dramatic changes in function of energy.
absorption for the K and L shell electrons 1000 (100)
can be seen in photoelectric and total
absorption curves in Fig. 8 and are called
absorption edges. L1, L2 and L3 Absorption edges
Mass attenuation coefficient, m2·kg–1 (cm2·g–1)
Total
Compton Scattering 100 (10)
FIGURE 7. Photoelectric interaction of incident photon with FIGURE 9. Compton scattering. Incident photon ejects
orbital electron. electron and ejects lower energy scattered photon.
Eo
Eo – Eb Ee < Eo
Eo
Ee
Legend Legend
Eb = energy binding electron to atom Ee = lower energy of scattered photon
Eo = original energy of photon Eo = original energy of photon
I
E+ (16) ln = − nσ x
Io
Eo = E+ + E– + 2mc2
Eo or
I
(17) ln o = nσ x
E– I
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using Avogadro’s number N, which is the intensity that will come through a known
number of atoms in one gram relative thickness of absorber. Tables of such
atomic mass A, and by using the density values are handy for common materials
(g·cm–3) of the material: and for frequently used radiation energies.
The equation for converting linear
attenuation coefficient to half value
(18) n σ x =
N
A
σρ x = (µ m ) ρ x thickness or vice versa is:
I 1
ln (2 )
in which the mass attenuation coefficient
(19) ln o = ln 1 =
µm is measured in square centimeter per I
gram (cm2·g–1) and the linear attenuation 2
coefficient µ is measured as reciprocal = 0.693 = µx
length or reciprocal distance in
centimeters (cm–1). Some convenient values for half value
In many cases, the thickness of thickness are given in Table 8. These
material that reduces the intensity of the values of half thickness include
radiation beam to half of its original attenuation of the scattered radiation
intensity is known or is desired. This half outside of a narrow beam but should not
value thickness, or half value layer as it is be depended on for great accuracy
commonly known, can be extremely because of the effects of scattered
convenient to calculate the shielding radiation and variations in the density
thickness needed to reduce radiation and uniformity of materials.
intensity or to calculate the radiation An equation that attempts to handle
scattered radiation is:
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
Intensity (percent)
Without scatter
10
9 With scatter
8
7
6
5
4
1
0 1 2 3 4 5
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Fission Fragments
When uranium-235 or other fissionable
atom undergoes fission, multiple neutrons
and two major fragments of the nucleus
are released. The two fragments are called
fission fragments and are a source of
radioactive materials for industrial,
medical and research use. The fragments
are usually of unequal size and are
grouped in two distributions around mass
numbers 96 and 138. One of the major
products is cesium-137, which can be
chemically separated from the other
fission fragments for use as a gamma ray
source in radiography, medical therapy
and large irradiation facilities for
preservation of food and for sterilization
of medical supplies.
Accelerator Production
Large particle accelerators such as
linatrons, van de graaff generators and
cyclotrons can provide appreciable
neutron fluxes or streams of high energy
particles including protons, deuterons and
helium nuclei. When appropriate target
materials are bombarded by these
particles, radioactive nuclei can be
produced. Although radioactive materials
for medical use are being produced in this
fashion, generally radiographic sources are
not commercially produced in this
fashion.
References
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