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Hydraulic Design For Gravity Based Water Schemes Publication 2014
Hydraulic Design For Gravity Based Water Schemes Publication 2014
P.O.Box 93218
2509 AE Den Haag
KvK 27248417
IBAN NL81 RABO 038384584
AquaShareware products are open source support materials for the water and sanitation
sector and may be used free of charge, but with reference to Aqua for All. Any suggestion for
correction, addition or remark is welcome at info@aquaforall.nl.
The author of this AquaShareware product, Mr. Dick Bouman, is head of the program desk
and experienced in water resources and water supply. Mr. Dick Bouman started his career in
1981 with a water resource mapping in the Morogoro Region for DHV Consultants (now
Royal Haskoning DHV), with emphasis on low flow analysis of small streams.
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Contents
1. Introduction.........................................................................................................................4
2. Design ................................................................................................................................5
2.1 Preliminary work............................................................................................................5
2.2 Design criteria ...............................................................................................................6
2.3 Hydraulics .....................................................................................................................8
2.4 Pipes ...........................................................................................................................14
2.5 Storage tanks ..............................................................................................................15
2.6 Other Devices ............................................................................................................16
2.7 Valves .........................................................................................................................17
References ....................................................................................................................21
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1. Introduction
Gravity schemes are water distribution schemes without pumping; only the power of the
earth gravity force is used to bring the water from a high entry point to the lower outlets.
Compared to pumped schemes, gravity schemes require less operational cost for power and
pump operation and less maintenance cost for pumps.
It looks simple: just let gravity do its work. But many gravity schemes do not function properly
and fail to distribute the water evenly among the water points. In many cases, taps at the
higher end and at the lower end get insufficient or irregular water.
This hand out starts with an introduction on design, pipe hydraulics and pipe materials,
required for the further calculations, followed by several critical aspects.
The theory of hydraulics can also be applied to other than purely gravity schemes:
B3
B1 B21 B2
B12
B22
C C1
B11
D D1
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2. Design
2.1 Preliminary work
Most schemes exist of a central transmission main between an intake and the main Storage
Tank. From the Storage Tank the water is distributed to water points (public or private). Most
systems are so called closed systems (the water flow can be stopped by closing valves and
taps). In case of abundant yield at the source and high pressure differences, an open system
is recommended, where the flow in the pipelines is not interrupted by valves and taps. In this
general instruction, the closed system is used as a reference, except when the exception of
an open system is mentioned.
1. Before starting a hydraulic calculation, one should start with the analysis of water
sources and the calculation of the minimum flow at the available sources. Preferably, the
once in 20 years minimum flow of the source is taken as the maximum design flow. This
flow can be determined from at least 3 discharge measurements during the dry season
in 3 consecutive months. Most commonly, the decline of the discharge follows an
inverse logarithmic formulae. In that case, the minimum flow can be calculated for a
period that lasts as long as the once in 20 years longest drought. This period can be
obtained from meteorological statistics.
Figure 2 Example of an excel file to determine once in 20 years minimum (at 347 days)
The analysis of the potential of a natural spring is elaborated in a separate Aqua for All
Shareware product: Dick Bouman (January 2013) Determination of the potential of natural
springs for water schemes. This analytical tool holds for stable situations, but the situation
might worsen with changing land use patterns and climate change (more extreme events:
higher intensities and longer droughts).
For small streams the theory is rather comparable, but the abstraction devices are
different and need a precaution for high floods, sediment load and contamination.
One should also analyse the water quality, the risk of contamination and the risk of
damage by erosive forces.
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2. One should also check whether it is likely that the water can be brought down by gravity.
This can be done from topo-maps, from Google Earth (look at altitude indication), or by
using GPS and altitude measurements in the field. If height differences are too high, the
designer has to find solutions to deal with the high pressure or to break the pressure. If
height differences are too little, GPS and Google may not be accurate enough for design
purposes and land surveys are required.
3. Thereafter one should make a sketch map of the area and the concentrations of present
and future population. Make a first draft plan of the lay out map of the scheme (source,
mains, distributions, siting of stand posts and siting of tanks and other devices).
4. Then one should analyse the future demand at the end of the life time of the scheme
(population, other users and the use per consumer); calculate the required stand posts
per area and define the required flow per stand post.
5. Finally, one can make per sub-section an analysis of the required design flow, working
from the end to the top and using design criteria such as a risk factor for the mains and a
peak factor for the distribution lines. One should check whether the required flow is
below the minimum flow of the source. If not, one should look after additional or
alternative sources, or one could adopt the preliminary design (smaller distribution,
restriction on additional use or elimination of branches that require peak demand from
the main line).
From the resulting preliminary sketch one can start with the hydraulic calculations.
Domestic Water Use 20-50 l/capita/day 20-50 l/cap/day Mean between public standposts (67%)
and house connections (33%)
Storage capacity of 0.5 * daily water demand in 0 For open system not required; only if
Tank distribution there are sub-systems with many house
connections
Maximum pressure in (50 m) (50 m) PN6 pipes have 60 meter; but most taps
pipes can only have less than 50; other wise a
pressure break is required
Min. and Max velocity 0.2 – 3.0 m/s 0.2 – 3.0 m/s
at design flow
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l/minute
Max. Users per PS 250 250 Might grow to 500 in 20 years time. No
(single tap) MDG criterion on number; but 500 is the
maximum.
A scheme is mostly designed for a life time of 20 years. With a population growth of 3.5%,
the present population will almost double in that period ((1+x)^N). It is good to know the
occupation trends to incorporate possible future extensions into the design of the mains and
tanks. In the demand analysis, other use than domestic needs to be considered, such as the
water use in institutions (a hospital bed requires 100 l/bed/day-night at minimum), use for
livestock and for gardening. For livestock, there may be a switch from moving herds to zero-
grazing, which requires less water but closer to the dwellings. Bye laws are required to
regulate the extra demand. If the source is insufficient (or may have temporary shortages),
this non-domestic use might need to be taken from other sources.
For a closed system, the minimum flow at a source should be 1.15 times the mean daily
demand at the end of life time. (For an open system, this is 3 times the mean daily demand).
In some countries, a seasonal factor is added to compensate for higher demand during warm
and/or dry periods).
A closed system normally has a central transmission main, connecting the source with a
storage tank. The transmission main should be able to carry 1.15 times the mean daily flow.
The storage tank is positioned at the start of the distributions. In closed systems, the
connection of taps along the transmission main should be disregarded as they require a peak
flow in the design, except when they have an intermediate small storage tank in between (a
PScumTank) and a flow limiter to avoid too high outflows in case of failure.
The minimum water pressure at a point should be not less than 5 m water column at peak
flow. When there is no flow in a pipe, the pressure raises to the level of the upstream open
point (tank or intake). This Static Pressure should be less than 60 m water column, unless
high pressure pipes are used. Taps should have less than 50 m of pressure.
If static pressure becomes too high and the landscape does allow, break pressure tanks
could be included in the transmission main. This could be done for each 60 m difference in
topography, except when there is a high point in the downstream direction.
The use of Break Pressure Tanks in distribution branches is disregarded (i.e. downstream a
storage tank). The reason is that the inflow into a BPT needs to be regulated, which is
normally done by floating ball valves. The price of good quality floating ball valves is high and
in case of failure, these are rarely replaced. Unrepaired, the BPT will drain the distribution
main. Flow limiters could be a solution to reduce the negative impact of such a failure.
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Some schemes have Storage Tanks in series. In most cases this is not very efficient, as the
downstream tanks constantly drain the upstream tank. In such cases, it can be more efficient
to continue the main line to the downstream tank, bypassing the upstream tank. The division
of flows between the two lines can be regulated through valves, or by a so-called division
box.
For the distribution, one should include the peak factor to determine the design flow at each
outflow point. For stand posts, normally a peak factor of 3 – 4 is used, to compensate for the
uneven distribution of demand during the day. For institutions, houses and irrigation, the
peak factor may be different.
Branched systems
Looped systems
A variation is a looped ring, to which branched systems are connected, with or without
secondary storage tanks. Advantage of a looped system is a better response to peak
demands and the possibility to continue the water supply during maintenance works along the
main. It is mostly a bit more costly, and more complicated to calculate without a computer
programme.
2.3 Hydraulics
The hydraulic calculations are elaborated in Appendix A. The basics of hydraulic calculations
are explained below. The pressure at a certain point in a pipe line can be expressed as:
The principle of hydraulic calculations in closed pipes is, that the (relative) pressure of water
is reduced downstream by friction between water and the pipe wall. Without these
losses/without flow, the pressure at one point of the pipe is the same as in the other points
(law of communicating vessels). This is the static head. If water flows, the pressure reduces
in the direction of flow. In this situation we have dynamic head. If the dynamic head is
expressed as the ‘internal pressure’, then it is also called residual head (mostly in meter
water column).
Hydraulic calculations are made for the design flow in pipes (at the maximum demand). With
hydraulic calculations, one determines the sequence of pressure along a section and makes
a hydraulic grade line (dynamic grade line). The dynamic head at design flow should stay at
least 5 m above the topography.
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The dynamic loss is dependent on the following variables:
Hence, yield (design flow), diameter and wall roughness are determining factors.
In theory, there are other variables, like variation in gravity force (altitude) and viscosity
(temperature) but these are commonly of a very small influence.
Hydraulic theory is rather straightforward for smooth flow, but becomes complicated with
turbulent and ‘shooting’ flow. The situation of turbulent flow is avoided by putting a maximum
to the flow (3 m/s). But in and after devices and sharp bends, the flow can be temporary
turbulent. The effect of these devices is mostly within the error of the calculation, but needs
attention in case of many devices and sharp bends.
The presence of air pockets can reduce the effective diameter and provoke ‘shooting water’
with additional cavitational power if the water contains sediments (and air).
In specific cases, flow limiters or valves may be used to burn down some of the pressure or
the flow to the required level.
There are two additional factors to check, when one designs a pipe line: velocity in the pipe
and pressure.
At design flow, the velocity in the pipe should be preferably within 0.5 and 2.0 m/s, but not
less than 0.2 and not higher than 3 m/s. With too low flows, the self cleaning capacity of the
pipes will be lost and sediments settle permanently. With too high velocities, the flow
becomes turbulent and, loaded with air or particles, can become destructive for pipes.
The Nominal pressure (PN) of a pipe is the pressure, which a pipe can sustain. Mostly it is
expressed in Atmosphere, which is almost equivalent to 10 m of water column. For plastic
pipes, there are several classes; class C being max 100 m water pressure (PN 10); class B
60 m water pressure (PN 6). Care should be taken in pipe design, that the Static head will
not be over the indicated pressure class.
Two situations can be distinguished: open systems and closed systems. In a closed system,
the lower end of the pipe-line can be closed. Static pressure is up to the level of the entrance
point. In open systems, there is (/should be) no valve at the bottom end. This means that
water is continuously flowing and the dynamic pressure is the maximum pressure.
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Figure 3a Closed system Figure 3b Open system
Hazen Williams is somewhat more conservative, which becomes more real, when pipes
encrust over time. In this manual, the Hazen Williams formula is used.
Gradient in m/km
Hazen William Coefficient (110 for Steel pipes and 140 for plastic pipes)
Traditionally, the calculations are done using a monogram. This way one can play with
diameters to get the right design flow, staying within the above velocity range of 0.5 – 2 m/s
(figure below).
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Figure 4 Monograph to calculate
friction losses (in m/100 m) and flow
(m/s) in plastic pipes from Yield
(m3/h) and pipe size (Internal
diameter)
http://www.mcnallyinstitute.com/Charts/metric_friction_loses.html
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In modern times, computers are used. The most simple way is to use a spread sheet,
systematising the otherwise manual calculation. A model is given below.
Flow at begin of
Outflow branch
Dynamic Head
Nominal press
Residual head
HWCoefficient
Reason end
Topography
sub-section
Static head
Pipe type
Diameter
Gradient
Velocity
Internal
Length
Begin
class
End
DH
M M m 10 M mm L/s m/s m/km m m m M m
water
Table 2a Basic elements in the hydraulic design. The coloured cells are used in formulae. The cells
with the small fonts are cells with formulae (they are explained)
(m) (mm) (l/s) (l/s) (l/s) (m/s) (m/k m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m)
C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U
1100 1100
0 calculation design flow Qpipe 5,00 l/s 1000 1000 1000,00 1000
1 0 300 300 PV 75 6 68,0 150 5,0 1,38 26,5 7,9 992 940 52,06 60
2 300 750 450 PV 75 6 68,0 150 5,0 1,38 26,5 11,9 980 960 20,16 40
3 750 1000 250 PE 50 10 41,0 150 5,0 5,0 3,79 310,9 77,7 902 900 2,44 100
P15+N14+O14
G14*R14/1000
T14-U14
U$10-U14
162000000*(P14/L14)^1,85*(K14/10)^(-4,87)
T13-S14
P14/(1000*0,25*3,142*(K14/1000)^2)
B13+1
D13
1200
D14-C14
50
10
150
0,0
900
PE
41,0
There are also complete computer programmes, like Branch and Loop, produced by the UN.
These can be obtained from internet. The advantage of spreadsheets is that these are easier
to manipulate, but need more informed decisions.
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Procedure:
1. One starts to divide the full section into different chainages (sub-sections), normally split
at the highest points or at indicated special points with a proposed branch and stretches
where it is known that special pipes are required (such as GI pipes in a valley crossing; or
where high pressure pipes are required).
2. The line with formulae in the spread sheet needs to be copied as many times as the
number of sub-sections.
3. Above the first line one adds the elevation of the source or starting point at Dynamic head
and Topography.
4. Below the last line one fills in the design outflow (green cell).
5. For each sub-section one fills in the End distance from the zero point (the Begin is
calculated), or Length; the design outflow into a branch at the begin of the sub-section
and the topography.
6. The rest is an iterative process by trial and error, filling in the Internal Diameter. The best
result is reached if:
a. there is no point with less than 5 m residual head
b. there is no line with velocity between 0.2 and 3.0 m/s
c. there is no static pressure which is above the pipe pressure class
d. the residual head at the final point is as close as possible to 5 m*
7. Now, the reached Internal Diameters are translated to real pipe sizes of the required
quality and type. This needs another iterative round.
If the residual head at the final point is much higher than 5 meter, the system will react in a
way that it will increase the flow till the hydraulic losses have reached the situation that the
residual head at the final point becomes zero. This may result in a situation where the
optimum flow becomes higher than the inflow at the source. Then air will be attracted into the
system, which will provoke a lot of hydraulic problems. Therefore it is always required to burn
off the pressure in the last part of the section to reach almost zero residual head at the
outflow point.
In most cases it is desirable that, between an inlet and an outlet point, downstream pipe
sizes are smaller than upstream sizes.
Situation1:
Figuur 5
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(m) (m m) (l/ s) (l/s) (l/s) (m/s) (m/km) (m) (m) (m ) (m) (m)
calculation design flow Qpipe 5,00 l/s 1000 1000 1000,00 1000
1 0 300 300 PV 75 6 68,0 150 5,0 1,38 26,5 7,9 992 940 52,06 60
2 300 750 450 PV 75 6 68,0 150 5,0 1,38 26,5 11,9 980 960 20,16 40
3 750 1000 250 PE 50 10 41,0 150 5,0 5,0 3,79 310,9 77,7 902 900 2,44 100
2.4 Pipes
In pipeline design, different materials and different pressure classes are used.
Ductile Iron is sturdy material and available in large sizes, but is extremely expensive. It
has been used where the large pipe is at the surface where cattle can damage it or it is
subject for vandalism. For sizes >6”, costs are comparable to GI. The sockets can be put
under a minor angle.
Galvanised Iron is used where the pipes have to be above the surface: near structures,
on rocky soil, or at valley crossings. Galvanised iron is 5 to 10 times more expensive than
plastic materials. For sizes >4”, fittings are difficult to obtain and very costly, as they have
to be made on request. GI is also indicated as Galvanized Steel (GS). Joints are
screwed.
PVC-pipes are used, where pipes can be laid under the ground in more than 60 cm deep
trenches. PVC is used for pipe sizes from 63 mm and above, but smaller sizes are
available, too. PVC should be transported and handled with care and should not be
exposed to sunrays during more than a few days. Imported PVC is often cheaper than
Poly-pipes. PVC can be obtained in different pressure classes. Class C can sustain up to
100 m of water pressure, Class B only 60 m. In the open system, Class C is used. Never
lay PVC in rocky trenches. There is UV-resistant PVC, but this is more expensive and still
vulnerable for physical damage. Joints are in rubber ring/sockets or in plain sockets that
need to be glued.
Poly-pipes (HDPE) are used where pipes can be laid under the ground in more than 60
cm deep trenches. Poly is mostly used for pipe sizes of 50 mm and smaller. However,
larger sizes may be available, but mostly as plain pipes and not as roles. The advantage
is that it is flexible and it comes in rolls of 100 - 150 m. Like PVC, Poly pipes are available
in several pressure classes. Class C being able to sustain 100 m of water pressure.
Class B 60 m only. Poly pipe may never be laid in rocky trenches. Joints can be plain
welding or as glued connectors or as pressure push connectors.
Local purchasing is preferred; not only to stimulate local economy, but also to have spares
available on the local market. Mind, that the size of GI is still given in inches and represents
more or less the internal diameter. The size of plastic pipes is in the metric system, but reflects
the outside diameter. The inner diameter of plastic pipes depends mainly on the pressure
class. In agriculture one normally uses PE of a much lower pressure class, which should not be
applied for drinking water schemes.
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Plastic pipes should be put in trenches
of at least 60 cm deep. The bottom of
the trench should be smooth and re-
filled with some sand, before the pipe
is laid. Back-filling should be done with
soil without stones. Markers should
indicate the position of the trench and
specific points, like TEES and changes
of diameter or pipe-material. Special
devices like valves should be put in
(drained and covered) valve
chambers. During construction, the
trenches should stay open at the pipe-
connectors, to check the water
tightness during pressure tests. Pipes
in sharp bends should be anchored.
This is also valid for vertical bends.
Tabel 4
For a permanent supply, the Storage Tank should at least be able to store the inflow during
night time, which is half the total inflow.
One could design higher volumes to buffer water for situations of repair and failure. This is
rarely effective.
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Storage tanks need a wash-out at the bottom (for cleaning), an overflow at the top (to spill
excess water) a ventilation opening and a manhole. Tanks need roofs to prevent dust, leaves,
animals and insects from entering and to avoid algae bloom.
The intake structure has to be specifically designed for the natural situation. Natural springs
are the best, but still need a good protection. Surface water intakes in streams need specific
attention to minimize the inflow of mud, sands and debris. Both need a strainer, which is to be
inspected (and cleaned) on a daily basis.
One needs to make a pre-survey of the minimum flow in a source. Mostly, the once in 10 or 20
years minimum flow should be above the required design flow (mostly the mean demand over
20 years). The determination of the minimum flow is to be based on at least three
measurements during the same dry season. (see further in Bouman, January 2013a)
A break pressure tank can interrupt the pressure and break it down to zero. This is important,
when pressure would come too high. Care should be taken not to design the capacity of the
downstream pipe to be (much) higher than that of the upper pipe. In that case, the pipe will
suck air and the downstream part will get problems with air locks (see later). Break pressure
tanks are mostly made along main lines. Their use in distribution systems is not recommended,
as they will counteract the effect of a storage tank. Except when a float valve is used, but these
float valves need a lot of maintenance and are very costly. One might also Break Pressure
Valves or other devices, but these are vulnerable for clogging.
Automatic air release valves. It is difficult to avoid the entrance of air into a pipe line. Natural
water contains air, which is released under certain pressure circumstances. Furthermore, over-
capacity of the pipe may suck air at the entrance point. Air may accumulate in the course of the
pipe-line, especially at the highest points, at reducers, or deflections. In mains, air valves are
mostly placed at these critical spots. Or at least one in 1.5 km, especially where the terrain is
(semi-) horizontal. Generally it is recommended to try to change the slope of the pipe line once
in a while, instead of maintaining its slope equal for a long time. Also break pressure tanks and
well positioned standposts may function as air release devices. Or one may bring up a branch
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higher up to an adjacent hill slope (if available). The latter and break pressure tanks, may also
suck air into the pipe in case of under pressure, which is a disadvantage.
Wash outs are positioned at each lower point of a pipe line, or where one can expect the
accumulation of sediment. Wash outs are gate valves, mounted on the TEE-branch to a main.
It is regularly opened to clean the pipe.
2.7 Valves
There are several types of valves:
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3. Specific Issues
There are 4 main problems with pipe-lines: too high pressure, air locks, water hammer and
distribution of flow at TEES.
An alternative solution is the use of an ‘open system’, or at least a minimum outflow at the
lower end or at certain overflow points. This can only be done with sufficient water.
In some cases it might be a solution to place a flow limiting device instead of a real pressure
reducer. This device will prevent that too much water is lost in case of failure. An ‘orofice’ can
be such a flow limiting device (see figure). It is a simple plate with a small hole of a pre-
determined diameter. However, they are sensitive for clogging and might need frequent
cleaning.
Figure 6 Example of a Break Pressure Tank Figure 7 Two possible locations for flow
controlling orifices
(http://ewbgreateraustin.org/wp-
content/uploads/2013/07/BreakPressureTank_I
mpTripI.png)
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3.2 Air locks
Despite of the installation of air-release valves, air locks can occur. It is recognised by a
fluctuation of the outflow of a pipe. The oscillations can be short or long (even days) and of
different amplitude (even running dry). Finally the pressure upstream of the air-lock is built up
to such a level, that it will push the air-lock away.
Maintenance requirements of gravity schemes are limited, but should not be overlooked. In
case of treatment plants, operation and maintenance is demanding. Scheme attendants are
also required for intake inspection, management of valves and tanks, maintenance of the
distribution system and for the water meter reading and fee collection.
Other issues:
By bringing water to homes (or to inhabited places) one creates a drainage problem.
Sanitation should make an integral part of a water supply project.
Water supply is often a new technology. Hygiene, water storage at home, regulations about
irrigation etc. should be discussed and communicated with the (future) users. Education is
often required. Contracts may define the details.
Users have to be considered as clients or owners of the system, not as beneficiaries.
Improvement of the ownership can be reached by involving the users in project planning
and management and by asking an initial financial contribution. Water utilities need to see
the users as clients, and proper communication is required. For example on tariffs, billing,
planned maintenance routines etc. A proper ‘complaints procedure’ should be in place.
There is a need for a decision on contracting out or doing everything internally.
There are several systems for fee collection. Fee collection in mixed private and public tap
systems is very problematic.
There is a separate AquaShareware product on institutional models for rural water supply
schemes.
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References
Dick Bouman (2013) Determination of the potential of natural springs for water schemes (an
AquaShareware product)
Dick Bouman (2014) Institutional models for rural water schemes (an Aquashareware
product; still to be published)
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Appendix A - Example of a hydraulic calculation
C D E F
A. Design flow
3 1. The village Heikuyu in the Pare Mountai ns in Tanzani a has 1.000 1000 0,035 1.990 peopl e C3*(1+D3)^20
paek use. If the peak factor is 3,0; please indi cate the mi nimum flow at
the source.
10
11 B. Distribution
12 1. If the number of people per Publi c Standpost (PS) i s 250 at max in 20 250 8,0 PS F3/C12
peak factor can be reduced to 1,15. What is the design flow of a PSCum?
16 5. If in a distribution there are 3 normal PS and 1 PSCum; what is the 3 1 0,713 l/s C16*F14+D16*F15
risk factor!
18
19 C. Make a full flow scheme
20 1. In the drawi ng below, B is a division box (simple chamber), B21 and A
C are Storage Tanks; both tanks have a PS nearby (C1 and B22); the other
PS are B11, B12, E, D1, B2 and B3. E is a PSCum. Please fi ll in all the
flows for each sub-section.
21 2. What is the requi red desi gn flow at the source? Compare thi s to the
values calcul ated under question A6a and A6b; why is it different?
22 3. If the minimum flow of the source is 1,0 l/s; what measures can you
take in the design that thi s minumum is suffi cient? B
23 4. What is the requi red vol ume of each tank?
24 5. What is the requi red vol ume of the tank at a PSCum?
25
26 D. Hydraukic design A-B and B-C and distribution from C
27 1. Please make a desi gn for above part. Use the calculated outflows
for B-B3 and B-B21 and the data below sketch, the calc sheet and B3
B1 B21 B2
pipe table with PE for < 60 mm and PVC for >60 mm B12
1a. First make as many l ines as the number of chainages you need.
1b. Fill in the yell ow parts; ID first for PN6 wi th values as i n lower tabl e. B22
1c If you i nsert l ines; please check formul ae in orange parts C C1
B11
1d. Do this al so for stati c pressure formulae each time you switch tank.
1e. Check design flow wi thin 0,5-2,0 range
D D1
1f. Check resi dual head >5 (but not too hi gh
1g. Check pressure class with Static Pressure
1h. Adapt if not sati sfactory E
Chain Altitude
2. To control the right flow i n the mai n AB, it is better to use a wider A 0 1425
pipe on top and a small er pi pe downward. Please make a suggesti on B 900 1388
by splitting the l ine in two parts B2 1020 1371
2a. Add an extra line by copying C 1410 1310
2b Check the formulae in the yellow part (esp ref cell s i n flow and D 2410 1270
dynami c head. D1 3550 1187
E 2910 1235
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Example of the start of the Heikuyu calculation – central part
Heikuyu SCHEM E
Version: decentral Q DP l/s
Q spring min 1,00 l/s
Q day demand m3 0,00 l/s
a b Chain end
d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s
(m) (mm) (l/s) (l/s) (l/s) (m/s) (m/km) (m) (m) (m) (m)
0
USE ID as in table below!
A
ID LENGTH EURO
GS 3" 78 0 14 0 B
PE 75 6 66 0 3,8 0
PE 75 10 68 0 4,5 0
PE 63 6 56 0 2 0
PE 63 10 51 0 2,5 0
B3
PE 50 6 44 0 1,1 0 B1 B21 B2
PE 50 10 41 0 1,5 0
B12
PE 40 6 35 0 0,7 0
PE 40 10 33 0 1 0 B22
C C1
PE 32 6 28 0 0,4 0 B11
PE 32 10 26 0 0,6 0
PE 25 6 22 0 0,3 0 D D1
PE 25 10 20 0 0,4 0
PE 18 6 15,5 0 0,2 0
E
PE 18 10 14,5 0 0,3 0
PE 18 15 13,5 0 0,4 0
0 0
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Example of the result of the Heikuyu calculation – central part
Heikeyu S CHE ME
Version: decentral Q DP l/s
Q spring min 1,00 l/s
Q day demand m3 0,00 l/s
a b Chain end
d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t
(m) (mm) (l/s) (l/s) (l/s) (m/s) (m/km) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m)
4050
US E ID as in table below!
A
ID LENGTH EURO
GS 3" 78 0 14 0 B
PE 75 6 66 0 3,8 0
PE 75 10 68 0 4,5 0
PE 63 6 56 0 2 0
PE 63 10 51 0 2,5 0
B3
B1 B21 B2
PE 50 6 44 1120 1,1 1232
PE 50 10 41 500 1,5 750
B12
PE 40 10 33 0 1 0 B22
C C1
PE 32 6 28 0 0,4 0 B11
PE 32 10 26 0 0,6 0
PE 25 6 22 390 0,3 117 D D1
PE 25 10 20 1140 0,4 456
PE 18 6 15,5 0 0,2 0
E
PE 18 10 14,5 0 0,3 0
PE 18 15 13,5 0 0,4 0
4050 3185
0
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Appendix B - Explanation of terms in design of water schemes
Adapter Connecting fitting between different types of pipes
Air valve A valve, mounted on a TEE to the main line, which may let
escape air from the pipe-line. Is mostly placed at high points
Ball valve Valve, with an inside ball with an opening. Flow is topped when
turned perpendicular on flow. Ball valves are very abrupt and
not meant to regulate the flow or velocity. It is merely an on/off
with. Too abrupt closure may lead to shock waves in the pipe
and water hammer problems. (see also floating ball valve)
Base flow Flow during the dry season, which is coming from the drainage
of ground water; also meant to indicate the minimum flow
BOQ Bill of Quantities. List of materials and their numbers which are
required for the planned works. Quotations are mostly based on
a BOQ
Break Pressure Tank Chamber which interrupts the flow in a pipe line. Because the
water runs into an ‘open basin’ the pressure is reduced to
atmosphere. A BPT is used to reduce the pressure. Problems
with BPT’s occur, when in inflow capacity is lower than the
outflow capacity, which attracts air in the pipe line
Bush Fitting with inner and outer screw above each other (used as a
reducer)
Domestic Point A public stand post (or stand pipe), used for domestic purposes
Domestic use Water use for the household and not for economic purposes,
gardening or livestock
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Dynamic grade line A line in a cross section along a pipe line, which represents the
pressure when the flow in the pipe line is according to design
flow. The line is expressed in meters above a reference level
and should stay at least 5 m above the pipe line
Dynamic pressure The pressure in a pipe line (mostly expressed in meter water
column above a reference line) when the flow in the pipe line is
according to the design capacity (see also residual head and
static pressure). Residual head is the dynamic head, expressed
as meter water column above the pipe line
Elbow Bend in a pipe with a sharp corner. A bend is smooth. Mind the
sharp point of a human elbow
Electrical Conductivity Variable, which is a measure for the salt content of the water.
EC is expressed in micro Siemens per cm
Floating ball valve Closing device in a water tank, in which the opening and
closure of the valve is regulated by a floating ball on the water
(as in a toilet). It is not a ball valve
Galvanized Iron (GI) Iron pipes, which are protected against rusting by being
‘galvanized’
Gate valves (or sluice valves); a valve which closes through the movement
of a sluice perpendicular on the pipe. Are merely meant to
slowly open/close the pipe, but can also be used for flow control
Gravity main The water conduct from the source to the Storage Tank, from
where the water is distributed
Gravity scheme A water scheme, where water is not pumped, but only flows
because of gravity (the attractive force to earth, which may
make things to fall down)
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HDPE (also “poly” pipe). High density Poly-Ethylene pipe, which is
normally black and comes in long rolls. Poly pipe is flexible and
not very hard
Hydraulic gradient The decrease of the pressure along a pipe line (as a function of
pipe size, flow and altitude)
Hydrostatic water pressure The pressure of water at a certain depth below the water level.
Intake An inlet of raw water (see bottom intake and spring intake)
Male Terminology, used for fittings which penetrate into other fittings
or pipes and have screw on the outside (see female)
Orifice A device in a pipe line to control the flow. The device consists of
a ring with a pre-determined central hole. The diameter of the
hole defines the maximum flow through the pipe
PE See HDPE
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PVC Poly-Vinyl Chloride; a plastic, used for many purposes, among
which are pipes. When burned, PVC has a very negative
environmental impact. PVC pipes are mostly made of recycled
PVC
Roughing filter A pre-treatment tank, filled with coarse material (gravels), which
is meant to reduce the turbidity of the water to facilitate the real
treatment process afterwards
Screening box Chamber which collects raw water from one or more sources
and has the function to remove the coarser particles from the
water by stilling the water in a ‘basin’ and having a deep
storage in which the particles can settle
Slow sand filter A treatment tank, filled with different layers of sand, through
which water percolates from the top to the bottom to reduce the
level of contamination of the water. The treatment process is
most effective in the upper ‘active’ layer
Socket A connector between two pipes, which is wider than the pipe
(‘female’); see also spigot
Static Pressure The pressure in a pipe line in case of absence of flow. The
static pressure is mostly expressed in meters water column
above the pipe line and is equal to the difference in height
between the pipe line and the elevation of the nearest upward
tank or intake
Storage Reservoir Tank, used to store water. The purpose of storage is, that it
balances between a constant inflow from a source and a highly
variable demand from the distribution. Storage is mostly half of
the daily consumption
Strainer A device at a pipe inlet, which sieves the coarse materials from
the water
Wash Out A device, in which a TEE branches from the main line. The
branches has a plug or a valve. When opened, the speed of the
water will take all the deposited particles with it. A Wash-out can
also be found at the bottom of a tank, where it may drain the
dirt, settled at the bottom, if opened
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