ization

polariz
of electromagnetic wave? Explain.
is
What
that describes the orientation electric field propagates with
is a property wave travels in a plane
the radiated
the E field component of
Polarization

earth.
earth. If
acnect
ect to
the
(vertical), then radiation is said to be vertically
to the earth's surface
perpendicular to
rmendicular
a s shown
in fig. (a)
polarized, Wave Front
Vertical
Antenna

the
(a) surface
(horizontal),
earth's
the
parallel to
in a plane
If the tEi e
" field
l d propa
propagates
 Tadiation is said to be horizontally polarized,
as shown in figure (b)
Wave Front

HorizonM al
Antenm

b
Electrical Lines - - Magnetic Lines
Vertical and horizontal polarization
The position of the antenna in space is important because it affects the poiar
electromagnetic wave. When the transmitting antenna is close to the ground
polarizedwaves cause greater signal strength along the earth's surface. Ont
hand. antennas height above the ground should be horizontally polarized to
greatest possible signal strength to the earth's surface.
Explain different modes of wave propagation.
Different modes of wave propagation are
(i) Ground wave propagation or Surface wave propagation
(i) Sky wave propagation or ionospheric propagation
ii) Space wave propagation
The frequency of the radio wave is the most important factor in determi
pertormance of each type of propagation.

Frequency
Range

300 MHz

Space Wae propagaltion

30 MHz
Sky Wave PropagalioB
lonosphcric Propagalioa
3 MH
Gruud Ware Prupagali
Surtave Wave Propagali
30kH

Ditterent types of Radio wave propagation

Ground wave propagatiun Surlace wave propagatiou
ur

Ground waves prupagaie in the freyqueucy range of 30 kHz w 3 MHz. Gro

radio waves uhat ravel ncar Uie Surtace of tthe earth (surface waves).
used for radio broadcasting un MW band
 propagatio, oronospheric propagation
wave
in the frequency range of 3 MHz to 30
Sky
propagate
MHz. Sky waves are ratio
r e flected back to earth from the
waves

y that
are
ionosphere Sky waves are used for radi
waves
in S w
band. nd.
b r o a d c a s t i n g

S p a c e w a v e p r o p a g a t i o n

nropagate in the frequency range of 30 MHz to 300 MHz Space waves are
Space wa that follow two distinct paths from the transmitting antenna t the receivin
r a d i o w a v e s

igh th.
antenna-one through the air directly to the receiving antenna. the other refle:ted from
antenna.
to the receiVing
the ground
the
wave propagation, and its characteristics.
sground
Discuss g r o u n d

a M waves which propagate from one point to another following the surface of
wa
AM radio
radio

known as ground wave or surface waves. This type of propagation

The calied is

Earth
propagation or surface wave propagation.
eround
gro
wave
Transmitting
Antenna

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S u r f a c e W a v e

Surface W
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wwwwwww ave
Earth
TwYIYWIFY
Ground wave propagation
close to
leave an antenna and remain
surface waves
As shown in figure, ground the or
to the process of
fallows the curvature of the earth due
wave
the earth. A surface for those waves which have very
is possible only
diffraction. Ground wave propagation such a less frequency range,
it is alse
30KHz to 3 MHz. Due to
less frequency, nearly
called medium wave propagation. s
of the signal falls with distance duc i
ransmission, the intensity tovery
In ground wave
propagation cannot
take place up
wave
So, ground the frequeney of
absorption by the ground. inCreased by increasing
distance. If the energy
of the signal is by ihe grnid
arge increase in absorption of signal
corresponding
wave, then there is
poianzeu
Carrier vertucally
the earth and must be
the surface of n he gaund
waves progress along duces currenis
rOund componeni. A wave
the electric
short-circuiting absorplio
Pcvel loses some energy by
v c r which i passes and thus
he
wave
Allenuation of Ground or surface alleaualed.
bicuaus* oi ditta,td,
wave is
the surface
way in which
another
as shown
in the bekow Tgui
gradually uilts over,
Duecuo
o fPrupagalkNi
SuccessIVe*
Wavetrots

WWwwwwewwww.ww
Earth
wwww.a
Surface of the surtace
wave
n i u n d
er
 bn Systems
As the wave propagates over the earth, it tilts over more and more. Th.
cause greater short-circuiting of the electric. field components of the waue ncTeasj
ave.
Eventually, at some distance (in wavelengths) from the antenna, as na
the type of surface which the ground
ly determin
over wave propagates, the wave teTnj
dies". It is important to realize this, since it shows that the maximum . ies down
dowt a
transmitter depends on its frequency as well as its power. mum rangege ofof such
su
Thus, in the VLF band, insufficient range of transmission can be cured hy i .
transmitting power. This remedy will not work near the top of the MF r ng
because propagation is now definitely limited by tilt.
This
Q.4. Explain space wave propagation (line of sight propagation).
Ans. The radio waves having
high frequencies are basically called as space wau
waves have the
ability to propagate through atmosphere, from transmitting anten
receiving antenna. The range of space wave propagation is limited by the mtenma b
the earth and height of the antennas above the earth's curvatis
ature d
surface.
The space wave follows two distinct
paths from the transmitting antenna to the receivi
antenna one through the air
directly to the receiving antenna, the other reflected to
-

the ground to the

receiving antenna. These paths are illustrated in figure. The primarya
direct path of the space wave is
directly from the transmitting antenna to the receivi
antenna. So, the receiving antenna must be
located within the radio horizon of te
transmitting antenna.
Transmitter
Direct Wave Receiver

lected Wave
wwwwwwwwWwwwwwww
Earth

Directed and reflected

space
wwwwwwwwwwwwwwwm
wave
Space wave propagates in the frequency range above 30 MHz to 300 MHz. MHZ. D
Basical
the techniques of space wave
propagation is used in bands having very high
nig"g
frequen
e.g. VHF, UHF band etc. At such
higher frequencies the other wavel
techniques like sky wave propagation, ground wave Ong
wave propagation is left which handle frequençy wavespropagation
can't wor
of higher frequen
The other name of space wave e eo
line d

distanceis that exact

propagation is line of sight
propagation.
distance at which both transmitting and receiving
sight of each other.
5.1 Write short note on Duct
a
propagation.
Under normal atmospheric conditions, the of
S the
surface

earth. The air gradually becomes cooler aswarmest air is found At

neartimes, howed
ear
howeve

altitude increases. OVe layersof

unusual situation develops in which layers of warm air ayers
air, often over the surface of water. are formed abov
ganon
that the refractive index will decrease far
ground, often within 30 m of it.rapidly with height than is more
resutonnens near
T l h er e s u l t

the
This
inversion. These temperature inversions cause channels,condition
usual. This

A al.aure is known
temperatu
or ducts, of cool
peraandwiched between the surface of the earth and a layer of warm
air to b e
sandwiched

layers of warm air. air, or

two
erwe itting antenna extends into such a duct of cool air, or if the radio
between

a transnery
I f a

a very low angle

t r a n s m

low a of incidence, VHF and UHF wave enters

duct at transmissions may be propagated
yondnormal line-of-sight
the
the distances.
far
result of temperature
ducts are present as a
Whe inversions, good reception of VHF
and UHF television signals a station located from
hundreds of miles away is not unusual.
and distances are possible because of the different densities and refractive
These nd cool air. The sudden change in density when a radio wave enters the
and cool
qualities
warm warm
of causes the wave to be refracted
duct back toward Earth.
air above
nthe Wave strikes the earth or a warm layer below the duct, it is again reflected or
Wted upward and proceeds on through the duct with a multiple-hop type of action. so
that they are propagatea around thne curvature of the earth for distances, which sometimes
that
exceed 1000 km.
Figure illustrates the propagation of radio waves by ducting is as shown:
Surface Duct N oD u c t
Action

* * * * * * * * .*
W a r mA i r

C o l dA i r
Waves trapped in duct
Top of Atmospheric Duct

Normal
Range
- Actual Range
s* *t* *e*teas
Duct Effect Caused by Temperature Inversion

OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

wew.eeoe0088
www.w000O
P50POKENWASSNOORON.

YPE L. FILL IN THE BLANKS direction of

to each other and to the
magnetic fields are a t . . .
. .

ne electric and

.
propagation. travels in space with
the ...of

Wha
CVer may be the frequency, the
EM waves

light.
3. EM wave as
propagates in free space to complete
one
.

4. The amount of time required

of a radio wave is simply the
full cycle. the earth's
perpendicular to
If the radiated w a v e
travels in a plane
Surfaceu omponent of the
surface (vertical., the radiation is said to be . . .

surface (horizontal.,
the radiation

earth's
the E field in a plane parallel
to the
Sis "propagates in
saidto
Said to be
propagates
....
 The
troposphere is the portion of the Earth's atmospnere nat extends
from
ystemg-
the Earth to the
South SurPojeface
a height of about ..at the North Pole or
the
a t the equator.
8. The . is located between the troposphere and the ionosphere.
a
9. The
ionosphere extends upward from about to a height of
abou.. .. . .

10. The.. . of the radio wave is the most important factor in

of each
type of
determining the
he per
pertormaa
11. Ground waves
propagation.
propagate in the frequency range of..
12. Sky waves
propagate in the frequency range of...
13. ...are radio waves that
reflected back to Earth from the
are
14. Ground waves
ionosphere.
progress along the surface of the Earth and must be
15. The .....is the lowest,
...
km. existing at a height of 50 km, with an average
thickness of n
16. The E layer exists at a height of about... with a thickness of perhaps...
17. The
degree of ionization.
..depends on the wave's frequency and angle of incidence, and th
18. The is the farthest point that
.........
can be seen by transmitting antenna.
19. The radio horizon is
approximately ..... that of optical horizon.
w AA w wwww
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TYPE-II. TRUE OR FALSE w

awai
irnaewcooo vww.owiwiowSTATEMENTS
ve wévniastiiiowowwkovwo sorei.

1. The electric and magnetic fields

right angle to each other and to the direction of
are at
propagation.
2. The basic shape of the wave
generated by a transmitter is that of a square wave.
3. In ground wave
propagation, rapid fading occur.
4. As we go higher in the
ionosphere, there is an increase in the free electron density
5. The greater the density of electrons, the
higher the frequencies that can be reflected.
6. When the electron density is small, the
angle of refraction becomes 90 and the wave, u
travel towards the Earth.
7. The critical angle for radio waves. depends on the layer density and the wavelengtn O
ofthe
signal.
8. The higher a radio wave's
frequency, the shorter its wavelength will be.
9. The skip distance depends on the wave's
of ionization. frequency and angle of reflection, and u degree

10. The better the conductivity, the less attenuation

and the better the
11. The propagation path limited by the skip distance at one end propagation.
is
and the curvau
ofthe

Earth at the other.

12. The scatter angle increases as the
height
of the scatter volume is
deceased
13. The better the conducting surface, the less enerey lost
 TIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
MULTA 223
wakwwwww.www-ww*wwwAwweonnn

pBal
Dpe
ortad
radio-wave propagation occurs 6. When
ignal
travels in a
straight-line compared to
what is the usual sky-wave propagation,
smitting anten to the
effective range of
g
the tran

antenna?
wave propagation? ground-
sight propagation
(a) Much smaller
eraicht-line propagation
6) Much greater
Knife-edge diffraction
(c) The same
une!
propagation.
(d) Dependent on the weather.
hdo radio waves usually follow
do radio
7. What type of propagation uses radio signals
transmitting antenna to a receiving refracted back to earth by the
(a) Sky-wave
ionosphere?
ntVHF and higher frequencies? (b) Earth-moon-earth
through the ionosphere (c) Ground-wave (d) Tropospheric.
A
hent path 8. What is the meaning of the term sky-wave
a
) A s t r a i g h t - l i n e

circle
0Agreatcirce path over either the north propagation?
aA great (a) Signals reflected from the moon
orsouth pole
path going either east or west (b) Signals refracted by the ionosphere
Acircular
from the transmitter. (C) Signals refracted by water-dense cloud

of propagation involves radio formations.

What type
the surface of the (d) Signals retransmitted by a repeater.
sgmals that travel along
Eardh?
9. What does the term skip mean?
g) Sky-wave propagation (a) Signals are reflected from the moon
b) Knife-edge diffraction (b) Signals are refracted by water-dense
) E-layer propagation cloud formations
d Ground-wave propagation. (c) Signals are retransmitted by repeaters
What is the meaning of the term ground- (d) Signals are refracted by the ionosphere.
signals between
ave propagation? 10. What is the area of weak
the first
(0 Signals that travel along seismic
fault
the ranges of, ground-waves and
ines hop called?

0) Signals that travel along the surface or

(a) The skip zone
the earth zone
(b) The hysteresis
Signals that are radiated from a ground- zone
(c) The monitor
plane antenna (d) The transequatorial
zone.

term skip
zone
ground the meaning of the
9 ognals that are radiated from a
11. What is propagation
Station to a satellite. An area
covered by skip
close
few miles
(a) comes
satellite
amateur radio stations a The area
where a
ayart and (b) off the ionosphere
blocking and skips
eir parated by a low hill to the earth,
tnn3eir line- of-sight path are communicating area that
is too far
for ground-wave

skip
0n close for
3.725 Hz. What type of propagation (c) An but too
propagation,

Sprobably being used? propagation

that causes

Tropospheric
b) Ground-wave ducting (d) The area in
skip propagation.
the atmosphere

e) Meteor scatter
4) Sporadic E.
 2. What type of radio wave
ationon >ystems-|
System
it possible for
propagation makes 1+81N
amateur stations to
communicate long distances? d u=

frequency denote;+8N
(a) Direct-inductive propagation
20. The term Critical
(b) Knife-edge diffraction
(c) Ground-wave propagation (a) the lowest frequency that can
by the ionosphere can bebe .relectet
(d) Sky-wave propagation.
13. High frequency waves are (b)the highest frequency
reflected by the that
(a) absorbed by F2 layer
b) affected by solar cycle
incidence ionosphere at veria
(c) The lowest
(c) reflected by D layer frequency by
(a) Capable of use for long distance commu communication is possible betweerwhich
nication on the moon.
given points on the earths
14. The (d) None of above.
troposphere extends from earth surface 21.
to a height of The term Critical frequency is
given by
(a) 18 km
(c) 100 km
b) 50 km (a)fe 9Nmax
(d)250km.
15. The maximum distance 6) = 9/Nmax
is
of outer atmosphere
(a) 50 km ()fe = max
(b) 100 km
(c) 200 km (d) 400 km.
16. Ground waves (a) f =

81VNmax
propagate in the frequency 22. The term maximum usable
range of
is given by frequency (m(mf.
frequency
(a)3 kHz to 30 kHz
(b) 30 kHz to 3 MHz
(c) 3 MHz to 30 MHz
Smuf Cos i
(d) 30 MHz to 300 MHz.
17. The region (or
layer. of the atmosphere (b)fmuf= fe cos< i
extending from a height of about (c)fmuf f sec i
(a) 10 km to over 100 km
b) 20 km to over 200 km (fmuf cosi
23. The skip distance for
(c) 40 km to over 400 km
with
radio wave incre
(d) 50 km to over 400 km.
(a) increase in
18. The ionosphere plays an
important in radio frequency
wave propagation at (b) reduction in frequency
(a) high frequency (C) temperature of atmosphere
(b) Ultra-high frequency (d) None of the above.
24. The term skip distance depends on
(C) microwave frequency of
of
(a) the wave's frequency and angle
(d) optical frequency.
19, The refractive index for incidence
an ionized layer is (b) the degree of ionization
given by angle
of

(9the wave's frequency and ionizatioi

incidence, and the degree of

? = (d) None of the above
()
1-8IN
SHers
in t h e b l a n k s
pe-l F i l

2. velocity
I . r i g h ta n g l e

Transverse
Electro Magnetic waaves 4. Period
3.
5 vertically p o l a r i z e d
6. horizontally polarized
2 miles (18 km. 8. Stratosphere
(6 km.,
3.7 miles 10. Frequency
400 km
km, 12. 3MHz to 30 MHz
9. 50
MHz
KHz to 3
. 30 14. vertically polarized
13. S k y w a v e s

16. 90 km, 25 km
15. Dlayer 18. optical horizon
17. skip distance

19. 4/3

Type-Il. True orFalse Statements

5. True 6. False
3. False 4. True
1. True 2. Falsee 12.False
10. True 11.True
1. True 8. True 9, False
13. True

ype-ll. Multiple Choice Questions 5. (6) 6. (a)

4. (b)
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (d) 12. (d
10.(a 11. ()
1. (a) 8. (6) 9. (d) 18.(e)
16. (6) 17.()
13. () 14. (a) 15.(d
23. (a) 24. ()
19, (a 21.(a) 22.(c) **

20. (6)
,