INTRODUCTION TO

MULTIMEDIA
INFORMATION
NETWORK
 11/19/2020

2
WHAT IS MULTIMEDIA?

• In a generic sense, multimedia is simply the use

of more than one media element. Hence, Web-
based multimedia is defined as an online,
interactive experience that incorporates two or
more media elements including text, graphics,
sound, animation and video. A fundamental
feature of most Web-based multimedia is
interactivity, which gives user some control over
the content
 WHAT IS MULTIMEDIA?

Multimedia – using more than one media:

• Text
• Graphics
• Animation
• Sound
• Video
 MULTIMEDIA APPLICATION
DEFINITION
• A Multimedia Application is an application
which uses a collection of multiple media
sources e.g. text, graphics, images,sound/audio,
animation and/or video.
 DIGITIZED MULTIMEDIA

• Today, this integration is accomplished by

digitizing different media elements and then
manipulating them with computer software
• Digitized – Media elements have been captured
in a code that the computer can understand
 MULTIMEDIA APPLICATIONS

• Examples of Multimedia Applications include:

• World Wide Web
• Multimedia Authoring, e.g. Adobe/Macromedia
Director
• Hypermedia courseware
• Video
 MULTIMEDIA APPLICATIONS

• Interactive TV
• Computer Games
• Virtual reality
• Digital video editing and production systems
• Multimedia Database systems
 WHAT IS HYPERTEXT AND
HYPERMEDIA?
• Hypertext is a text which contains links to other
texts.
• The term was invented by Ted Nelson around
1965.
WHAT IS HYPERTEXT AND
HYPERMEDIA?
 WHAT IS HYPERTEXT AND
HYPERMEDIA?
• HyperText Navigation
• Traversal through pages of hypertext is therefore
usually
• non-linear (as explained later).
WHAT IS HYPERTEXT AND
HYPERMEDIA?
 HYPERMEDIA

• HyperMedia is not constrained to be text-based. It

can include other media, e.g., graphics, images,
and especially the continuous media – sound and
video.
HYPERMEDIA
 EXAMPLE HYPERMEDIA
APPLICATIONS?
• The World Wide Web (WWW) is the best example
of a hypermedia application.
• Powerpoint
• Adobe Acrobat (or other PDF software)
• Adobe Flash
• Many Others?
 LINEAR AND NONLINEAR
MULTIMEDIA
• A multimedia website can be linear, which users
start at the beginning and progress through a set
sequence of events until they reach the end. But
most websites use a nonlinear approach to
navigation, which users have more control over
what they are interested in pursuing.
 INTERACTIVE MULTIMEDIA

• It enables the user to directly respond to and

control any or all of the media elements. Hence,
users of interactive multimedia applications
become active participants instead of the passive
recipients of information
IMPORTANCE OF MULTIMEDIA

• “Tell me and I will forget; show me and I may

remember; involve me and I will understand”
(Chinese proverb)
• Each person learns differently and each person is
inspired by something different. The use of
multimedia allows developers to tap into these
differences.
IMPORTANCE OF MULTIMEDIA

• In fact, research shows that people remember

only 20% of what they see, 30% of what they hear.
When they see and hear it, they remember 50%, if
we include some interaction; they will remember
80% of it
 BENEFITS OF MULTIMEDIA
• Addresses multiple learning styles
• Provides an excellent way to convey content
• Uses a variety of media elements to reinforce one
idea
• Activates multiple senses creating rich
experiences
• Gives life to flat information
• Enhances user enjoyment
• Improves retention
• Enables users to control Web experience
 WHERE DO WE USE
MULTIMEDIA?
• Multimedia in Business
Business application that are multimedia based
include presentations, training, marketing,
advertising, product demos, databases,
catalogues, and networked communications.
Multimedia is getting much utilization in training
programs.
• Multimedia in School
Schools are perhaps the most ideal target for
multimedia. Its rich set of media is potential for
delivering effective teaching. Multimedia
equipped education lets the students. Learn at
their own pace and at their own time. It is ideal in
distance education and open learning systems
wherein students need not to be physically
present in class. Students can learn while having
fun.
 WHERE DO WE USE
MULTIMEDIA?
• Multimedia at Home
From cooking to gardening, home design to
repair, indeed multimedia has made itself useful
at home. It enables you to convert your video to
digital format, store your pictures in a compact
disc, and many more. Today, multimedia is also
being applied in our TV and soon, multimedia
projects will reach out homes via interactive TV
(iTV).
• Multimedia in Public Places
Multimedia is present in standalone terminals, or
kiosks, in airport terminals, hotels, mall, train
stations, museums, grocery stores, and more. It
provides us information and help about a
particular place. Interactive kiosks enables you to
make a transaction without talking to a sales
agent.
 WHERE DO WE USE
MULTIMEDIA?
• Multimedia in the Internet
Multimedia was introduced in the Internet with
the advent of the WWW. In fact, the Web is the
multimedia part of the internet. In the early
stages of the internet, you can view information
in plain text. The Web enables multimedia to be
delivered online. Playing live Internet games
with multiple players around the world has
caught much attention. Some e-learning
systems use multimedia on the internet as a
method to deliver learning materials to
students anywhere.
 WHERE DO WE USE
MULTIMEDIA?
• Multimedia in Mobile Devices
Mobile devices such as personal digital
assistants (PDAs or handheld computers),
smartphones, and mobile devices are not
exceptions to multimedia. MMS (Multimedia
Messages Services) is a store-and-forward
method of transmitting graphics, video clips,
sound files, and short text messages over
wireless network using the WAP. It also
supports email addressing, so the device can
send-emails directly to communication
between mobile phones.
 WEB-BASED MULTIMEDIA
CATEGORIES
• Electronic Commerce (E-Commerce)
Involves using web to serve clients and
customers and is one way to provide solutions
for companies that wish to sell products or
services online. Multimedia is used extensively
in advertising and marketing.
• Web-Based Training and Distance Learning
The Web offers many options for delivering
and receiving education over the distance.
Web-based training is an instruction delivered
over the Internet using a web browser.
 WEB-BASED MULTIMEDIA
CATEGORIES
• Research and References
Today, newspaper, newsletters, magazines, books,
encyclopaedias and other reference materials are
being offered online via Web. In many cases, they
represent “Electronic” versions of existing
research and reference materials. An increasing
number of self-help and how-to-guides are being
offered as interactive multimedia applications on
the Web. Some advantages: Cross-referencing,
Expanded search capabilities, multisensory
experiences.
• Entertainment and Games
They are the examples of some of the most
popular and most varied interactive multimedia
sites available.
CAREERS IN WEB-BASED
MULTIMEDIA
 MANAGEMENT-RELATED
POSITIONS
• Executive Producer – Move a project into an
through production
• Project Manager – forming a project, moving it
into production and overseeing its creation
 PRODUCTION-RELATED
POSITIONS
• Audio Specialist – Music scores, sound effects,
voice overs, vocals and transitional sounds,
recording, editing and selecting voices, sounds
and music
• Computer Programmer – Creates the underlying
code that makes the website interactive and
responsive to user’s actions
• Video Specialist – Manages the process of
capturing and editing original video
 PRODUCTION-RELATED
POSITIONS
• Web Designer – Develops or refines a design
process and efficiently creates a cohesive and
well-planned website from the front end
• Web Developer – Ensures the communication
between the front end of the website and its back
end is working
• Web Master – Making sure the web page is
technically correct and functional on the Web
Server
 ART-RELATED POSITIONS

• Animation Specialist – Creates 2D/3D animation

by taking a sequence of static images and
displaying them in rapid succession on the
computer screen
• Art Director – Coordinate the creation of the
artwork for the project
• Graphic Artist/Designer – Creating and
designing all of the graphic images for a project
 ART-RELATED POSITIONS

• Interface Designer – Responsible for the look of

the website interface and navigation methods
• Photographer – Shoots and captures appropriate,
compelling and high quality photos
• Videographer - Shoots and captures appropriate,
compelling and high quality video footage
CONTENT-RELATED POSITIONS

• Content Specialist – Providing authenticity and

accuracy of information on the website
• Instructional Specialist – Expert in designing
instructional projects
• Writers/Editors – Technical writers/scriptwriters,
creative writers or journalist involved in the
project
 SUPPORT-RELATED POSITIONS

• Production Positions – Entry level positions

• Quality Assurance – Responsible for testing the
website on multiple platforms using different
versions of different browsers
• Sales/Marketing – Provides input and feedback
on the website
• Customer Support – Responds to the users who
have questions and problems.
MULTIMEDIA INFORMATION
NETWORKS
WHAT IS MULTIMEDIA

• Multimedia indicates that the information or data being transferred over

the network may be composed of one or more of the following types:
• Text
• Images
• Audio
• video
NETWORK

• A network is a set of devices connected by communication

links.a node can be a computer,printer,or any other device
capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by
other nodes on the network.
• Computer network means a collection of autonomous
computers interconnected by a single technology.two computers
are said to be interconnected if they are able to exchange
information.
TYPES OF NETWORK
• Types of network are classified based upon the size,the area it
covers and its physical architecture .the three primary network
categories are LAN,WAN,and MAN.each network differs in their
characteristics such as distance,transmission speed,cables and
cost.
LAN
• Local Area Network is a group of interconnected
computers within a small area like a room,building
,campus.
• Two or more pc’s can form a LAN to share
files,printers,applications and other devices.
• Coaxial or CAT5 cables are normally used for connections.
• Due to short distances errors and noise are minimum.
• Data transfer rate is 10 to 100 mbps.
• Ex: a computer lab in a school.
MAN
• Metropolitan Area Network is designed to extend over a large
area.
• Connecting number of LANs to form larger network ,so
that resources can be shared.
• Networks can be up to 5 to 50km.
• Owned by organization or individual.
• Data transfer rate is low compared to LAN.
• Ex:organization with different branches located in the city.
WAN

• Wide Area Networks is a country and worldwide network.

• Contains multiple LANs and MANs.
• Distinguished in terms of geographical range.
• Uses satellites and microwave relays.
• Data transfer rate depends upon the ISP provider and varies over the
location.
• Ex: best example is the internet.
MULTIMEDIA APPLICATIONS:
• Person to person communication
Ex: email

• Person to system communication

Ex: web browsing
MULTIMEDIA NETWORKS

There are five types of communication networks that are used to

privide
multimedia communication services.they are
1. Telephone networks
2. Data networks
3. Broadcast television networks
4. Integrated services digital networks
5. Broadband multiservice networks
CHARACTERISTICS:

1. The first three types were initially designed to provide just a single type
of servicess.
2. The last two types were designed to provide multiple services.
COMPONENTS OF TELEPHONE NETWORKS

1. PSTN: Public switche telephone network.

2. GMSC: Gateway mobile switched telephone network.
3. IGE: International gateway exchange
4. LE: Local exchange
5. PBX: Private branch exchange
TELEPHONE NETWORKS

Designed to provide a basic switched telephone services.switched means that a

subscriber can make a call to any other telephone that is connected to the total
network.
Telephone network operates in circuit mode.for each call,a separate circuit is set up
through the network for the duration of the call.the access circuit that link the
telephone handsets to a PSTN or PBX were designed to carry the two way analog
signals associated with a call.
Through modem PSTN operates in a digital mode, a modem is used to carry a
digital signal over the analog access circuits.
TELEPHONE NETWORK USING PSTN
DATA NETWORKS
• It is designed to provide basic data communication
services such as email and general file transfer.
• Two most widely used networks of these types are the
X.25 network and the Internet.
• The X.25 network is restricted to relatively low bit
rate data applications only.
DATA NETWORKS
• The internet is made up of a vast collection of interconnected
networks all of which operate using the same set of
communication protocol.
• Communication protocol:
• Is an agreed set of rules that are adhered to by all
communication parties for the exchange of information.
• Defines the sequence of messages for the exchange of
information and the syntax of these messages.
• A user may access to the internet through an internet service
provider (ISP) network.
DATA NETWORKS
• All data networks operate in packet mode.
• A packet is a container for a block of data and the
information for routing the packet to the destination
through the network.
• This mode is used because the formate of the
data associated with data application is normally
in the form of discrete blocks of text or binary
data with varying time intervals between each
block.
DATA NETWORKS
BROAD CAST TELEVISION NETWORKS
• Designed to support the diffusion of analog
television and radio programs throughout wide
geographical areas.
• Broadcast media include
• Cable distribution network : for a town or a city
• Satellite network : for larger areas
• Terrestrial broadcast network : for largerareas
BROADCAST TELEVISION NETWORK

• The traffic is one way or asymetric.

• It generally works with a low bit rate return channel offered by
a cable network for interaction purposes that provide a range of
additional services such as home shopping and gamesplaying.
• The subscriber access the cable distribution network through a
set –top box.
BROADCAST TELEVISION NETWORK
INTEGRATED SERVICES DIGITAL NERTWORKS
(ISDN)
• It is designed for completely digital telecommunications network.it is
designed to carry voice ,data,images,video,everything we could ever
need.it is also designed to provide a single inteface for hooking up our
phone ,fax machine,computer,videophone,video-on-demand system.
• Designed to provide PSTN users with the capability of having additional
services.This was achieved by
• Converting the access circuits that connect user equipment to the network
into all digital form.and
ISDN
• Providing two separate conmunication channels over these
circuits.
• These all digital access circuits is known as a digital subscriber
line(DSL).
• The digitalization of a analog speech produces a constant
bit rate bitstream of 64 kbps is used as a basic unit.
INTEGRATED SERVICES DIGITAL NETWORKS
BROADBAND MULTISERVICES NETWORKS
Designed in mid -80s for use as public switched networks to support a wide
range of multinedia communication applications .
Broadband means it can support a bit rate higher than that ISDN can
support(2Mbps).
This type of network is also known as broadband ISDN while ISDN is
known as narrowband ISDN .
Switching and transmission methods that are used in these networks must
be more flexible as they are designed to support multiple services
BROADBAND MULTISERVICE NETWORKS
• All the media types are converted into digital form and
integrated together and the resulting stream is divided into
fixed-sized packets known as cells.
• Switching fixed –sized cells can be carried out much faster than
switching variable-length packets.
• Different multimedia applications generate cell streams of
different rates and hence the rate of transfer of cells
through the network varies.
BROADBAND MULTISERVICE NETWORK
This mode of transmission is known as asychronous transfer
mode(ATM)
This type of network is also known as ATM network or cell-switching
network.
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 ETHERNET

•
 ETHERNET
• Ethernet is the traditional technology for
connecting devices in a wired local area
network (LAN) or wide area network (WAN),
enabling them to communicate with each
other via a protocol ( a set of rules or
common network language).
• Ethernet describes how network devices
can format and transmit data so other
devices on the same local area network
segment can recognize, receive and
process the information.
 CSMA/CD
• If two computers send data at the same time,
a collision will occur. When this happens, the
data sent is not usable. In general, both
computers will stop sending, and wait a
random amount of time, before they try
again. A special protocol was developed to
deal with such problems. It is called Carrier
sense multiple access with collision detection
or CSMA/CD.
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF ETHERNET CABLE

• 10Base2
• 10BASE5
• 10BASE-T
• 10BASE-F
• 100BASE-T
• 100Base-FX
• 100BASE-TX
• 1000BASE-T
• 1000BASE-SX
• 1000BASE-LX
 10BASE-2

• 10Base2 is among the family of Ethernet

network standards for local area networks
(LAN) that uses a thinner version of coaxial
cable to establish a network path or
medium and operates at a speed of 10
Mbps to carry out baseband transmission.

• 10Base2 is also known as cheaper net, thin

wire, thin net and thin Ethernet.
 10BASE-5

• 10BASE5 (also known as thick Ethernet or

thicknet ) was the first commercially
available variant of Ethernet.

• The name 10BASE5 is derived from several

characteristics of the physical medium. The
10 refers to its transmission speed of 10
Mbit/s. The BASE is short for baseband
signaling (as opposed to broadband[a]),
and the 5 stands for the maximum
segment length of 500 meters
 10BASE-5

• The cable is stiff and difficult to bend

around corners. One improper connection
can take down the whole network and
finding the source of the trouble is
difficult.
 10BASE- T
• The 10Base-T standard (also called Twisted Pair
Ethernet) uses a twisted-pair cable with maximum
lengths of 100 meters. The cable is thinner and
more flexible than the coaxial cable used for the
10Base-2 or 10Base-5 standards.
• The name 10Base-T is derived from several
aspects of the physical medium. The 10 refers to
the transmission speed of 10 Mbps. The base is
short for baseband, which means that only one
Ethernet signal is present on the send and/or
receive pair (i.e., there is no multiplexing as with
broadband transmissions)
 10BASE-F

• The 10BASEF is an Ethernet standard that employs the

use of optical fibers in order to extend the limits of the
distance up to 1.2 miles compared to the up to 1OO
meter distance of the 10BASET copper wires.
• 10BASEF consist of three different standards:-
1. 10BASEFB
2. 10BASEFL
3. 10 BASEFP
 100BASE-T
• 100BASE-T is an enhanced form of
Ethernet 10BASE-T and a network standard
used for fast data transfer rates up to 100
Mbps. 100BASE-T is 10 times faster than
standard Ethernet and, like standard
Ethernet, it follows the Carrier Sense
Multiple Access/Collision Detection
(CSMA/CD) technique to avoid collision.
• 100BASE-T is officially known as fast
Ethernet.
 1000BASE-T

• 1000Base-T is a type of gigabit Ethernet

networking technology that uses copper
cables as a medium. 1000Base-T uses four
pairs of Category 5 unshielded twisted pair
cables to achieve gigabit data rates. The
standard is designated as IEEE 802.3ab and
allows 1 Gbps data transfers for distances
of up to 330 feet.
TYPES OF ETHERNET NETWORKS

• There are several types of Ethernet

networks as listed below:
1. Standard Ethernet
2. Fast Ethernet
3. Gigabit Ethernet
4. Switch Ethernet
 STANDARD ETHERNET

• A standard Ethernet network can transmit

data at a rate up to 10 Megabits per
second (10 Mbps).

• It was designed in 1973 by Xerox with a

data rate of 10 Mbps .
 FAST ETHERNET(802.3U)
• The fast Ethernet is a type of Ethernet network
that can transfer data at a rate of 100 Mbps using
a twisted-pair cable or a fiber-optic cable. The
older 10 Mbps Ethernet is still used, but such
networks do not provide necessary bandwidth for
some network-based video applications.
• Fast Ethernet is based on the proven CSMA/CD
Media Access Control (MAC) protocol, and uses
existing 10BaseT cabling. Data can move from 10
Mbps to 100 Mbps without any protocol
translation or changes to the application and
networking software.
 FAST ETHERNET (802.3U)
•Fast Ethernet was designed to compete with
LAN protocols such as FDDI ( Fiber Distributed
Data Interface) or Fiber Channel.

•IEEE created Fast Ethernet under the name

802.3u.

•Fast Ethernet is backward-compatible with

Standard Ethernet, but it can transmit data 10
times faster at a rate of 100 Mbps.
 IMPLEMENTATION
• Fast Ethernet implementation at the
physical layer can be categorized as either
two-wire or four-wire.

• The two-wire implementation can be either

category 5 UTP (100 Base-TX) or fiber-
optic cable (100Base-FX).

• The four-wire implementation is designed

only for category 3 UTP (l00Base-T4).
IMPLEMENTATION
 GIGABIT ETHERNET
• The Gigabit Ethernet is a type of Ethernet
network capable of transferring data at a rate
of 1000 Mbps based on a twisted-pair or fiber
optic cable, and it is very popular.
• The type of twisted-pair cables that support
Gigabit Ethernet is Cat 5e cable, where all the
four pairs of twisted wires of the cable are
used to achieve high data transfer rates.
• The 10 Gigabit Ethernet is a latest generation
ethernet capable of transferring data at a rate
of 10 Gbps using twisted-pair or fiber optic
cable.
 GIGABIT ETHERNET (802.3Z)

•The need for higher data rate resulted in the

design of the Gigabit Ethernet (1000 Mbps).

•The IEEE committee calls the standard 802.3z.

•All configurations of gigabit Ethernet are

point to point.

•Point-to-point, between two computers or

one computer – to –switch.
It supports two different modes of operation:
full duplex mode and half duplex mode.

•Full duplex is used when computers are

connected by a switch.

•No collision, CSMA/CD is not used.

•Half duplex is used when computers are
connected by a hub.

•Collision in hub is possible and so

CSMA/CD is required.

•The 802.3z committee considered a

radius of 25 meters to be unacceptable
and added two new feature to increase the
radius.
•Carrier Extension tells the hardware to add
its own padding bits after the normal frame
to extend the frame to 512 bytes.

•Frame Bursting allows a sender to transmit a

series of multiple frames in a single
transmission.

•If the total burst is less than 512 bytes, the

hardware pads it again.
SWITCHED ETHERNET
SWITCH ETHERNET
 SWITCH ETHERNET
•The main of the system is a switch containing a
high speed back-plane and room for typically 4 to
32 plug-in cards, each containing one to eight
connectors.

•When a station wants to transmit a frame , it

outputs a frame to switch . The plug-in card
checks to see if the frame is for the other
station on the same card.

•If so, it is copied there otherwise it is sent over

high speed back-plane to destination station’s
card.
•If two machines attached to the same plug-in
card transmit frames at the same time then

•It depends in how the card is constructed. All

ports on the same card are wired together to
form a local on-card LAN.

•Collisions on this on-card LAN are detected and

handled using CSMA/CD protocol.

•One transmission per card is possible at any

instant.
•All the cards can transmit in parallel. With this
design each card forms its own collision
domain.

•In other design, each input port is buffered, so

incoming frames are stored in the card’s on
board RAM.

•It allows all input ports to receive(and transmit)

frame at same time.
 MANCHESTER ENCODING
• Manchester coding is a very common data
coding method

• With Manchester coding, we can encode

both clock and signal into one and
transmit the signal serially

• Here data is represented by logic 0 or 1

• A logic low (0) is represented by a

transition from high to low
• A logic high (1) is represented by transition
from low to high

• The data to encode is the binary number

10010, reading from left to right

• The coding occurs on every falling edge of

the clock

• On the first falling edge of the clock, the

coded signal has a low to high transition
because data is high(1)
• On the second falling edge of clock, the
code has a high to low transition
because the data is low(0)

• The same algorithm is applied for the

rest of the signal
 ADDRESSING

• Each station on an Ethernet network has its

own network interface card (NIC). The NIC
fits inside the station and provides the
station with a 6-byte physical address. The
Ethernet address is 6 bytes (48 bits),
nominally written in hexadecimal notation,
with a colon between the bytes.
 ADVANTAGE OF ETHERNET

• Relatively low cost.

• Resistant to noise
• Good data transfer quality
• Speed
• Data security
• Reliability
 DISADVANTAGES OF ETHERNET
• Use of long cable.
• Used in small area
• Increased traffic make ethernet speed go
down
• When troubleshooting, it is hard to trace
which specific cable or node is causing the
issue
• Mobility is limited.
TOKEN RING
 OVERVIEW
◦ History of TOKEN
◦ What is Token Ring
◦ Token Representation
◦ How token ring works
◦ Token passing terminology
◦ Delayed token reinsertion
◦ Early token reinsertion
◦ Problems with token
History of token

◦ A wide range of different local area network technologies were developed in the early 1970s
◦ IBM developed token ring as an alternative to Ethernet in 1984. It was standardized by IEEE
802.5 and became very successful and popular in corporate industries but significantly
decreased in popularity because of later versions of Ethernet.
◦ The IEEE standard versions provides data transfer rates 4Mbps, 16Mbps or
100Mbps.
What is a Token Ring ?

◦ Token ring is a communication protocol based on LAN technology.

◦ It uses token, a 3-byte frame, which travel around a logical ring of workstations.
◦ It is based on channel-access method that provide all time access for all workstations without
collisions of contention access methods.
◦ In this technology all nodes are connected either in a ring or in a star topology and pass
logical tokens from host to host. Only one host that hold the token can send data and tokens
are released when the data receiving confirmation is received from the recipient.
Token Representation
Token passing in a Ring

◦ A station is authorized to send data when it receives a special frame called token
◦ Here there is no master node
◦ Tokens are exchanged among the node/workstation in some fixed order
How Token Ring Works
◦ For example the failure of one node can crash the entire channel
◦ Token passing is decentralized and highly efficient, but it has problem as well
If a node accidently neglected to release the token , then some recovery procedure must be
invoked to get the token back in circulation
A Token Ring hub simply changes the topology from a physical ring to
a star wired ring. The Token still circulates around the network and is
still controlled in the same manner, however, using a hub or a switch
greatly improves reliability because the hub can automatically bypass
any ports that are disconnected or have a cable fault.
Time Conversions-
In token passing,
Time may be expressed in seconds, bits or meters.
To convert the time from one unit to another, we use the following conversion chart-
 1.Token Passing Terminology-
Ring Latency
Cycle Time

◦ Ring Latency-
◦ Time taken by a bit to complete one revolution of the ring is called as ring latency

LET:
•Length of the ring = d
•Speed of the bit = v
•Number of stations = N
•Bit delay at each station = b
(Bit delay is the time for which a station holds
the bit before transmitting to the other side)
•d / v is the propagation delay (Tp) expressed in
seconds.
•Generally, bit delay is expressed in bits.
•So, both the terms (d / v and N x b) have different
units.
•While calculating the ring latency, both the terms are
brought into the same unit.
After conversion we have :
Cycle Time-
Time taken by the token to
complete one revolution of
the ring is called as cycle
time.
• Length of the ring = d
• Speed of the bit = v
• Number of stations = N
• Token Holding Time = THT
◦ (Token Holding Time is the time for which a
station holds the token before transmitting to the
other side
Efficiency-
Efficiency (η) = Useful Time / Total Time
Assumptions-
Token passing method assumes-
• Each station in the ring has the data to send.
• Each station sends exactly one data packet after acquiring the token.
In one cycle,
• Useful time = Sum of transmission delay of N stations since each station sends 1 data packet = N x Tt
• Total Time = Cycle time = Tp + N x THT

Token Holding Time depends on the strategy

implemented.
Token Passing Strategies-

The following two strategies are used in token passing :

1. Delayed Token Reinsertion (DTR)
2. Early Token Reinsertion(ETR)

◦ 1. Delayed Token Reinsertion-

◦ Station keeps holding the token until the last bit of the data
packet transmitted by it takes the complete revolution of the
ring and comes back to it.
Efficiency
Token Holding Time (THT) = Transmission delay + Ring
Latency
• Ring Latency = Tp + N x bit delay
• Assuming bit delay = 0 (in most cases), we get-
◦ Token Holding Time = Tt + Tp
◦ Substituting THT = Tt + Tp in the efficiency expression, we get-
◦ Efficiency
•2. Early Token Reinsertion-
Station releases the token immediately after putting its data packet to
be transmitted on the ring.
Efficiency :
Token Holding Time (THT) = Transmission delay of data packet = Tt

◦ Substituting THT = Tt in the efficiency expression, we get-

Pros and Cons of Token ring

Pros Cons
No collisions Old technology
Internal error detection and correction Slow

Stations can be easily added and Expensive hardware

removed
Problems with Token Ring
1. Source Problems:
◦ i) Orphan Packet Problem:
In case, if a station shuts down then the data
transmitted by the source will remain circulating in
the ring for a long time. In order to solve this
problem a special station is introduced in the Ring
known as Monitor Station.
◦ There is a monitor bit in the Data packet, whenever the Monitor
encounter the packet, it changes the monitor bit to 1 which was
initially 0 and after that if the Monitor encounter the packet whose
monitor bit is 1, it will discard them.
◦
• (ii) Stray Packet Problem:
Data get corrupted in such a manner that sender can’t
recognize it. Hence it will circulate in the ring for infinite
time. To solve this problem, the Monitor compute
the bit every time and when the bit is changed, Monitor is
going to remove it.
◦
 2.Destination Problems:
(i) If the Destination is Busy:
If the destination is busy or its all the buffers are full then in this case the sender will
re-transmit the data again & again.

• (ii) If the Destination is Down:

If the Destination is Down the sender will also re transmit the Data again & again,
assuming that destination is Busy.

iii) If there is some error in the Data:

In case of corrupted Data, Destination is not going to accept it. It will discard the
packet.
◦
◦ In order to solve these problems at Destination level, three bits are added into the
frame, to let the sender know about if the Destination is Down or if there is an error in
the Data.
These Three bits are A (Available), C (Copied) and E (Error).
◦ Initially all the bits will be 0. If the Data is copied or accepted by the Destination, A &
C bit will become 1.
In case the sender is available, and the data is not copied due to some error in Data
or all the Buffers are full, then Bit A will become 1 and C will remain 0. To detect if
there is an error in the packet or the Destination is busy, we use the Error bit. Error
bit will become 1 if there is any error in the Data, else it will remain 0. means
Destination is Busy. A (AVAILABLE) C (COPIED) E (ERROR)

Initial 0 0 0
Busy 1 0 0
Error 1 0 1
Copied 1 1 0
NETWORK
BRIDGE
A Bridge is a network device that
connects multiple LANs (local area
networks) together to form a larger
LAN. The process of aggregating
networks is called network
bridging. A bridge connects the
different components so that they
appear as parts of a single network.
TOKEN RING
TOKEN BUS
 A Repeater is an electronic
device that receives
a signal and retransmits it.
Repeaters are used to extend
transmissions so that the
signal can cover longer
distances or be received on
the other side of an
obstruction.
BRIDGE = REPEATER + FUNCTIONALITY OF READING THE MAC ADDRESS

BRIDGE IS A LAYER 2 DEVICE.

TYPES OF BRIDGES-

1. TRANSPARENT (DYNAMIC) BRIDGES

- THESE ARE THE BRIDGES WHERE STATIONS ARE COMPLETELY UNAWARE OF THE BRIDGE’S EXISTENCE.

- RECONFIGURATION OF STATIONS IS UNNECESSARY EVEN IF BRIDGE IS ADDED OR REMOVED FROM THE

NETWORK.

2. SOURCE ROUTING (STATIC) BRIDGES

- IN THESE BRIDGES THE ROUTING OPERATION IS PERFORMED BY SOURCE STATION AND THE FRAME SPECIFIES
WHICH ROUTE TO FOLLOW.
WORKING OF A BRIDGE -
 BRIDGE V/S ROUTER
BRIDGE- ROUTER-
SAME PROTOCOLS DIFFERENT PROTOCOLS
LAYER 2 DEVICE LAYER 3 DEVICE
 P1 P2

Source MAC Destination

Address MAC Address
MAC Port

- Forwarding

- Filtering
QUESTIONS?
FDDI
WHAT IS FDDI ?

 Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is a set of

ANSI and ISO standards for transmission of data in
local area network (LAN) over fiber optic cables.

 It is applicable in large LANs that can extend up to

200 kilometers in diameter.

 FDDI has a larger maximum-frame size than

standard 100 Mbit/s ethernet, allowing better
throughput.
 A small number of devices (such as Routers and
Concentrators) connect to both rings, hence the
term Dual Attached.
Features Of FDDI :~
 FDDI uses optical fiber as its physical medium.
 It operates in the physical and medium access
control (MAC layer) of the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) network model.
 It provides high data rate of 100 Mbps and can
support thousands of users.
 It is used in LANs up to 200 kilometers for long
distance voice and multimedia communication.
 It uses ring based token passing mechanism
and is derived from IEEE 802.4 token bus
standard.
 It contains two token rings, a primary
ring for data and token transmission and
a secondary ring that provides backup if
the primary ring fails.
 FDDI technology can also be used as a
backbone for a wide area network (WAN).
Description of FDDI :~

 FDDI uses a timed token-passing technology similar

to that of token ring networks as defined in the
IEEE 802.5 standard.
 The token passes around the ring, moving from
one node to the next.
 This feature of transmitting multiple data frames
per token capture is known as a capacity allocation
scheme.
 Every node on the ring checks the frames.
 The recipient station then reads the information
from the frames, and when the frames return to
the originating station, they are stripped from the
ring.
When FDDI network was LAUNCHED:~

 The standards process started in

the mid 1980s. FDDI-II, a version
of FDDI described in 1989, added
circuit-switched service capability to
the network so that it could also
handle voice and video signals.
Work started to connect FDDI
networks to synchronous
optical networking (SONET)
technology.
Frame Format :-

• Preamble: 1 byte for synchronization.

• Start Delimiter: 1 byte that marks the beginning of the frame.
• Frame Control: 1 byte that specifies whether this is a data frame or control frame.
• Destination Address: 2-6 bytes that specifies address of destination station.
• Source Address: 2-6 bytes that specifies address of source station.
• Payload: A variable length field that carries the data from the network layer.
• Checksum: 4 bytes frame check sequence for error detection.
• End Delimiter: 1 byte that marks the end of the frame.
HoW doEs FDDI WoRk ?
 Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is usually
implemented as a dual token-passing ring within
a ring topology (for campus networks) or star
topology (within a building).
 The dual ring consists of a primary and secondary
ring.

 The primary ring carries data. The counter-

rotating secondary ring can carry data in the
opposite direction, but is more commonly
reserved as a backup in case the primary ring
goes down.

-> Conti……
HoW doEs iT WoRk ?

 This provides FDDI with the degree

of fault tolerance necessary for
network backbones. In the event of a
failure on the primary ring, FDDI
automatically reconfigures itself to
use the secondary ring as shown in
the illustration.
 Faults can be located and repaired
using a fault isolation technique
called beaconing.
 However, the secondary ring can also
be configured for carrying data,
extending the maximum potential
bandwidth upto 200 Mbps.
 HoW doEs FDDI WoRk ?

 The workstation is connected to one (or two) ring using the

media interface connector (MIC). Depending on the
implementation, its two fiber ports can be male or female.
 There are two different FDDI implementations, depending on
whether the site is connected to one or two rings.
1. Single-attached stations (Class B stations): Use the M
port to connect to the main ring or auxiliary ring. Single-link
FDDI only uses the main ring, unlike the dual-link FDDI that
is commonly deployed on the network backbone.
2. Dual-attached stations (Class A stations): Connect to
two rings. Port A is the point where the primary ring enters
and the secondary ring leaves; port B is the opposite. M
ports provide a connection point for a single connection
station. Dual-link FDDI uses two rings, the auxiliary ring is
used as a backup for the main ring.

ADVANTAGES:~
1. It offers higher bandwidth ( upto 250 Gbps).
Hence it can handle data rates upto 100 Mbps.
2. It offers high security as it is difficult to
eavesdrop on fiber optic link.
3. Fiber optic cable does not break as easily as
other types of cables.
 DISADVANTAGES:~

1. FDDI is complex. Hence installation and

maintenance require great deal of expertise .
2. FDDI is costly.
3. The maximum circumference for an FDDI ring is 100
kilometers (or 200 kilometers for both rings
combined), and there must be a repeater every 2
kilometers or less.
Where is FDDI used?

 FDDI is used mainly in high traffic networks where large amounts of data flow
needs to flow quickly and efficiently.
 FDDI is used anywhere that utilizes a large network in need of high bandwidth.
 For example:- Businesses, the Government, hospitals and other medical fields,
stock exchanges and money markets, the automobile industry, and the media,
just to name a few.
HIGH-SPEED LANs
 Contents

• Standard Ethernet
• Fast Ethernet
• Gigabit Ethernet
• 10 Gigabit Ethernet
• Fibre Channel
• Wireless LANs
 The Emergence of High‐speed LANs
• The speed and computing power of personal computers has
continued to enjoy explosive growth. Today’s more powerful
platforms support graphics intensive applications and ever
more elaborate graphical user interfaces to the operating
system.
• MIS organizations have recognized the LAN as a viable and
indeed essential computing platform, resulting in the focus on
network computing.
• Both of these approaches involve the frequent transfer of
potentially large volumes of data in a transaction‐oriented
environment.
• The effect of these trends has been to increase the volume of
data to be handled over LANs and, because applications are
more interactive, to reduce the acceptable delay on data
transfers.
 Requirements for High‐Speed LANs
• Centralized server farms: In many applications, there is a need for
user or client systems to be able to draw huge amounts of data
from multiple centralized servers, called server farms. An example
is a color publishing operation, in which servers typically contain
hundreds of gigabytes of image data that must be downloaded to
imaging workstations. As the performance of the servers
themselves has increased, the bottleneck has shifted to the
network.
• Power workgroups: These groups typically consist of a small
number of cooperating users who need to draw massive data
files across the network. Examples are a software development
group that runs tests on a new software version, or a computer‐
aided design (CAD) company that regularly runs simulations of
new designs. In such cases, large amounts of data are distributed
to several workstations, processed, and updated at very high
speed for multipleiterations.
• High‐speed local backbone: As processing demand grows, LANs
proliferate at a site, and high‐speed interconnection is necessary.
 High‐Speed LANs
• The most widely used high‐speed LANs today are based on
Ethernet and were developed by the IEEE 802.3 standards
committee.
• To keep pace with the changing local networking needs of
business, a number of approaches to high speed LAN design
have become commercial products. The most important of these
are:
•Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet: The extension of 10‐Mbps
CSMA/CD(Standard Ethernet) to higher speeds is a logical
strategy because it tends to preserve the investment in existing
systems.
•Fibre Channel: This standard provides a low‐cost, easily
scalable approach for achieving very high data rates in local
areas.
•High‐speed wireless LANs: Wireless LAN technology and
standards have at last come of age, and high‐speed standards
and products are beingintroduced.
Characteristics of Some High‐Speed LANs
 IEEE 802
• IEEE 802 refers to a family of IEEE standards dealing with local
area networks and metropolitan area networks.
• More specifically, the IEEE 802 standards are restricted to
networks carrying variable‐sizepackets.
• The services and protocols specified in IEEE 802 map to the
lower two layers (Data Link and Physical) of the seven‐layer
OSI networking referencemodel.
• IEEE 802 splits the OSI Data Link Layer into two sub‐layers
named Logical Link Control (LLC) and Media Access Control
(MAC), so that the layers can be listed like this:
 Data link layer
‐ LLC Sublayer
‐ MAC Sublayer
 Physical layer
 The Generations of Ethernet
The original Ethernet was created in 1976 at Xerox’s Palo Alto
Research Center (PARC). Since then, it has gone through four
generations.
 Standard Ethernet
• In Standard Ethernet, the MAC sub layer governs the operation of
the access method.
• It also frames data received from the upper layer and passes them
to the physical layer forencoding.
• An Ethernet frame needs a minimum length of 512 bits or 64 bytes
and maximum length (without preamble and SFD field) as 1518
bytes.
• Standard Ethernet uses 1‐persistentCSMA/CD.

Table : Standard Ethernet implementations

 Standard Ethernet
MAC Sublayer
• In Standard Ethernet, the MAC sublayer governs the operation of the access
method.
• It also frames data received from the upper layer and passes them to the
physical layer for encoding.
Frame Format
• The Ethernet frame contains seven fields: preamble, SFD, DA, SA, length or
type of protocol data unit (PDU), upper‐layer data, and the CRC.
• Ethernet does not provide any mechanism for acknowledging received
frames, making it what is known as an unreliable medium.
Acknowledgments must be implemented at the higher layers.
 Standard Ethernet
FrameFormat
• Preamble: A 7‐octet pattern of alternating 0s and 1s used by the receiver
to establish bit synchronization.
• Start Frame Delimiter (SFD): The sequence 10101011, which indicates the
actual start of the frame and enables the receiver to locate the first bit of
the rest of theframe.
• Destination Address (DA): Specifies the station(s) for which the frame is
intended. It may be a unique physical address, a group address, or a global
address.
• Source Address (SA): Specifies the station that sent the frame.
• Length/Type: Length of LLC data field in octets, or Ethernet Type field,
depending on whether the frame conforms to the IEEE 802.3 standard or
the earlier Ethernet specification. In either case, the maximum frame size,
excluding the Preamble and SFD, is 1518octets.
• LLCData: Data unit supplied byLLC
• Pad: Octets added to ensure that the frame is long enough for proper CD
operation.
• Frame Check Sequence (FCS): A 32‐bit cyclic redundancy check, based on
all fields except preamble, SFD, and FCS.
 Standard Ethernet
Frame Length
• Ethernet has imposed restrictions on both the minimum and maximum
lengths of a frame. The minimum length restriction is required for the
correct operation of CSMA/CD.
• An Ethernet frame needs a minimum length of 512 bits or 64 bytes. Part of
this length is the header and the trailer.
• If we count 18 bytes of header and trailer, then the minimum length of
data from the upper layer is 64 ‐ 18 = 46 bytes.
• If the upper‐layer packet is less than 46 bytes, padding is added to make up
the difference.
• The maximum length of frame (without preamble and SFD field) is 151
bytes. If we subtract the 18 bytes of header and trailer, the maximum
length of the payload is 1500 bytes.
 Fast Ethernet

• IEEE created Fast Ethernet under the name 802.3u

• Fast Ethernet is backward‐compatible with Standard Ethernet,
but it can transmit data 10 times faster at a rate of 100 Mbps.
• The goals of Fast Ethernet can be summarized as follows:
1. Upgrade the data rate to 100Mbps.
2.Makeit compatible with Standard Ethernet.
3. Keep the same 48‐bitaddress.
4. Keep the same frameformat.
5. Keep the same minimum and maximum frame lengths.
• The access method is the same (CSMA/CD) for the half‐duplex
approach; for full duplex Fast Ethernet, there is no need for
CSMA/CD.
 Fast Ethernet Implementation
• Fast Ethernet can be categorized as either a two wire or a four
wire implementation.
• The two wire implementation is called 100Base‐X, which can
be either twisted pair cable (100Base‐TX) or fiber optic cable
(100Base‐FX).
• The four wire implementation is designed only for twisted pair
cable (100Base‐T4).
 Fast Ethernet Mixed Configuration
• One of the strengths of the Fast Ethernet approach is that it
supports a mixture of existing 10‐Mbps LANs and newer 100‐Mbps
LANs.
• 100‐Mbps technology can be used as a backbone LAN to support a
number of 10‐Mbpshubs.
• These hubs are in turn connected to switching hubs that conform
to 100BASE‐T and that can support both 10‐Mbps and 100‐ Mbps
links.
• Additional high‐capacity workstations and servers attach directly
to these 10/100 switches. These mixed‐capacity switches are in
turn connected to 100‐Mbps hubs using 100‐Mbps links.
• The 100‐Mbps hubs provide a building backbone and are also
connected to a router that provides connection to an outside
WAN.
Fast Ethernet Mixed Configuration
 Gigabit Ethernet
• In late 1995, the IEEE 802.3z committee formed a High‐Speed
Study Group to investigate means for conveying packets in
Ethernet format at speeds in the gigabits per second range.
• As more organizations move to 100BASE‐T, putting huge traffic
loads on backbone networks, demand for Gigabit Ethernet has
intensified.
• Provides speeds of 1000 Mbps (i.e., 1Gbps) for half‐duplex and
full‐duplex operation.
• The 1000‐Mbps specification calls for the same CSMA/CD frame
format and MAC protocol as used in the 10‐Mbps and 100‐Mbps
version of IEEE802.3.
• All Gigabit Ethernet configurations are point‐to‐point!
Gigabit Ethernet Configuration
 10‐Gbps Ethernet
• The principle driving requirement for 10 Gigabit Ethernet is the
increase in Internet and intranet traffic. A number of factors
contribute to the explosive growth in both Internet and
intranet traffic:
• An increase in the number of network connections.
• An increase in the connection speed of each end‐station (e.g.,
10 Mbps users moving to 100 Mbps, analog 56‐kbps users
moving to DSL and cable modems).
• An increase in the deployment of bandwidth‐intensive
applications such as high‐qualityvideo.
• An increase in Web hosting and application hosting traffic.
 10‐Gbps Ethernet
• Initially network managers will use 10‐Gbps Ethernet to
provide high‐speed, local backbone interconnection between
large‐capacity switches.
• As the demand for bandwidth increases, 10‐Gbps Ethernet
will be deployed throughout the entire network and will
include server farm, backbone, and campus wide connectivity.
• This technology enables Internet service providers (ISPs) and
network service providers (NSPs) to create very high‐speed
links at a low cost, between co‐located, carrier class switches
and routers.
 10‐Gbps Ethernet Implementation
10GBASE‐S (short): Designed for 850‐nm transmission on multimode
fiber. This medium can achieve distances up to 300 m.
10GBASE‐L (long): Designed for 1310‐nm transmission on single‐
mode fiber. This medium can achieve distances up to 10 km.
10GBASE‐E (extended): Designed for 1550‐nm transmission on
single‐mode fiber. This medium can achieve distances up to 40 km.
10GBASE‐LX4: Designed for 1310‐nm transmission on single‐mode or
multimode fiber. This medium can achieve distances up to 10 km.
10‐Gbps Ethernet Configuration
 40 & 100 Gbps Ethernet

• IEEE P802.3ba Task Force states that bandwidth requirements

for computing and networking applications are growing at
different rates, which necessitates two distinct data rates, 40
Gb/s and 100 Gb/s
• IEEE target for standard completion of 40 GbE & 100 GbE in
2010.
• 40 GbE products shipping today supporting existing fiber plant
and plan is for 100 GbE to also support 10m copper, 100m
MMF and SMF.
• Cost of 40 GbE or 100 GbE is currently 5 – 10 x 10 GbE.
 Fibre Channel
• As the speed and memory capacity of personal computers,
workstations, and servers have grown, and as applications have
become ever more complex with greater reliance on graphics
and video, the requirement for greater speed in delivering data
to the processor hasgrown.
• This requirement affects two methods of data communications
with the processor: I/O channel and network communications.
• An I/O channel is a direct point‐to‐point or multipoint
communications link, predominantly hardware based and
designed for high speed over very short distances.
• The I/O channel transfers data between a buffer at the source
device and a buffer at the destination device, moving only the
user contents from one device to another, without regard to the
format ormeaning of the data.
 Fibre Channel
• Many smallrealbusinesses
government, and organizations—
estate, and insurance from and
agencies to school local

university departments—require fast, frequent access to

database files.
• Such workgroups would benefit greatly from the speed and
reliability of a storage area network with Fibre Channel
switching.
 Fibre Channel Features
• Full‐duplex links with twofibers per link
• Performance from 100 Mbps to 800 Mbps on a single line
(full‐duplex 200 Mbps to 1600 Mbps per link)
• Support for distances up to 10 km
• Small connectors
• High‐capacity utilization with distanceinsensitivity
• Greater connectivity than existing multi dropchannels
• Broad availability (i.e., standard components)
• Support for multiple cost/performance levels, from small
systems to supercomputers
• Ability to carry multiple existing interface command sets for
existing channel and networkprotocols
 Fibre Channel Network
• The Fibre Channel network is quite different from the IEEE 802 LANs.
• Fibre Channel is more like a traditional circuit‐switching or packet‐
switching network, in contrast to the typical shared‐medium LAN.
• Fibre Channel need not be concerned with medium access control
issues.
• The key elements of a Fibre Channel network are the end systems,
called nodes, and the network , which consists of one or more
switching elements referred to as a fabric.
• These fabrics are interconnected by point‐to‐point links between
ports onthe individual nodes and switches.
• Communication consists of the transmission of frames across the
point‐to‐point links.
 Fibre Channel Physical Media
• Fibre Channel can readily accommodate new transmission
media and data rates.
• The transmission media options that are available under Fibre
Channel include shielded twisted pair, video coaxial cable, and
optical fiber.
• Standardized data rates range from 100 Mbps to 3.2 Gbps.
• Point‐to‐point link distances range from 33 m to 10 km.
 Wireless LAN

• A wireless LAN or WLAN is a wireless local area network that

uses radio waves as its carrier.
• The last link with the users is wireless, to give a network
connection to all users in a building or campus, the backbone
network usually uses cables.
• Wireless communication is one of the fastest‐growing
technologies.
• The demand for connecting devices without the use of cables
is increasing everywhere.
• Wireless LANs can be found on college campuses, in office
buildings, and in many publicareas.
• IEEE 802.11 defined the specifications for a wireless LAN
which covers the physical and data link layers.
 Wireless LAN

Single CellWLAN Multi CellWLAN

 Wireless Fidelity (Wi‐Fi)
• Wi‐Fi is a wireless technology that uses radio frequency to transmit data
through the air.
• Wi‐Fi the short form of Wireless Fidelity is meant to be used
generically when referring to any type of 802.11 network, whether
802.11b, 802.11a, 802.11getc
• The Wireless Ethernet Compatibility Alliance started the Wi‐Fi
certification program to ensure that equipment claiming 802.11
compliance was genuinely interoperable.
• 802.11b was first to reach the marketplace. It is the slowest and least
expensive of the three. 802.11b transmits at 2.4 GHz and go up to 11
Mbps.
• 802.11a was next. It operates at 5 GHz and can handle up to 54 Mbps.
• 802.11g is a mix of both worlds. It operates at 2.4Ghz (giving it the cost
advantage of 802.11b) but it has the 54Mbps speed of 802.11a. It is
also backward compatible to802.11b.
• Most Wi‐Fi cards nowadays are capable of all three of these radio
technologies.
 Wireless Personal Area Network(WPAN)

• Wireless personal area networks (WPANs) are used to convey

information over short distances among a private, intimate
group of participantdevices.
• Unlike a wireless local area network (WLAN), a connection
made through a WPAN involves little or no infrastructure or
direct connectivity to the world outside the link.
• This allows small, power‐efficient, inexpensive solutions to be
implemented for a wide range of devices.
• Two common protocol for WPANare:
‐ IEEE 802.15.1 WPAN (Bluetooth)
‐ IEEE 802.15.4 LR‐WPAN(ZigBee)
 Bluetooth
• A widely used WPAN technology is known as Bluetooth (version 1.2 or
version 2.0).
• Bluetooth is a wireless LAN technology designed to connect devices of
different functions such as telephones, notebooks, computers (desktop and
laptop), cameras, printers, coffee makers, and soon.
• A Bluetooth LAN is an ad hoc network, which means that the network is
formed spontaneously; the devices, sometimes called gadgets, find each
other and make a network called a piconet.
• A Bluetooth LAN can even be connected to the Internet if one of the
gadgets has thiscapability.
• A Bluetooth LAN, by nature, cannot be large.
• If there are many gadgets that try to connect, there is chaos.
• Peripheral devices such as a wireless mouse or keyboard can communicate
with the computer through this technology.
• The current data rate is 1 Mbps with a 2.4‐GHz bandwidth.
• This means that there is a possibility of interference between the IEEE
802.11b wireless LANs and Bluetooth LANs.
 Piconets
• A Bluetooth network is called a piconet, or a small net that can have up
to eight stations, one of which is called the primary and the rest are
called secondaries.
• All the secondary stations synchronize their clocks and hopping
sequence with the primary.
• Note that a piconet can have only one primary station.
• The communication between the primary and the secondary can be
one‐to‐one or one‐to‐many.
 Scatternet
• Piconets can be combined to form a scatternet.
• A secondary station in one piconet can be the primary in another
piconet.
• This station can receive messages from the primary in the first
piconet (as a secondary) and, acting as a primary, deliver them to
secondaries in the secondpiconet.
• A station can be a member of two piconets.
 ZigBee
• IEEE 802.15.4 LR‐WPAN is a low rate wireless personal area network
which is commonly known as Zig‐Bee.
• ZigBee technology is simpler (and less expensive) than Bluetooth.
• The main objectives of an LR‐WPAN like ZigBee are:
‐ ease of installation,
‐ reliable data transfer,
‐ short‐range operation,
‐ extremely low cost, and
‐ a reasonable batterylife,
‐ simple and flexible protocol.
• The raw data rate will be high enough (maximum of 250 kbit/s) to
satisfy a set of simple needs such as interactive toys, but is also
scalable down to the needs of sensor and automation needs (20 kbit/s
or below) using wireless communications.
 Wi‐MAX

• Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (Wi‐MAX) is a

certification mark for products that pass conformity and
interoperability tests for the IEEE 802.16 standards.
• Use wireless links with microwave or millimeter wave radios at 10‐66
GHz and 802.16a extension to 2‐11 GHz (Mobile extensions: 802.16e)
• Use licensed spectrum (unlicensed too in 802.16a)
• Metropolitan in scale
• Provide public network service to fee‐paying customers
• Point‐to‐multipoint architecture with rooftop or tower‐mounted
antennas.
• Provide efficient transport of heterogeneous traffic supporting QoS
• Capable of broadband transmissions at 2‐75 Mbps)
 Wi‐MAX
• WiMax is well suited to offer both
fixed and mobile access
• WiMAX is expected to provide fixed ,
nomadic, portable and, eventually,
mobile wireless broadband
connectivity without the need for
direct line‐of‐sight (LOS) with a base
station.
• In a typical cell radius deployment of
three to ten kilometers, WiMAX
systems can be expected to deliver
capacity of up to 40 Mbps per
channel, for fixed and portable
access applications.
• Mobile network deployments are
expected to provide up to 15 Mbps
of capacity within a typical cell radius
deployment of up to three
kilometers.
LAN PROTOCOLS
 Network Protocols
Set of rules that governs the communications between
computers on a network.
Some common networking protocols-
Transmission Control Protocol(TCP/IP) – a
protocol used within the internet to transfer
data packets and the network layer protocol
associated with it is the internet protocol/IP
protocol.
Internet Packet Exchange(IPX) – a protocol
that route and relay packets over the total LAN.
File Transfer Protocol(FTP) – a protocol that
allows exchange of files from server to client
or from client to server.
 LAN protocols
 Set of rules and regulations that are needed to
create a local area network
 Various protocols standards associated with LANs
are all part of IEEE 802 series.
Some examples of IEEE series LAN standards are-
802.1 Station management
802.1d Transparent bridges
802.2 Logical link control
802.3 CSMA/CD
802.3u Fast Ethernet
802.3z Gigabit Ethernet
802.5 Token ring
 Know more about LAN
 There is a range of different types of LAN each of
which uses a different methods like different MAC
method, transmission medium and transmission
mode.
 With reference to OSI model, differences manifest
only at the data link layer and physical layer.
 Technologies such as Ethernet, token ring,
wireless LAN work on the data link layer of OSI
model.
 Data link layer
Divided into 2 sub-layers-
Logical link control layer(LLC)
• Establish and control logical links between local
devices on a network.
• Provides services to the network layer above it
and physical layer below it.
• It hides the details of data link layer.
• Adds control information to help deliver the
packet to the destination (flow control)
• Most local area networking technologies use the
IEEE 802.2 LLC protocol.
Media access control layer (MAC)
 Constitutes the lower layer of the data link layer
 Sub-layer that defines procedures used by local
devices to control access to the network medium.
 Typically links to the computer NIC.
 Places frames on the media and remove frames
from the media.
 Manages and provide rules to avoid conflicts in a
network.
 Two primary responsibility-
Data encapsulation
Media access control
LAN protocols are generally divided into 2 types
ALOHA
PURE ALOHA
SLOTTED ALOHA
CSMA
CSMA/CA
CSMA/CD
ALOHA is obsolete protocol.
CSMA/CD is used in Ethernet.
CSMA/CA is used in wireless LAN.
 ALOHA
 Simple communication scheme
 Each source in a network sends data whenever
there is a frame to send.
 When frame reaches successfully, next frame is
sent, if frame fails to send, then same frame is
retransmitted.
 Aloha works perfectly in half duplex mode.
 This is an obsolete protocol.
 Nowadays, CSMA/CD is commonly used
protocol.
 Pure ALOHA Slotted ALOHA
1. Stations send data 1. Transmission time is
whenever they have any broken into slots
data
2. More chances of collision 2. Less chance of collision.
3. Stations wait for the 3. The data packets are not
acknowledgement from allowed to be transmitted
the receivers end. in between of any time
slot.
PURE ALOHA SLOTTED ALOHA
 CSMA(Carrier Sense Multiple Access)

 Carrier means shared medium and sense means a node that

can listen and detect.
 Principle of CSMA- “sense before transmit” or “listen before
talk”.
 When the medium is not busy the node sends the signals, if
it detects the medium busy, it will back off and wait for a
random amount of time.
 Here, multiple transmitters access the same carrier wave
before transmission.
 The possibility of collision still exist because of propagation
delay.
 CSMA/CD
(Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection)
 Is an old technology such as old Ethernet and hub.
 Widely used on LANs in the MAC sub layer.
 Common example : Ethernet
 Rather than finish transmitting frames they stop
transmitting if the collision is detected and then
wait for a random amount of time and resend the
data.
 After collision, they decide randomization
technique that which one to go first.
 Saves time and saves bandwidth.
 CSMA/CA
 Carrier sense multiple access with collision
avoidance
 Its a method used for wireless local area network.
 Nature of wireless medium makes it harder to
detect collision CSMA/CA tries to prevent
collisions before it happens.
 Avoid collision in the first place.
 Wireless LAN use CSMA/CA protocol.
 Token Passing
• Protocol used in token ring.
• As name suggests, author sends the data as when it
receives the special frame called a token.
• Here, there is no master node
• Frame in the form of token is exchanged among
the nodes in some fixed order
• Avoid collision as data is transferred as only when
token is received.
 Upon the completion of the session, we are able to
learn-
 DATA LINK LAYER- (LLC, MAC)
 Multiple access LAN protocols
(ALOHA,CSMA/CA,CSMA/CD)
 CONTROLLED ACCESS LAN PROTOCOLS –
(TOKEN PASSING)
Introduction to Internet
 What Is The Internet?

• The Internet is a computer network that

interconnects hundreds of millions of
computing devices throughout the world.
• These computing devices were primarily
traditional desktop PCs, Linux
workstations, and so-called servers that
store and transmit information such as
Web pages and e-mail messages.
 What is the Internet?

• Increasingly, however, nontraditional

Internet end systems such as laptops,
smartphones, tablets,TVs, gaming
consoles, Web cams, automobiles,
environmental sensing devices, picture
frames, and home electrical and security
systems are being connected to the
Internet.
 History of Internet

• The computer networking revolution began

in the early 1960s.
• The Internet was first invented for military
purposes, and then expanded to the
purpose of communication among
scientists.
• The invention also came about in part by
the increasing need for computers in the
1960s
 History of Internet

• During the Cold War, it was essential to

have communications links between
military and university computers that
would not be disrupted by bombs or
enemy spies. In order to solve the problem,
in 1968 DARPA (Defense Advanced
Research Projects Agency) made
contracts with BBN (Bolt, Beranek and
Newman) to create ARPANET (Advanced
Research Projects Agency Network).
 The Development of Packet Switching:
1961–1972
• The field of computer networking and
today’s Internet trace their beginnings
back to the early 1960s, when the
telephone network was the world’s
dominant communication network. Given
the increasing importance of computers in
the early 1960s and the advent of
timeshared computers, it was perhaps
natural to consider how to hook computers
together so that they could be shared
among geographically distributed users.
 Packet Switch

• Three research groups around the world,

each unaware of the others’ work [Leiner
1998], began inventing packet switching
as an efficient and robust alternative to
circuit switching.
• The first published work on packet-
switching techniques was that of Leonard
Kleinrock [Kleinrock 1961; Kleinrock 1964],
then a graduate student at MIT.
 Packet Switch

• In 1964,Paul Baran [Baran 1964] at the

Rand Institute had begun investigating the
use of packet switching for secure voice
over military networks, and at the National
Physical Laboratory in England, Donald
Davies and Roger Scantlebury were also
developing their ideas on packet switching.
• The work at MIT, Rand, and the NPL laid
the foundations for today’s Internet.
 Packet Switch

• On Labor Day in 1969, the first packet

switch was installed at UCLA under
Kleinrock’s supervision, and three
additional packet switches were installed
shortly thereafter at the Stanford Research
Institute (SRI), UC Santa Barbara, and the
University of Utah.
An Early Packet Switch
 Packet Switch

• In the ARPAnet community, many of the

final pieces of today’s Internet architecture
were falling into place. January 1, 1983
saw the official deployment of TCP/IP as
the new standard host protocol for
ARPAnet (replacing the NCP protocol).
 Packet Switch

• In the late 1980s,important extensions

were made to TCP to implement host-
based congestion control.The DNS, used
to map between a human-readable
Internet name and its 32-bit IP address,
was also developed.
 How Internet Works?

• The Internet is a computer network that

interconnects hundreds of millions of
computing devices throughout the world.
• In Internet jargon, all of these devices are
called hosts or end systems.
• End systems are connected together by a
network of communication links and
packet switches.
 How Internet Works?

• There are many types of communication

links, which are made up of different types
of physical media, including coaxial cable,
copper wire, optical fiber, and radio
spectrum.
• When one end system has data to send to
another end system, the sending end
system segments the data and adds
header bytes to each segment.
 How Internet Works?

• The resulting packages of information,

known as packets in the jargon of
computer networks, are then sent through
the network to the destination end system,
where they are reassembled into the
original data.
• A packet switch takes a packet arriving on
one of its incoming communication links
and forwards that packet on one of its
outgoing communication links.
How Internet Works?
 Internet :A Services Description

• An infrastructure that provides services to

applications.
• These applications include electronic mail,
Web surfing, social networks, instant
messaging, Voice over-IP (VoIP), video
streaming, distributed games, peer-to-peer
(P2P) file sharing, television over the
Internet, remote login, and much, much
more.
TCP/IP
IP Datagram

1
 TCP/IP

TCP/IP forms the basis for all Internet communication.

TCP/IP includes protocols for both:

• An unreliable connectionless delivery service (UDP)

• A reliable connection-oriented service (TCP)

Both UDP and TCP run at Layer 4 on top of the IP .

2
IP Datagram
• A datagram is a self-contained, independent entity of data carrying sufficient
information to be routed from the source to the destination computer without
reliance on earlier exchanges between this source and destination computer
and the transporting network.
• IPv4 was the first version deployed for production on SATNET in 1982 and
on the ARPANET in January 1983. It still routes most Internet traffic today,
despite the ongoing deployment of a successor protocol, IPv6.

3
 IP Datagrams

How does a packet (IP Datagram) travel across the Internet?

A host:
• creates a packet
• places the destination address in the packet header
• sends the packet to a nearby router

A router
• receives a packet
• uses the destination address to select the next router on the path
• forwards the packet

Eventually, the packet reaches a router that can deliver the packet to its final
destination.

Datagram service is connectionless i.e. there is no consideration given to the

order in which it and other datagrams are sent or received.
Infact many datagrams of the same group can travel along different paths before 4
reaching the same destination.
 IP Datagrams (cont’d)

Datagram service is unreliable.

IP defines a packet format that is independent of the hardware.

• IP Datagram format is not tied directly to any hardware

• The underlying hardware does not understand or recognize an IP datagram
• Instead, each host or router in the Internet contains protocol software that
recognizes the IP datagrams.

Each datagram consists of a header followed by data area (payload):

• The amount of data carried in a datagram is not fixed

• The size of a datagram is determined by the application that sends data
• A datagram can contain as little as a single byte of data or at most 65K bytes
(approx)

5
 IP Datagram Header (Version 4)

What does a datagram header contain?

• It contains the IP address of the destination (the ultimate recipient) which is
used to forward the datagram

The datagram header also contains information, such as:

• the IP address of the source (the original sender)
• and a field that specifies the type of data being carried in the payload

Note: Each address in the

datagram header is an IP
address

Note: Each field in an IP

datagram header has a
fixed size
This makes header
processing efficient.
6
Header size(20-60 Bytes)
+ 65535=216
Payload size(0-65515 Bytes)
7
Version
• Each datagram begins with a 4-bit protocol version number (the figure
shows a version 4 header)
• Current version number is 4 4 Bit
• Next version is 6

IHL(Internet Header Length)

• Specifies the length of header, in 32-bit words
(If no options, the value is 5)

To find the length we use multiply by 4 method

If no option, the value is 5 (0101)
5*4=20 bytes (minimum size of the header)
therefore we can’t use values from 0 to 4.
If value is 9 (1001) then,
9*4= 36 bytes

8
Version
• Each datagram begins with a 4-bit protocol version number (the figure
shows a version 4 header) 4 Bit
• Current version number is 4
• Next version is 6

IHL(Internet Header Length)

• Specifies the length of header, in 32-bit words
(If no options, the value is 5)

To find the length we use multiply by 4 method

If no option, the value is 5 (0101)
5*4=20 bytes (minimum size of the header)
therefore we can’t use values from 0 to 4.
If value is 9 (1001) then,
9*4= 36 bytes

Available
options for
IHL 9
Types of Service
• 8-bit field that carries a class of service for the datagram (seldom used in
practice)
• Nowadays called as DSCP (Differentiated Services Code Point)

10
Total Length
• 16-bit integer that specifies the total number of bytes in the datagram (both
header and data)
• Since this field is 16 bit wide, the maximum length of an IP datagram is
65535 bytes, though most are much smaller

11
Identification
• 16-bit number (usually sequential) assigned to the datagram (used in
fragments, too)
• This field is used by the recipient to reassemble messages without
accidentally mixing fragments from different messages. This is needed
because fragments may arrive from multiple messages mixed together, since
IP datagrams can be received out of order from any device

12
Flags
• 3-bit field with individual bits specifying whether the datagram is a
fragment

Fragment Offset
• It is a 13-bit field.
• When fragmentation of a message occurs, this field specifies the position, in
the overall message where the data in this fragment goes. The first fragment
has an offset of 0. (the value of the field is multiplied by 8 to obtain an
offset)

13
Time to Live
• 8-bit integer initialized by the original sender; decremented by each router
that processes the datagram
• If the value reaches zero (0), the datagram is discarded and an error message
is sent back to the source saying something like-
Time Limit Exceeded
Protocol
• 8-bit field that specifies the higher layer protocol of the payload

14
Header Checksum
• 16-bit ones-complement checksum of header fields
• It is calculated by dividing the header bytes into words (a word is two bytes)
and then adding them together
• The data is not check-summed, only the header.
• At each router the datagram does the same checksum calculation and on a
mismatch, discards the datagram as damaged.

15
Source IP Address
• 32-bit Internet address of the original sender (the addresses of intermediate
routers are not in the header)

Destination IP Address
• 32-bit Internet address of the ultimate destination

IP Options
• Optional header fields used to control routing and datagram processing
(seldom used)

Padding
• If options do not end on a 32-bit boundary, zero bits of padding are added to
make the header a multiple of 32 bits

16
 Forwarding an IP Datagram

The Internet uses next-hop forwarding.

Each router along the path:

• receives the datagram

• extracts the destination address from the header
• uses the destination address & forwarding Table to determine the next hop to
which the datagram should be sent
• then the router forwards the datagram to the next hop (either the final
destination or another router)

The forwarding table is filled with entries by the routing algorithm.

The forwarding table is initialized when the router boots and must be updated if the
topology changes or hardware fails.

17
 Forwarding an IP Datagram (cont’d)

Figure shows an example of internet and the contents of a forwarding table for 18
router R2
 Network Prefix Extraction

• The router uses the forwarding table to select the next hop for a datagram this
process is called forwarding.
• The mask field in a forwarding table entry is used to extract the network
portion of an address.

The computation to examine the ith entry in the table can be as:

if ( (Mask[i] & D) == Destination[i] ) forward to NextHop[i]

19
 The IP Protocol (Layer 3)

IP uses “Best Effort” Service.

IP makes the best effort it can to deliver each datagram, but it does not guarantee that it
will handle all problems, such as:
• Datagram duplication
• Delayed or out-of-order delivery
• Corruption of data
• Datagram loss
IP is designed to run over any type of network.

These errors are handled by higher layers of the stack.

• TCP handles these errors
• UDP ignores most of these errors

20
 Encapsulation

When IP datagram is encapsulated in a hardware frame, the entire datagram is placed

in the data area of the frame.

• The network hardware treats the IP datagram like any other frame.
• The hardware does not examine the data area of the frame.
• The sender and receiver must agree on the value used in the frame type field of
the frame header in order to know the incoming frame contains an IP datagram.
• Encapsulation also requires the sender to supply the physical address of the
next computer to which the datagram should be sent (using the ARP
command).
• Encapsulation applies to one transmission at a time (i.e., to one hop across the
network at a time).

21
 MTU

Defn: The maximum transmission unit (MTU) is the maximum amount of data that a
frame can carry.

Each hardware technology specifies its own MTU.

• There is no exception to the MTU limit.
• A datagram must be smaller or equal to the MTU in order to be transmitted.

Difficulty: In a heterogeneous network, a router can connect networks with different

MTUs.

22
IPv6 Datagram Format

 Why IPv6 datagram when we had IPv4 datagram?

IPv6 increases the size of the IP address from 32 to 128 bits. This ensures that
the world won’t run out of IP addresses.

A number of IPv4 fields have been dropped or made optional. The resulting 40-
byte fixed-length header allows for faster processing of the IP datagram. A new
encoding of options allows for more flexible options processing.
23
Version
• This 4-bit field identifies the IP version number.(0110 -fixed)
Traffic Class
• This 8-bit field is similar in spirit to the Type Of Service field we saw in
IPv4
Flow Label
• This 20-bit field is used to identify a flow of datagrams
Payload Length
• This 16-bit value is treated as an unsigned integer giving the number of
bytes in the IPv6 datagram following the fixed-length, 40-byte datagram
header.
Next header
• This field identifies the protocol to which the contents (data field) of this
datagram will be delivered. The filed uses the same values as the protocol
field in the IPv4 header.
Hop limit
• The contents of this field are decremented by one by each router that
forward the datagram. If the hop limit count reaches zero, the datagram is
discarded.
Source and destination addresses
• The formats of IPv6 have 128-bit addresses .
Data 24
• This is the payload portion of the IPv6 datagram. When the datagram
reaches its destination, the payload will be removed from the IP datagram
and passed on to the protocol specified in the next header field.
 Fields no longer present in IPv6
We see that there are a few fields that exist in IPv4, but are no longer present in
IPv6.
Fragmentation/Reassembly
• IPv6 does not allow for fragmentation and reassembly at intermediate
routers, these operations can be performed only by the source and
destination. If an IPv6 datagram received by a router is too large to be
forwarded over the outgoing link, the router simply drops the datagram and
send a “Packet Too Big” error message back to the sender.
• The sender can then resend the data, using a smaller IP datagram size.
Fragmentation and reassembly is a time-consuming operation
Header Checksum
• Because the transport-layer (TCP and UDP) and link-layer (Ethernet)
protocols in the internet layers perform checksumming, the designers of IP
probably felt that this functionality was sufficiently redundant in the
network layer that it could be removed. Once again, fast procession of IP
packets was a central concern. Since the IPv4 header contains a TTL field
(similar to hop limit in IPv6), the IPv4 header checksum needed to be
recomputed at every router. As with fragmentation and reassembly , this too
was a costly operation in IPv4.
Options
• An options field is no longer a part of the standard IP header. However, it
has not gone away. Instead, the options field is one of the possible next
headers pointed to from within the IPv6 header. That is, just as TCP or UDP 25
protocol headers can be the next header within an IP packet, so too can an
options field. The removal of the options field results in a fixed-length, 40-
byte IP header.
Difference between IPv4 datagram format and IPv6 Datagram
format
IPv4
• IPv4 has 32-bit address length
• In IPv4 end to end connection
integrity is Unachievable
• Address representation of IPv4 is
in decimal
• Fragmentation performed by
Sender and forwarding routers
• In IPv4 checksum field is
available
• IPv4 has header of 20-60 bytes.
IPv6
• IPv6 has 128-bit address length
• In IPv6 end to end connection
integrity is Achievable
• Address Representation of IPv6
is in hexadecimal
• In IPv6 fragmentation performed
only by original sender and
receiver
• In IPv6 checksum field is not
available
• IPv6 has header of 40 bytes fixed
26
 IP
FRAGMENTATION
INTRODUCTION

 Abstract— IP packet fragmentation and reassembly is that, a packet is split into

several pieces (fragments) that fit into packet size of the link to be traversed and
combine (reassemble) these pieces or fragments at the receiving node to form original
packet or datagram.
REVISITING PREVIOUS CONCEPTS

 IP
 The Internet Protocol (IP) is the method or protocol which enables
communication between the networks.
 Each computer or host has unique IP address on the internet and across the
network data can be delivered from source host to the destination host solely based
on the IP addresses.
 The internet layer has the IP data attached with the IP header.
 THE IP DATAGRAM
 Formally, the unit of IP data delivery is called a datagram.
 It is Low-level communication model provided by Internet.
 Each packet self-contained :
 All the information needed to get to destination

 No advance setup or connection maintenance

 It Includes header area and data area.

 The IP header is 20 to 60 bytes in length and contains information which is
essential to routing and delivery.
IP DATAGRAM FORMAT
bit # 0 7 8 15 16 23 24 31
header
version DS ECN total length (in bytes)
length
D M
Identification 0 Fragment offset
F F
time-to-live (TTL) protocol header checksum

source IP address

destination IP address

options (0 to 40 bytes)

payload

4 bytes

 20 bytes ≤ Header Size < 24 x 4 bytes = 60 bytes

 20 bytes ≤ Total Length < 216 bytes = 65536 bytes
THE FIELDS OF IP HEADER MAINLY USED FOR
FRAGMENTATION AND REASSEMBLY ARE:

 Total length : 8 bit field. This specifies the total number of bytes of the data plus the header.
 Identification field : The identification is 16 bits field. Each IP datagram is given the
identifier which is assigned by the sender to aid in reassembling the fragments of a datagram.
 Flags: The flags are 3 bit field. Bit 0, bit 1 and bit 2. These flag bits are important while
fragmentation and reassembly. The bit 0 is reserved and always set to 0. The bit 1 is DF bit
tells whether the packet is to fragment or not and the bit 2 is MF bit tells whether the fragment
is last fragment or there may be some more fragments to reassemble.
 Fragment offset: The fragment offset is 13 bits field. This value is a multiple of eight bytes.
This fragment offset gives the position of the fragment and places where a fragment belongs
in the original IP datagram.
 Source IP Address: 32 bit internet address of the original sender.

 Destination IP Address: 32 bit internet address of the receiver.

MAXIMUM TRANSMISSION UNIT (MTU)
 Maximum size of IP datagram is 65536 bytes, but the data link layer protocol generally
imposes a limit that is much smaller.
 Example:
 Ethernet frames have a maximum payload of 1500 bytes

 IP datagrams encapsulated in Ethernet frame cannot be longer than 1500 bytes

 The limit on the maximum IP datagram size, imposed by the data link protocol is called
maximum transmission unit (MTU)
IP FRAGMENTATION
 When a datagram is small enough, it is originally transmitted as a single unit and arrives at its
final destination.
 When an IP datagram size is too large than the maximum packet size (MTU size) to be
traversed, then datagram has to be split into several pieces that fits into the packet size of the
link to be traversed called as fragmentation. It allows the fragments to be further fragmented
and fragments are allowed to take the different routes to traverse and reach destination host.
 This pieces are called fragments.
 This Fragments are still IP packets.
 This Fragments are still IP packets.

 Only the Original data field is fragmented and New headers are created for each Fragment.

 The same datagram can be fragmented several times.

 The Fragmentation is done by Routers.

IP datagram H Fragment 2 H2 Fragment 1 H1

Router
FRAGMENTATION AND IP FIELDS
 Identification Field
 IP packet has a 16-bit Identification field.

 When router fragments, it places the original Identification field value in the Identification
field of each fragment.
 It Allows receiving host’s internet layer process know what fragments belong to each
original packet.
 It works even if an IP packet is fragmented several times.

47 47 47 47
Original IP Packet Fragments
FRAGMENTATION AND IP FIELDS
 Fragment Offset Field
 Fragment offset field (13 bits) is used to reorder fragments with the same Identification field.

 It Contains the data field’s starting point from the start of the data field in the original IP
packet.
 Receiving host’s internet layer process assembles fragments in order of increasing fragment
offset field value.
 This works even if fragments arrive out of order.

 This works even if fragmentation occurs multiple times.

Fragment Offset Field

720 210 0
FRAGMENTATION AND IP FIELDS
 Flags (3 bits)
 First bit always set to 0.

 DF bit set: Datagram cannot be fragmented and must be discarded if MTU is too small.
 MF bit set: This datagram is part of a fragment and an additional fragment follows this one.

 Total length
 Total length of the current fragment in bytes
DEFRAGMENTATION (REASSEMBLY)

 The fragments or pieces of a datagram have to be combined (reassemble) at the receiving

node called as reassembly.
 The fragment offset field (which gives the position of the fragment) and total length are
together used to place all the fragments in the right order.
 Internet layer process on destination host defragments, restoring the original packet.

 IP Defragmentation only occurs once.

 The reassembled packet can be passed to the upper layer for further processing.
 Why not re-assemble at intermediate routers?
 All fragments must go through same router.
 Need large buffers at routers so that buffers may fill with all the fragments.
 Routers have enough work to do already without having to reassemble stuff.

 But there are algorithms which implement Intermediate reassembly.

FRAGMENTATION: RECAP
 IP Fragmentation
 Data field of a large IP packet is fragmented.

 The fragments are sent into a series of smaller IP packets fitting a network’s MTU.
 Fragmentation is done by routers.
 Fragmentation may be done multiple times along the route.
DEFRAGMENTATION: RECAP
 IP Defragmentation
 All IP packets resulting from the fragmentation of the same
original IP packet have the same Identification field value.
 Defragmentation (reassembly) is done once, by destination
host’s internet layer process.
 More Fragments field tells whether there are no more
fragments coming.
IP ADDRESS
 CONTENT
■ HISTORY
■ DEFINITION
■ UNDERSTANDING IP ADDRESS
■ FORMATS OF IP ADDRESS
■ PARTS OF IP ADDRESS
■ CLASSES OF IP ADDRESS
■ IPv4 and IPv6
HISTORY
■ Internet Protocol (IP) technology was developed in the 1970s to
support some of the first research computer networks.

■ Today, IP has become a worldwide standard for home and business

networking as well. Our network routers, Web browsers, email
programs, instant messaging software - all rely on IP or other
network protocols layered on top of IP .

■ Essentially all home computer networks use IP version 4 (IPv4), but

an increasing number of educational and research institutions have
adopted the next generation IP version 6 (IPv6 ) .
 TERMS
Before heading deeper into IP address we should be aware of the
following terms
 BIT – A bit is a single digit with a value of 0 or 1 .
 Byte – A byte is composed of 8 bits
 Octet – An octet is also made up of 8 bits
 Network address - This refers to a remote network in term of
routing .
all hosts in the remote network fall within this address .
For example : 192.168.1.0 , 172.16.0.0 and 10.0.0.0
 TERMS

■ Broadcast address – This is the address used to send data

to all hosts in a network.
The broadcast address 255.255.255.255 refers to all
hosts in all networks, while an address such as
192.168.1.255 refers to all hosts in a particular network.
DEFINITION
An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label
assigned to each device connected to a compuer network that uses
the internet protocol for communication.
An IP address serves two main functions: host or network
interface identification and location addressing .
 A network host is a computer or other device connected to a
computer network .
 A network address is an identifier for a node or host on
a telecommunications network. Network addresses are designed
to be unique identifiers across the network,
 Understanding IP Address
 The IP address space is managed globally by the
Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), and
by five regional Internet registries (RIR) responsible
in their designated territories for assignment to end
users and local Internet registries, such as Internet
service providers (ISP).

 The IPv4 standard is most familiar to people and

supported everywhere on the Internet, but the new
IPv6 standard is gradually relacing it. IPv4 addresses
consist of four bytes (32 bits), while IPv6 addresses
are 16 bytes (128 bits) long
 Understanding IP address
There are public IP addresses, private IP addresses, static IP
addresses and dynamic IP addresses.
 Private IP addresses are used "inside" a network, like the one you
probably run at home. These types of IP addresses are used to
provide a way for your devices to communicate with your router and
all the other devices in your private network. Private IP addresses
can be set manually or assigned automatically by your router.
 Public IP addresses are used on the "outside" of your network and
are assigned by your ISP. It's the main address that your home or
business network uses to communicate with the rest of the
networked devices around the world (i.e. the Internet).
 Both private IP addresses and public IP addresses are either
dynamic or static, which means that, respectively, they either
change or they don't.
 Understanding IP addresss

■ An IP address that is assigned by a dynamic host configuration

protocol (DHCP )server is a dynamic IP address. If a device does
not have DHCP enabled or does not support it then the IP
address a must be assigned manually in which case the IP
address is called a static IP address
The Format of an IP Address
An IP address consists of 32 bits, often shown as
4 octets of numbers from 0-255 represented in
decimal form instead of binary form. For example,
the IP address:
168.212.226.204 in binary form is
10101000.11010100.11100010.11001100.
 Two Parts of an IP Address
 IP address has two parts prefix and suffix
 The address prefix identifies the physical network to which
the computer is attached , while suffix identifies the
individual computer on the network.
 Prefix is also called network address
 Suffix is also called host address
129.144. 50.56 host part
network part
 Different Classes of IP Address
■ Class A Network
In a Class A Network binary address start with 0, therefore the
decimal number can be anywhere from 1 to 126. The first 8 bits (the
first octet) identify the network and the remaining 24 bits indicate the
host within the network. An example of a Class A IP address is
102.168.212.226, where "102" identifies the network and
"168.212.226" identifies the host on that network.
■ Class B Network
In a Class B Network, binary addresses start with 10, therefore the
decimal number can be anywhere from 128 to 191. The number 127 is
reserved for loopback and is used for internal testing on the local
machine. The first 16 bits (the first two octets) identify the network and
the remaining 16 bits indicate the host within the network. An example
of a Class B IP address is 168.212.226.204 where "168.212" identifies
the network and "226.204" identifies the host on that network.
 Different Classes of IP Address
■ Class C Network
Binary addresses start with 110, therefore the decimal number can
be anywhere from 192 to 223. The first 24 bits (the first three octets)
identify the network and the remaining 8 bits indicate the host within the
network. An example of a Class C IP address is 200.168.212.226 where
"200.168.212" identifies the network and "226" identifies the host on that
network.
■ Class D Network
In a Class D Network, binary addresses start with 1110, therefore the
decimal number can be anywhere from 224 to 239. Class D networks are
used to support multicasting.

■ Class E Network
In a Class E Network, binary addresses start with 1111, therefore the
decimal number can be anywhere from 240 to 255. Class E networks are
used for experimentation. They have never been documented or utilized
in a standard way .
 Example of IP Address
The address (binary) - 10000000 00000111 00001111
00000001
has the DECIMAL DOT NOTATION: 128.7.15.1
It belongs to Class B addresses.
Its Network-id is: 128.7
Its Host-id is: 15.1
 Different Class of IP Address

ADDRESS CLASS BIT IN PREFIX MAXIMUM NO OF BIT IN SUFFIX MAXIMUM NO OF

NETWORKS HOST IN NETWORK
A 7 128 24 1,67,77,216

B 14 16,384 16 65,536

C 21 20,97,157 8 256
 IPV Internet protocol versions
 Internet protocol version 4 (Ipv4)
 Internet protocol version 6 (Ipv6)
Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) defines an IP
address as a 32 bit number. However, because of
the growth of the Internet and the depletion of
available IPv4 addresses, a new version of IP
(IPv6), using 128 bits for the IP address.
Internet Protocol Version 4 (Ipv4)
IPV4 ADDRESSES
An IPv4 address is a 32-bit address that uniquely and universally
defines the connection of a device (for example, a computer or a
router) to the Internet.
■ The IPv4 addresses are unique and universal.
■ An IPv4 address is 32 bits long.
– The address space of IPv4 is 232 (4,294,967,296)
– Notation.
■ Dotted-decimal notation
■ Binary notaion

128.11.3.31
 Internet Protocol Version 6(IPv6)
■ Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) is the most recent
version of the Internet Protocol (IP), the communications
protocol that provides an identification and location
system for computers on networks and routes traffic
across the Internet and IPv6 was developed by the
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) to deal with the
long-anticipated problem of IPv4 address exhaustion.
IPv6 is intended to replace IPv4.
■ An IPv6 address is represented as eight groups of four
hexadecimal digits, each group representing 16 bits (two
octets). The groups are separated by colons (.).
 Internet Protocol Version 6(IPv6)
■ The hexadecimal digits are case-insensitive, but IETF
recommendations suggest the use of lower case letters. The
full representation of eight 4-digit groups may be simplified by
several techniques, eliminating parts of the representation.

IPv6 address Format

2041:0000:130F:0000:0000:07C0:853A:140B

Global Net Subnet Interface id

 Difference Between IPv4 and IPv6
IPv4 IPv6
IPv4 addresses are 32 bit length. IPv6 addresses are 128 bit length.

IPv4 addresses are binary numbers IPv4 addresses are binary numbers
represented in decimals. represented in hexadecimals.

Fragmentation is done by sender and Fragmentation is done only by sender.

forwarding routers

IPSec support is only optional. Inbuilt IPSec support.

No packet flow identification. Packet flow identification is available within

the IPv6 header using the flow label field
 Difference Between IPv4 and IPv6
IPv4
Checksum field is available in IPv4 header
Options fields are available in IPv4 header
Broadcast messages are available
Manual configuration(static) of IPv4 addresses
or DHCP(Dynamic configuration) is required to
configure IPv4 address
IPv6
No checksum field in IPv6 header
No option fields, but IPv6 Extension headers
are available
Broadcast messages are not available . Instead
a link local scope “ All nodes “ multicast IPv6
address is used for broadcast similar
functionality
Auto-configuration of address is available
 Subnetting
Subnetting is a method for getting the most out of the limited
32-bit IP addressing space. With any address class, subnetting
provides a mean of allocating a part of the host address space
to network addresses, which will let you have more networks.
The part of the host address space allocated to new network
addresses is known as the subnet number.
THE InterNIC assigned the University of Windsor one class B
Network address, which is 137.207.0.0 with network number
part 137.207. The Host number part is left to be assigned by
the local management - The Computing Services) .
Subnetting
 IP Subnetting
■ Subnetting is a technique used to allow a single IP network
address to span multiple physical networks.
IP hosts should support subnetting.
■ Subnetting is done by using some of the bits of the host-id
part of the IP address as a physical network identifier.
■ The subnet mask is used to determine the bits of the
network identifier.
■ All hosts on the same network should have the same subnet
mask.
Content
1. ARP
• Introduction
• ARP operation
• ARP packet format
2. RARP
• introduction
• RARP operation
• RARP packet format
 ARP
•ARP stands for Address Resolution
Protocol.
•ARP associates an IP address with its physical
address. On a typical physical network, such as a
LAN, each device on a link is identified by a
physical or MAC address that is usually
imprinted on the NIC(Network Interface Card).
Logical Address
• The hosts and routers are recognized at the
network level by their logical addresses.
• A logical address is an internet address
• Called a logical address because it is usually
implemented in software.
• The logical addresses in the TCP/IP are
called IP address and are 32 bits long.
Physical Address
• Hosts/routers are recognized at the physical
layer by their physical address.
• A physical address(MAC address) is a local
address.
• Called a physical address because it is usually
implemented in hardware
Examples
•48-bit MAC addresses in Ethernet
We need both the physical address and the
logical address for packet delivery.
o Thus, we need to be able to map a logical
address to its corresponding physical address
and vice versa
o Solutions
n Static mapping
n Dynamic mapping
Static Mapping
o Create a table that associates a logical address with a
physical address and store in each machine

oHowever, physical addresses may change

n A machine could change its NIC resulting in a new
physical address
n In some LANs, such as LocalTalk, the physical address
changes every time the computer is turned on.

n A mobile station can move from one physical network to

another, resulting in a change in its physical address
Dynamic Mapping
oUse a protocol to find another address

oARP: Address Resolution Protocol

nMap a logical address to a physical address

o RARP: Reverse Address Resolution Protocol

nMap a physical address to a logical address
Position of ARP and RARP in
TCP/IP protocol suite
ARP Operation
o To find the physical address of another host or
router on its network.
n Send an ARP request message
o ARP request message
n The physical address of the sender
n The IP address of the sender
n The physical address of the receiver is 0s
n The IP address of the receiver
ARP Operation (Cont.)

o Then, ARP request message is broadcast by

the physical layer
n For example: in Ethernet, MAC header’s
destination address is all 1s (broadcast address)
n Received by every station on the physical
network
o The intended recipient send back an ARP
reply message
n ARP reply message packet is unicast.
ARP Operation
ARP Packet Format
Packet Format
o HTYPE (Hardware type)
n 16-bit field defining the underlying type of the
Network on which the ARP is being run.
o Ethernet is given the type 1
o ARP can be used on any physical network
o PTYPE (Protocol type)
n 16-bit field defining the protocol using ARP.
o IPv4 is 080016
o ARP can be used with any higher-level protocol
such as IPv4.
Packet Format (Cont.)
o HLEN (Hardware length)
n 8-bit field defining the length of the physical(MAC) address
in bytes.
o Ethernet has the value of 6.
o PLEN (Protocol length)
n 8-bit field defining the length of the logical(IP) address in
bytes.
o IPv4 has the value of 4
o OPER (Operation)
n 16-bit field defining the type of packet
n (1) = ARP request, (2) = ARP reply
Packet Format (Cont.)
o SHA (Sender hardware address)
n A variable-length field defining the
physical address of the sender
o SPA (Sender protocol address)
n A variable-length field defining the
logical address of the sender
Packet Format (Cont.)
o THA (Target hardware address)
n A variable-length field defining the physical
address of the target
n For an ARP request operation packet
o This field is all 0s because the sender does
not know the receiver’s physical address.
o TPA (Target protocol address)
n A variable-length field defining the logical
address of the target
 Fig. Encapsulation of ARP packet

oAn ARP packet is encapsulated directly into a data link frame.

oType field indicates that the data carried by the frame is an ARP packet.
Operations
o The sender knows the target’s IP address
o IP asks ARP to create an ARP request message
n The sender physical address
n The sender IP address
n The target physical address field is filled with 0s
n The target IP address
o The message is passed to the data link layer to
encapsulate in a data link frame
n Physical destination address is broadcast address.
Operations (Cont.)
oEvery host or routers receives the frame and since the
destination address is broadcast, pass it to the ARP.

nAll machines’ ARP except the one targeted drop the

packet.

o The target reply with an ARP reply message that

contains its physical address and is unicast.
o The sender receives the reply message and knows the
target’s physical address.
Four Cases to Use ARP
o Case 1: The sender is a host and wants to send a
packet to another host on the same network
n Use ARP to find another host’s physical address
o Case 2: The sender is a host and wants to send a
packet to another host on another network
n Sender looks at its routing table
n Find the IP address of the next hop (router) for this
destination
n Use ARP to find the router’s physical address
Four Cases to Use ARP (Cont.)
o Case 3: the sender is a router and received a datagram
destined for a host on another network
n Router check its routing table
n Find the IP address of the next router
n Use ARP to find the next router’s physical address
o Case 4: the sender is a router that has received a
datagram destined for a host in the same network
n Use ARP to find this host’s physical address
 NOTE-

• An ARP Request is Broadcast.

•An ARP Reply is Unicast.
Example-
o A host with IP address 130.23.43.20 and
physical address 0xB23455102210
o Another host with IP address 130.23.43.25
and physical address 0xA46EF45983AB.
o The two hosts are on the same Ethernet
network
o Show the ARP request and reply packets
encapsulated in Ethernet frames
Solution-

Figure* shows the ARP request and reply packets. Note

that the ARP data field in this case is 28 bytes, and that
the individual addresses do not fit in the 4-byte
boundary. That is why we do not show the regular 4-
byte boundaries for these addresses.
Also note that the IP addresses are shown in
hexadecimal.
*Next Slide
Solution-

Source address i.e.

address of system A Broadcast
Address
Solution-

Source Address
Destination address Here source is
Here destination is System system B
A
Proxy ARP
o Used to create a subnetting effect
o A router running a proxy ARP
n Its ARP acts on behalf of a set of hosts
n If it receives an ARP request message looking for
the address of one of these host
o The router sends an ARP reply announcing its own
hardware (physical) address
n After the router receives the actual IP packet
o It sends the packet to the appropriate host or router
Example
o Administrator need to create a subnet without
changing the whole system
o Add a router running a proxy ARP
Proxy ARP
 ARP Cache
• Clearly, sending an ARP request/reply for each IP
datagram is inefficient.
• Each station maintains a cache (ARP Cache) of current
entries. The entries expire after 20 minutes.
• Everytime the ARP cache is consulted for a MAC
address, the expiry timer is reset in common
implementations.
Things to know about ARP

• What happens if an ARP Request is made for a non-existing

host?
Several ARP requests are made with increasing time
intervals between requests. Eventually, ARP gives up.
• What if a host sends an ARP request for its own IP address?
The other machines respond as if it was a normal ARP
request.
This is useful for detecting if an IP address has already
been assigned.
 Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
(RARP)
•Normally the IP/MAC address pair of a host is
stored in the configuration file of the host on
its hard disk.
•With diskless hosts , this is not possible and
hence the only address that is known is the
MAC address of the MAC chipset.
RARP
• A diskless machine is usually booted from ROM.
It cannot include the IP address
• IP address is assigned by the network
Administrator.
•In such cases ,the alternative reverse address resolution
protocol(RARP) is used.
• Obtain its logical address by the physical address using the
RARP protocol
•The server associated with a set of diskless hosts has a copy of
the IP/MAC address pair of all the hosts it serves in a
configuration file.
RARP
• A machine can use the physical address(MAC address) to
get the logical address using RARP.
• A RARP messages is created and brodcast on the local
network.
• The machine on the local network that knows the logical
address will respond with a RARP reply.
• Broadcasting is done at data link layer.
• Broadcast requests does not pass the boundaries of a
network.
 RARP operation
•When a diskless host first comes into service ,it broadcasts a RARP request
message containing the MAC address of the host onto its LAN segment.

•Being a broadcast ,the server receives this and , on determining its RARP
message,the MAC/LLC sublayer passes the message to the RARP.

•The latter first uses the MAC address within it to obtain the related IP
address from the configuration file and then proceeds to create a RARP
reply message containing the IP address of the host and also its own
address pair.
• The server then sends the reply message back to the host.
RARP operation
NOTE-

•The RARP request

packets are broadcast;
•The RARP reply
packets are unicast.
Packet Format
o The format of the RARP packet is the
same as
the ARP packet
o Except that the operation field is
n 3 for RARP request message
n 4 for RARP reply message
RARP Packet Format
Encapsulation of RARP Packet
Alternative Solutions to RARP
o When a diskless computer is booted, it needs
more information in addition to its IP address
n The subnet mask
n The IP address of a router
n The IP address of a name server
o RARP cannot provide this extra information
o Two protocols, BOOTP and DHCP, can be used
instead of RARP.
Quality of service
Definition
Quality of Service (QoS) is a set of technologies that work on a network to
guarantee its ability to dependably run high-priority applications and traffic
under limited network capacity.
QoS Parameters
● Packet Loss
● Jitter
● Latency
● Bandwidth
Packet Loss Packet loss happens when
network links become
congested and routers and
switches start dropping packets.
Jitter
Jitter is defined as a variation in the delay of received packets.
Latency
Latency is the time it takes a packet to travel from its source to its
destination.

Source Destination
Bandwidth Bandwidth is the capacity of a
network communications link to
transmit the maximum amount
of data from one point to
another in a given amount of
time.
QoS Mechanisms
● Classification and Markings
● Congestion Management
● Congestion Avoidance
● Shaping
● Link Efficiency
Classification and Marking
Classification and marking tools differentiate between applications and
sort packets into different traffic types. Marking will mark each packet as a
member of a network class, which allows devices on the network to
recognize the packet's class. Classification and marking are implemented on
network devices such as routers, switches and access points
Congestion Management
Congestion management tools use packet classification and marking to
determine which queue to place the packets in. Congestion management
tools include priority queuing; first-in, first-out; and low-latency queuing.
Congestion Avoidance
Congestion avoidance tools monitor network traffic for congestion and will
drop low-priority packets when congestion occurs. Congestion avoidance
tools include weighted random early detection and random early detection.
Shaping
Shaping tools manipulate traffic entering the network and prioritize real-time
applications over less time-sensitive applications such as email and
messaging. Traffic shaping tools include buffers, Generic Traffic Shaping
and Frame Relay Traffic Shaping. Similar to shaping, traffic policing tools
focus on throttling excess traffic and dropping packets.
Link Efficiency
Link efficiency tools maximize bandwidth use and reduce delay for packets
accessing the network. Link efficiency tools include Real-Time Transport
Protocol header compression, Transmission Control Protocol header
compression and link compression.
QoS Models
● Best Effort
● Integrated Service
● Differentiated Service
Best Effort
It doesn’t implement any QoS mechanism at all, that is the reason why there
isn’t any complexity associated to this QoS model. BE does not allow for
resource reservation or any other mechanism related to asking for some
kind of special treatment to the network. For this reason, BE model does not
work very well will any emerging application with real-time (RT) traffic
demands.
Integrated Service
With the IntServ model, applications ask to the network for an explicit
resource reservation per flow. Network devices keep track of all the flows
traversing the nodes checking if new packets belong to an existing flow and
if there are enough network resources available to accept the packet.
Differentiated Service
DiffServ allows end devices or hosts to classify packets into different
treatment categories or Traffic Classes (TC), each of which will receive a
different Per-Hop-Behaviour (PHB) at each hop from the source to the
destination. Each network device on the path treats packets according to the
locally defined PHB. Priorities are marked in each packet using DSCP for
traffic classification. This marking is performed per packet usually at the
QoS domain boundary. The marking can be done at several levels of the
networking layers.
Reference
● https://searchunifiedcommunications.techtarget.com/definition/QoS-Quality-of-Service
● https://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/tech/quality-of-service-qos/index.html
 Multimedia Communication

Internet
Protocol
Version 8
IPv8 Network
Internet Protocol (IP)

2
Currently...
IPv4 IPv6
32 - bit address 128 - bit address

Numeric addressing Alphanumeric addressing

Dotted decimal notation Hexadecimal notation

232 no. of addresses 2128 no. of addresses

Security feature dependent on Inbuilt security feature

application address

3
Why IPv8?
• Fundamental architectural problem of IPv4, IPv6, Mobile IP, and IPSec
• A need for an overlay network which:

• Offers a secured network

• Is robust against eavesdropping
• Is against peer failure
• Is against network failure
• Is against packet loss
• Is against change of IP numbers

4
IPv8

IPv8 is a networking layer which offers identities,

communication with some robustness, and provides hooks for
higher layers.

• Is a peer to peer (p2p) overlay network, not a protocol.

• IPv8 is more of a software implementation, and not a
protocol suite like IPv4 or IPv6
• Yet to be adopted by routing devices across the world.
• Offers a secured network connection

5
Peer to Peer Network

Peers are computer systems

which are connected to each
other via the Internet. Files can
be shared directly between
systems on the network without
the need of a central server. In
other words, each computer on a
P2P network becomes a file
server as well as a client.

Eg: Bit Torrent

6
Overlay Network…
Overlay Layer
• An overlay network is a virtual network
of nodes and logical links, which are built Presentation layer
on top of an existing network.
• Using overlay networks, multiple layers Transportation
of network abstraction can be created to layer
run virtualized network layers, which are Network
supported by a physical infrastructure. layer
• The aim of an overlay network is to Data link
enable a new service or function without layer
having to reconfigure the entire network
Physical
design. layer

7
…Overlay Network
• The internet, for example, is the most widely used overlay network.
Before it was commercialized in the 1980s, the web was a
government-based research network, which ran on top of the
physical infrastructure of the Public Switched Telecommunications
Network (PSTN).
• Today, most overlay networks run on top of the public internet.
• Other examples of overlay networks include virtual private networks
(vpn), peer-to-peer networks and voice over IP services like Skype.

8
Peer to Peer Overlay Network
• A peer-to-peer overlay network is a computer network built on top of
an existing network, usually the Internet.
• Peer-to-peer overlay networks enable participating peers to find the
other peers not by the IP addresses but by the specific logical
identifiers known to all peers.
• Usually, peer-to-peer overlays have the advantage over the traditional
client-server systems because of their scalability and lack of single-
point-of-failure.
• Peer-to-peer overlays are commonly used for file sharing and realtime
data streaming.
9
10
IPv8 Objectives
• Authentication: Mutual authentication is executed using strong
cryptography. During an IPv8 communication session, both parties
can be sure of the other party’s identity. IPv8 users are identified by
their public key. The initial key exchange is designed so that secrets
are never transmitted across the Internet, not even in encrypted
form.
• Privacy: IPv8 is specifically designed for strong privacy protection and
end-to-end encryption.

11
IPv8 Objectives
• No infrastructure dependency: Everybody is equal in the world of
IPv8. No central web server, discovery server, or support foundation is
needed.
• Universal connectivity: IPv8 can establish direct communication in
difficult network situations. This includes connecting people behind a
NAT or firewall.

12
IPv8 Functionality
• Direct, safe, and robust communication between nodes.
• Determine the friendship paths between nodes
• Estimate the trust level between nodes
• Exchange of multimedia information of any size or popularity
• Transfer of virtual currency or real money to any other nodes

13
Features
• Using a custom NAT-traversing DHT to find the current IPv4 network
address, IPv8 keeps the network connectivity going, even as the IPv4
addresses change.
• Each network overlay keeps track of a number of neighbors and
occasionally checks if they are still responsive.
• IPv8 has an integrated attestation service.

14
Conclusion
• IPv8 is an p2p overlay network devised to increase the
effectiveness of the IPv4 and IPv6.
• IPv8 ensures safe communication between nodes
• Addresses of IPv4 and IPv6 are limited whereas, every year a new
set of addresses for IPv8 will be added (draft *RFC published on 1999-2000 GitHub)
• Adopting IPv8 to the existing network will increase the trust,
authentication, and robustness in communication.
• IPv8 is still not implemented into any applications.

*RFC -A Request for Comments (RFC) is a numbered document, which includes appraisals, descriptions and definitions of online protocols,
concepts, methods and programmes. RFCs are administered by the IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force). A large part of the standards
used online are published in RFCs

15
References
• https://py-ipv8.readthedocs.io/en/latest
• https://github.com/Tribler/py-ipv8
• Multimedia communications: Applications, Network Protocols, and
Standards: Fred Halsall

16
SWITCH AND PROTOCOL
ARCHITECTURE ATM LANS
ATM
◦ATM is Asynchronous Transfer Mode
◦ATM is a connection- oriented, high-speed, low-delay switching and
transmission technology that uses short and fixed-size packets, called
cells, to transport information
◦ATM is originally the transfer mode for implementing Broadband
ISDN (B-ISDN) but it is also implemented in non-ISDN
environments where very high data rates are required
Why atm
◦ International standard-based technology
◦ Low variance of delay
◦ Guaranteed quality of service
◦ High capacity switching
◦ Bandwidth flexibility
◦ Medium not shared for ATM LAN
◦ Wide range of user access speeds
Supports audio, video, imagery and data traffic
Common LAN/WAN architecture
Problems
◦ Frame networks
◦ Large data fields
◦ Mixed network traffic

ATM provides the solution:

Cell networking ->data loaded into cell ->frames of different size split into data unit of equal length ->
loaded into cells -> multiplexed with other cells - >routed through cell network
 How ATM works
◦ Permanent virtual connections (PVC)

◦ Switched virtual connections (SVC)

ATM Devices
ATM switch
◦ Responsible for cell transit
◦ Accepts incoming cell from an ATM endpoint or another ATM
switch
◦ Reads and update cell header information
ATM endpoints
◦ Contains an ATM network interface adapter
◦ Example : Workstations, routers, LAN switches
ATM Protocol Architecture
•ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) – the protocol for
packaging data into cells is collectively referred to as
AAL.
•Four distinct adaption layers:
A.Constant bit-rate applications CBR
B.Variable bit-rate applications VBR
C.Connection-oriented data applications
D.Connectionless data application
An AAL is further divided into :
◦ The Convergence Sublayer (CS)
◦ The Segmentation and Reassembly Sublayer (SAR)
ATM Connections
•Two levels of ATM connections:
virtual path connections
virtual channel connections
Steps of establishing ATM Connection:
Signaling message -> Local ATM -> Connection Manager
Connection Manager calculates the bandwidth for forward and reverse paths
Setup messages -> Network switch
Network Switch -> Destination machine -> Network switch -> Connection manager
Connection manager -
allocates reverse channel capacity,
informs local switch ,
confirms connection to destination PC,
informs source Pc

Data transmission begins

ATM switching operations
◦The cell is received across a link with a known VPI/VCI
value.
◦The switch looks up the connection value in a local
translation table to determine the outgoing port (or ports) of
the connection and the new VPI/VCI value of the
connection on that link.
◦The switch then retransmits the cell on that outgoing link
with the appropriate connection identifier.
ATM applications
ATM is used in both LANs and WANs
ATM WANs:
ATM is WAN technology.
used to connect LANs or other WANs together.
End point :.A router between ATM network and the other network
This router has two stacks of protocols

ATM LANs:
High data rate
ATM switch will replace the traditional Ethernet switch, in a switched LAN.
But few things have to be kept in mind :
• Connectionless versus connection-oriented
• Physical address versus virtual circuit identifier
LAN
◦LAN Emulation: LAN Emulation (LANE) is a standard
defined by the ATM Forum that gives to stations attached via
ATM the same capabilities that they normally obtain from
legacy LANs, such as Ethernet and Token Ring. As the name
suggests, the function of the LANE protocol is to emulate a
LAN on top of an ATM network. Specifically, the LAN
protocol defines mechanisms for emulating either an IEEE
802.3 Ethernet or an 802.5 Token Ring LAN.