HUMAN SECURITY AND COMMUNITY SAFETY OF SOUTHERN COMMUNITY IN

KADUNA STATE, NIGERIA

OBOT, MANDU UDO WILLIAM

PG/

BEING A PRE-FIELD PRESENTATION SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF

BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION AND MARKETING SCHOOL OF MANAGEMENT
SCIENCES, IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF MASTER
OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION (MBA)
BABCOCK UNIVERSITY
ILISAN-REMO
OGUN STATE
NIGERIA

SUPERVISOR
DR AKINLABI, H. B.

MARCH, 2021
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the study

Community safety has been one of the major social responsibilities for community business
operators across globe.

The importance of community safety in business concentration has prompted interest from both
academicians and professionals especially in the business cities of most economies, however,
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO, 2019) emphasized
that most economies around the world cannot guarantee community due to citizen inequality,
global high rate of unemployment, global terrorism, economic crisis and depression.

Among developed countries like United States of America (USA), the National Safety Council
(NSC) (2018) reported that 146,571 people died from different communities in USA due to
public or communities safety issues such as natural disasters, health care availability, economic
fluctuations, terrorist attacks, Social Security changes, income discrepancies, hunger,
homelessness, illegal immigration, drug use, unemployment rates, energy use, racial differences,
climate change, and air pollution. This indicates that community threat is not limited to
developing countries. In the United Kingdom (UK), community safety is a key concern for ward
members and it determines how people perceive their neighbourhood and helps to reduce the fear
of crime. The UK and France Crime and Safety Report (2019) pointed that communities in the
UK have recorded high rate of unrest in terms of weaponry attack on black individual, thieves on
scooters, theft of bags, purses, and phones in busy central London pubs, bars, and restaurants,
ATM scams among others.

In emerging countries like Turkey, Malaysia, United Arab Emirate and Singapore among others
have raised concern on community safety challenges encounter within their communities (Global
Attitudes and Trends Report, 2018). This indicates that emerging economies experience
community danger. Likewise in developing economies like Nigeria Ghana, Uganda, Tanzania,
Kenya, Senegal and Mali have been reported by Global Attitudes and Trends Report (2018) that
they recorded high rate of community unrest. Global Attitudes and Trends Report (2018) further
reported that among these Africa economies, the level of community threat jumped from 64% in
2016 to 74% in 2017. This shows an increase in community threat due to natural disasters, health
care availability, economic fluctuations, terrorist attacks, social security changes, income
discrepancies, hunger, homelessness, illegal immigration, drug use, unemployment rates, energy
use, racial differences, climate change, and air pollution (World Health Organisation (WHO)
Report, 2019).

In Nigeria, achieving community safety has been a challenge faced by different government
administrations due to failure to provide essential human security especially in the rural
community areas. As pointed by Yagboyaju (2019) Nigerian communities are not safe resulting
from challenges of non-availability of health care, economic depression, terrorist attacks, social
insecurity, income discrepancies, hunger, homelessness, illegal immigration, unemployment
rates, among others. Yagboyaju (2019) further stressed that country be it developed, emerging
and developing countries cannot talk of community safety without providing adequate human
security measures.

Human security, according to UNESCO (2019), is the protection of individuals with the
emphases on maintaining peace, international stability and protection for individuals and
communities. Taylor (2017) pointed out that human security comprises everything that is
empowering for individuals such as human rights-economic social and cultural rights, access to
education and health care, equal opportunities, good governance, etc. One of the main
challenges confronting the promotion of human security around the globe is that it may be
perceived as a means of intervention of the developed nations in the affairs of developing ones,
as an intrusion and an imposition of Western values upon other sets of values (UNESCO, 2019).
In East Asia, human security is apt to be viewed as a concept developed in the West that puts the
individual first and does not match Asian values for which the common good can only be
attained through greater emphasis on the community (UNESCO, 2019).

Among these, developing countries human security challenges stand out for obvious reasons.
Civil wars in Liberia and Sierra Leone; post-election violence in Kenya between 2007 and
2008;presidential standoff in Cote d’Ivoire in 2010-2011; coups d’etat in Mali and Guinea
Bissau in 2012; upheavals in North Africa (Tunisia, Egypt and Libya) since 2011, and the
associated migratory flows, as well as the uprising in the Sudan in 2019, coupled with violent
extremism and terrorism across the continent, reinforce the value of taking a hard look at
underlying social, economic and political conditions that have the potential to trigger change for
the worse (see Lewis 2011; Aning 2016). These challenges of security among developing
countries especially Africa countries have caused human insecurity (UNESCO, 2019).

Nigeria is Africa’s most populous country, with a projected population of 200 million in 2019,
and among its most diverse, with more than 250 distinct ethnic and linguistic groups. Nigeria is
one of the ten most populous countries in the world. Its population represents one-quarter of sub-
Saharan Africa and one-fifth of the black race. The country has about the sixth largest deposit of
gas in the world and is the eighth largest Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
oil producer (Jega 2010; Akande & Roberts 2018). These factors potentially place Nigeria in a
leadership position, not only in the West African sub-region but in the whole of the continent of
Africa. Sobriquets like Giant of Africa, The Elephant and The Hope of Black Race were already
in use in reference to the country at political independence in 1960. Yet, Nigeria was until
recently one of Africa’s most chronically unstable and conflict-ridden countries with human
insecurity especially in the South-South region, North-west, and North-east, Nigeria (Yagboyaju,
2019).

UNESCO (2019) has established that proper and adequate human security measures such as
economic security, food security, political security, health security and environmental security
determine community safety. This serves as major reasons why developed and emerging
economies focus on achieving efficient and effective human security and community safety to
some extent. In Nigeria, Akande and Roberts (2018) and Jega (2010) asserted that most
communities suffer unsafety threat due to poor human security challenges measures in terms of
economic insecurity, food insecurity, political instability, poor health infrastructure and
environmental insecurity, thus these challenges of human security undermine community safety
in Nigeria. Likewise, Yagboyaju (2019) emphasized that rural and urban areas communities in
Nigeria are not safe due to human insecurity trigger by high rate of unemployment and political
hoodlum among communities. Considering the background challenges of community threat
caused by poor human security in Nigeria, this study therefore will investigate the effect of
human security measures (economic security, food security, and health security) on community
safety in Southern Kaduna communities, Kaduna State, Nigeria.
1.2 Statement of the Problem

Studies reviewed (Akande & Roberts, 2018; Broussard et al., 2018; Cuce, Harjunowibowo, &
Cuce, 2016; Hegazi & Algharib, 2014; Jega, 2010; Ji, Jiang, Li, Zhang, Sha, & Li, 2016; Ting,
Lin, & Davidson, 2016; Kumssa & Kiriti-Nganga, 2016; Tamošiūnienė & Munteanub, 2015
among others) have shown that there is empirical gap in literature within and outside Nigeria
literature context on the effect of human security measures (food security, economic security and
health security) on community safety in Sothern Kaduna Community, Kaduna State, Nigeria.
Jega (2010) pointed that the level of human insecurity in Nigeria is very high to the extent that
majority of communities in Nigeria especially in the Northern region are not safe. Akande and
Roberts (2018) emphasised that increase in community threat in Nigeria are majorly caused by
economic insecurity, food insecurity, health insecurity, lack of access of Western education as
well as geometric spread of poverty among citizens in Nigeria.

Different studies have been carried out on economic security and community safety (Koval,
Nazarova, Hordopolov, Kopotiienko, Miniailo, & Diachenko, 2019; Akhmetshin, & Vasilev,
2016; Burkaltseva, Dudin, & Reutov, 2018), however, there still exist major gaps between
economic security and community safety in Sothern Kaduna Community, Kaduna State, Nigeria.
Crawford and Evans (2017), Nilson (2018), Napier, Dowling, Morgan and Talbot (2018) and
Nichols and Braimoh (2018) observes citizens in Sothern Kaduna community are suffering
security challenges occasioned by the activities of kidnappers and bandit (Adebile, 2015). These
social menaces when put together imping’s on the security of lives and property of both Nigeria
and foreigners living or even trying to invest in the country. These challenges have significantly
affected the people’s level of economic engagement, quality of life, freedom, social interaction
amongst other things. Hence, there is need to examine how economic security on community
safety in Kaduna State.

Studies on food security and community safety have been carried out in different nations and
regions of the world (King, Cole, Farber, Eisenbrand, Zabaras, Fox, & Hill, 2017; Walls, Baker,
Chirwa, & Hawkins, 2019; Uyttendaele, Franz, & Schlüter, 2016; Desai, & Aronoff, 2020).
However, the extent to which food security influences community safety in Sothern Kaduna
Community, Kaduna State, Nigeria has not been clearly stated due to divergent findings from
different scholars. The divergent views from different scholars (Kotsanopoulos &
Arvanitoyannis, 2017; Wallace, Sperber, & Mortimore, 2018; Panghal, Chhikara, Sindhu, &
Jaglan, 2018) therefore creates an avenue for further studies to fill the gap. Amongst the
problems with community safety in Sothern Kaduna community is that community members
lack access to quality food as a result of unsafe environment for agricultural engagement,
insecurity is also seemed as the state of being subject to all forms of dangers of both natural and
artificial disasters with mostly resulting from human activities towards society or individuals.

Scholars such as (Romero, Mattsson, Fast-Berglund, Wuest, Gorecky, & Stahre, 2018; Golian,
Nagyová, Andocsová, Zajác, & Palkovič, 2018; Okpala, Sardo, Vitale, Bono, & Arukwe, 2018)
have examined health security and community safety. Despite this, the study of health security
and community safety in Nigerian context especially Sothern Kaduna Community, Kaduna State
has not been given keen attention (Brauer, 2016; Nassiri, Yarahmadi, Gholami, Hamidi, &
Mirkazemi, 2016; Gordon, Fell, Box, Farrell, & Stewart, 2017). Therefore, a gap exists between
health security and community safety. Health security is an important dimension of human
security, as good health is both essential and instrumental to human survival, livelihood and
dignity (Human Security Unit, 2013). However, citizens in Sothern Kaduna have been facing
health, economic, social challenges which has reduced their community development. Therefore,
it is essential for a study to examine health security and community safety.

Furthermore, Danfulani (2018) argued that police work in Nigeria is predominantly reactive.
Which does not prevent crime in the community and also there is limited collaboration by
Nigerian police with other partners and agencies among Nigerian communities which has cause
loss of co-ordination to deal with social and security issues in the communities especially in the
Northern part of Nigeria, thus increase community insecurity and threat. The issue of food
security is of high importance to Nigeria vis-à-vis the fact that the country’s average caloric and
protein intake is only at the threshold of adequacy with increasing incidence of food insecurity.
In the same vein, poverty incidence over the years increased sharply between 1980, 1985, 1992,
and 1996, with a slight decline in 2004. Danfulani (2018) further stated that there is high level of
food insecurity and poverty in Nigeria; this has led to community threats and crisis in Nigeria.
1.3 Objective of the Study

The main objective of this study was to examine the effect of human security(economic security,
food security, and health security) on community safety in Southern community in Kaduna State,
Nigeria. The specific objectives of the study were to;

i. determined the effect of economic security on community safety in Kaduna State,

Nigeria.
ii. examined the effect of food security on community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria.
iii. examined the effect of health security on community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria;
and
iv. determined the combine effect of human security sub-variables (economic security,
food security, and health security) on community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria.

1.4 Research Questions

The following research questions were relevant to this study:

i. What is the effect of economic security on community safety in Kaduna State,

Nigeria?
ii. Does food security affects community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria?
iii. What is the effect of human security on community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria?
iv. What is the combined effect of human security sub-variables (economic security,
food security, and health security) on community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria?

1.5 Research Hypothesis

H01: Economic security has no significant effect on community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria.

H02: Food security has no significant effect on community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria.

H03: Health security has no significant effect on community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria

H04: Human security measures (economic security, food security, and health security) do not
significantly affect community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria.
1.5 Scope of the Study

The study focused on the effect of human security on community safety in Southern
communities of Kaduna State, Nigeria. This study centred on Southern Kaduna as the region has
recorded highest number of community crisis and clashes in Northwest of Nigeria (Nigerian
Army Report July 2020). The total population of the study area was 402,390 with an area of 59
km². The area has a mixed population, but the dominant ethnic groups are the Hausa, Gbagyi,
Bajju, Ham, Atyap, Igbo and Yoruba. The sample size for this study was determined by applying
the Cochran (1997) formula and the sample size was 599. In this study, community safety served
as the dependent variable while the independent variable was human security measure with
economic security, food security and health security. The respondents for this study were people
staying within selected communities in Southern Kaduna State, Nigeria. This study adopted
cross-sectional survey research design, which was used to obtain information on the variables
under investigation within the period of 2020 and employed both simple and multiple regression
method of analysis.

1.6 Theoretical Framework

This study is anchored on conflict theory; as the theory explained how lack of human security
increase community conflict

1.7.1 Conflict Theory

The conflict theory was propounded by Darhendorf (1969) and he stated that conflict perspective
contends that individuals and groups (social classes) within the society have differing amounts of
material or non-material resources (e.g. the wealthy vs. the poor) and that the more powerful
groups use their power in order to exploit groups with less power. Conflict theory as based on the
assumption that; society has institutionalized class conflict into the institutions of the state and
economic spheres such that class conflict has been entrenched in unions, collective bargaining,
the court system and legislative debates amongst other institutions of governance such as the
police; the theory contends that due to institutionalized conflicts, a common trend emerges; state
and its institutions practicing differential distribution of authority and differential treatment in
such institutions, that invariably becomes the determining factor of systematic social conflicts.
Accordingly, the implication here is that political influence of the dominant class determines
who becomes important and influential in society (Yagboyaju, 2019).

Dahrendorf (1969) depicts society as a collection of diverse groups; bourgeoisies, proletariats,

professionals etc who are in constant and continuing conflicts. Accordingly, conflicts work to
promote crime by creating a social atmosphere in which law is a mechanism for controlling the
dissatisfied, have-not members of the society while maintaining the position of the powerful.
Dahrendorf argued that crimes that are the province of the wealthy; such as corruption,
embezzlement, misappropriation of public funds, frauds and other illegal corporate activities are
sanctioned much more leniently than those, such as burglary, that are considered lower class
activities. In addition, the poor go to prison for minor law violations while the wealthy are given
lenient sentences for even serious breaches of law.

Banning violent acts ensures domestic tranquility and guarantees that the anger of the poor and
disenfranchised classes will not be directed at the wealthy capitalist class. Given the class
struggles, crime is controlled by wealth, power and position, not by moral consensus or the fear
of social disruption. According to Dahrendorf (1979; 1988), crimes such as violation of human
rights and brutality by the police, political assassinations, crimes of economic and political
domination are all associated with the ruling elites and the wealthy (Yagboyaju, 2019).

Even though the three theories review has explained the ineffectiveness and dysfunction of
community policing and safety in Nigeria, they are not short of limitations; but both functional
structuralism and phenomenology theories are inadequate in explaining the social forces or
factors that shape public perceptions about effectiveness of community safety and policing,
hence this study anchored on conflict theory.

The theory was criticised by different scholars such as Ritzer (2006) and Turner (2010). The
theory takes only a macrosociological perspective. The theory fails to address much of social life
(Turner, 2010). In increasingly modern, multicultural societies, the contested concept and
construct of identity received growing emphasis, and was the focus of many debates. As a
consequence of the debates over identity, and inevitably in a globalising, modern, multicultural
world, the issues of citizenship came into play. Specifically, the discussions analysed the ways in
which citizenship contributed to the formation and construction of identities. Dahrendorf's
adherence to a Marxian position seemingly prevented him from participating in these debates.
Absent from Dahrendorf's theory were any significant discussions of culture, and therefore,
citizenship and identity (Ritzer, 2006).

Regardless of the critics, the conflict theory was adopted in this study because it theory seeks to
scientifically explain the general contours of conflict in society: how conflict starts and varies,
and the effects it brings. The central concerns of conflict theory are the unequal distribution of
scarce resources and power. What these resources are might be different for each theorist, but
conflict theorists usually work with Weber’s three systems of stratification: class, status, and
power. Conflict theorists generally see power as the central feature of society, rather than
thinking of society as held together by collective agreement concerning a cohesive set of cultural
standards, as functionalists do. Where power is located and who uses it (and who doesn’t) are
thus fundamental to conflict theory. In this way of thinking about things, power isn’t necessarily
bad: it is a primary factor that guides society and social relations.

1.8 Definition of Terms

Community Safety: Community safety is about feeling safe, whether at home, in the street or at
work (Geidne, Fredriksson, & Eriksson, 2016).

Economic Security: Economic security is an assured basic income for individuals, usually from
productive and remunerative work or, as a last resort, from a publicly financed safety net
(Hacker, 2013)

Food Security: FAO (2017) defined food security as adequate supplies of food available
through domestic production or through imports to meet the consumption needs of all people in a
country.

Human Security: Human security is an achievement and guarantee of wellbeing-poverty,

health, education, political freedom, and democracy to its citizen member (Aning, 2016).
Health Security: Health security is the activities required, both proactive and reactive, to
minimize the danger and impact of acute public health events that endanger people’s health
across geographical regions and international boundaries (Youde, 2016).

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter gave an overall insight into the area of study by reviewing related literature on the
subject matter of human security and community safety. The review of literature covered the
conceptual, theoretical and empirical reviews. Then a summary and gaps in the literature also
followed.

2.1 Conceptual Review

This section focused on the examination of literature available on the concepts of the study.
These concepts include human security (economic security, food security, and health security). It
also looked at community safety.

2.1.1 Human Security

The concepts of human security according to United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
(2015), is an approach to assist member states in identifying and addressing widespread and
cross-cutting challenges to the survival, livelihood and dignity of their people. UNDP (2018)
further defined human security as the inclusion of general factors such as social, economic,
cultural, and psychological wellbeing of member citizens and non-citizens. Aning (2016)
conceptually view human security as achievement and guarantee of wellbeing-poverty, health,
education, political freedom, and democracy to its citizen member. Kumssa and Kiriti-Nganga
(2016) emphasized that the concept of human security is gaining traction due to the growing and
unconventional security challenges in the world today. The main features of human security
concerns include the protection of communities living in abject poverty, violent conflict;
addressing the needs and rights of people on the move, environment related threats, diseases such
as HIV/AIDS and Ebola, and post-conflict reconstruction etc.
Human security is founded on the fundamental principle that violence, poverty and inequality are
inseparable when it comes to explaining and addressing the root problem of insecurity, whether
social or economic. Inequality is caused by the imbalanced economic progress and deprivation
(Kumssa, Jones, & Williams, 2010). The threat to human security, especially in developing
countries, is poverty, disease, and armed violence; what Aning (2016) has called the dark side of
development. Human security covers both conflict and the development aspects of peace and
sustainable development. In this regard, the implementation of the human security agenda means
offering people physical, economic, social and environment security in their homes, at their jobs
and in their communities.

Kumssa and Kiriti-Nganga (2016) further stated that the advantages of human security concept is
comprehensive and looks at ways of intervening to protect and safeguard human lives. Human
security enhances actions that put people first and provide them with a sense of security in their
homes, at their jobs, and in their communities. It encompasses the idea of liberty, specifically in
its three pillars: freedom from fear (human rights) and freedom from want (basic human needs)
and freedom to live in dignity. The freedom from fear component focuses on protecting
individuals from violent conflicts and from denial of civil liberties. It assures freedom of
expression and belief. The freedom from want factor emphasizes satisfying people’s basic needs,
food, shelter and clothing. The freedom to live in dignity underscores the right of individuals and
communities to a decent human life and greater commitment to justice and peace.

2.1.1.1 Economic Security

 UNDP (2018) defined economic security as assured basic income for individuals, usually from
productive and remunerative work or, as a last resort, from a publicly financed safety net. In this
sense, UNDP (2018) stated that only about a quarter of the world's people are presently
economically secure. Likewise economic security problem may be more serious in developing
countries, concern also arises in developed countries as well while unemployment problems
constitute an important factor underlying political tensions and ethnic violence (UNDP, 2018).
Kumssa and Kiriti-Nganga (2016) defined economic security as assures basic income, access to
employment and resources by the citizens and non-citizens.

According to Tamošiūnienė and Munteanub (2015), economic security or financial security is

the condition of having stable income or other resources to support a standard of living now and
in the foreseeable future. Hacker (2013) defined economic security as a situation when state
institutions ensure the safeguarding of national interests protection, development of social-
oriented state and sufficient military potential.

According to Grigoreva (2017), economic security is a complex socio-economic category which

is influenced by the continuously changing environment of material production, external and
internal threats of the economy. Economic security is a basis of the national security of the State
(Grigoreva, 2017). The economic security ensuring is a primary responsibility of the State, which
is being implemented in close collaboration with the economic agents (Litvinenko, 2018). The
national security reflects the ability of relevant political, legal and economic institutions of the
State to protect the interests of its key entities in national economic traditions and values and
therefore, its development must be seen in the overall context of the formation of the national
security state (Litvinenko, 2016).

One of the characteristic features of economic security is that economic security is composed of
basic social security, defined by access to basic needs infrastructure pertaining to health,
education, dwelling, information, and social protection, as well as work-related security
(Tkacheva, & Afanasjeva, 2016). It creates protection against loss of income-earning work. For
wage and salary workers, employment security exists in organizations and countries, in which
there is strong protection against unfair or arbitrary dismissal and where workers can redress
unfair dismissal. For the selfemployed, it means protection against sudden loss of independent
work, and/or business failure. Typical forms of enhancing employment security have been
protection against arbitrary dismissal, regulations on hiring and firing, and imposition of costs on
employers for failing to adhere to rules (Koval, Nazarova, Hordopolov, Kopotiienko, Miniailo,
& Diachenko, 2019).

Looking at the advantages of economic security, economic security strengthens tolerance and
happiness as well as growth and development. A new study by the International Labour Office
(ILO) highlights that people's economic security promotes personal wellbeing, happiness and
tolerance, while benefiting growth and development (Shvaiba, 2018). People in countries that
provide their citizens with a high level of economic security have a higher level of happiness on
average, as measured by surveys on national levels of life-satisfaction and happiness, the report
finds. The most important determinant of national happiness is not income level - there is a
positive association, but rising income seems to have little effect as wealthy countries grow
wealthier. Rather, the key factor is the extent of income security, measured in terms of income
protection and a low degree of income inequality (Bublyk, Koval, & Redkva, 2017).

From the review of extant literature, the researcher defines economic security as the state of
having stable income or other resources to maintain a standard of living now and in the near
future is known as economic stability or financial security (Researcher’s definition, 2021).

2.1.1.2 Food Security

 UNDP (2018) defined food security as people at all times have both physical and economic
access to basic food. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (2016) defined food security
exist when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and
nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.
Food security is one of the fundamental human needs and is referred to as a principal indicator of
poverty and physical well-being. It is suggested that the way to increase economic performance
is by decreasing hunger. However, the first one does not entail aggregate food security. Due to
the unequal management of economic resources the poor remain hungry (Jenkins & Scanlan,
2015).

The World Health Organization (WHO) (2016) stated that food security is achieved when all
people, at all times have physical and economic access to adequate/sufficient, safe and nutritious
food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life. Food
security therefore is not the physical availability of any single commodity; neither does it imply
just availability but must be accessible in terms of affordability in adequate quantities, containing
essential nutrients. At macro level, FAO (2017) implies food security as adequate supplies of
food available through domestic production or through imports to meet the consumption needs of
all people in a country. At the micro level (household or individual), food security depends on a
number of factors which are related to various forms of entitlements to income and food
producing assets, as well as the links between domestic and external markets (FAO, 2017). Food
security is not just a supply issue but also a function of income and purchasing power, hence its
relationship to poverty (Aning 2016). There are four dimensions of food security that determine
the level at which a community is placed in relation to vulnerability to hunger; food availability,
food accessibility, stability, utilization/nutrition.
According to the United Nations (UN) (2017), the overall availability of food is not a problem,
rather the problem often is the poor distribution of food and a lack of purchasing power. In the
past, food security problems have been dealt with at both national and global levels. However,
their impacts are limited. The UN (2017) the key is to tackle the problems relating to access to
assets, work and assured income (related to economic security). Food security has been an
important part of global discourse concerning development and poverty reduction (Vink, 2012).
Despite the fact that there is enough food produced to feed the entire population, 1 billion people
still go to bed hungry (Jenkins & Scanlan, 2015).

Looking at the advantages of food security, growth in the agriculture sector has been found, on
average, to be at least twice as effective in reducing poverty as growth in other sectors. Food
insecurity often rooted in poverty decreases the ability of countries to develop their agricultural
markets and economies.

Access to quality, nutritious food is fundamental to human existence. Secure access to food can
produce wide ranging positive impacts, including: economic growth and job creation, poverty
reduction, trade opportunities, increased global security and stability, improved health and
healthcare (Cole, Augustin, Robertson, & Manners, 2018).

Looking at the disadvantages of food security, in terms of predictors, while low income is the
strongest and most consistent predictor of food insecurity, higher income is not a proxy for food
security as income level does not always reflect the economic conditions of the household
(Kleve, Booth, Davidson, Palermo, 2018). For example, households can experience significant,
unexpected changes to their economic circumstances, such as the loss of an income or large
household bills, which have lagged effects on household income and/or require temporary
reallocation of financial resources, resulting in food insecurity. On the other hand, income does
not necessarily reflect assets held, nor levels of access to other supports that prevent food
insecurity. As such, while the relationship between low income and food insecurity is strong, the
factors that lead to food insecurity in developed countries, particularly those with strong social
safety nets, are more complex (Ramsey, Giskes, Turrell, Gallegos, 2012). Lower education
levels, single-parent household composition, unemployment, and social isolation are associated
with higher food insecurity.
From the review of extant literature, the researcher defined food security as a measure of the
availability of food and individuals' ability to access it (Researcher’s definition, 2021).
Household food security exists when all members, at all times, have access to enough food for an
active, healthy life. Individuals who are food secure do not live in hunger or fear of starvation.

2.1.1.3 Health Security

Sehovic (2019) defined health security as a concept that encompasses activities and measures
across sovereign boundaries that mitigates public health incidents to ensure the health of
populations. World Health Organisation (WHO) (2016) defined health security as the activities
required, both proactive and reactive, to minimize the danger and impact of acute public health
events that endanger people’s health across geographical regions and international boundaries.
Similarly, Youde (2016) view health security as a framework for public health issues which
includes protection of national populations from external health threats such as pandemics. With
regard to health, the constitution of the World Health Organization (WHO) propounds the right
to health as ‘the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health is one of the fundamental
rights of every human being (Youde, 2016).

Moon, Rottingen, and Frenk (2017) stated that health security works on two levels, individual
and population. On the individual level, health security is tied to the risks and threats, as well as
underlying vulnerabilities, to both communicable and non-communicable diseases. While on the
population level, health security intersects with state security. According to Enemark (2017), the
relationship between health (security) rights and their realisation is dependent on the citizen-state
relationship. In this rendering, health security does not have a global guarantee; it is not itself a
global public good (Lisk, 2010; Moon, Rottingen, & Frenk, 2017).

Health security aims to guarantee a minimum protection from diseases and unhealthy lifestyles.

In developing countries, the major causes of death traditionally were infectious and parasitic
diseases, whereas in industrialized countries, the major killers were diseases of the circulatory
system. Today, lifestyle-related chronic diseases are leading killers worldwide, with 80 percent
of deaths from chronic diseases occurring in low- and middle-income countries. According to
the United Nations (UN) (2016), in both developing and industrial countries, threats to health
security are usually greater for poor people in rural areas, particularly children. This is due
to malnutrition and insufficient access to health services, clean water and other basic necessities.
According to Sehovic (2019), there are four historical moment resulted in the establishment of
the Global Health Security Initiative (GHSI, 2009), and the Global Health Security Agenda
(GHSA, 2014), as well as the European Union’s European Security Strategy (ESS, 2003) and its
Global Strategy (European Union External Action Service, 2016). These four global (health)
security initiatives reflect the divergence between the two trends: The US founded GHSI and the
GHSA reflect a focus on threats posed to state security by the spread of pandemic influenza, as
well as biological, chemical and nuclear security weapons. The EU’s ESS and the GS emphasise
human above state security. In addition, the African Human Security Initiative falls squarely in
the camp of the latter, prioritising human above state security (Cilliers, 2004). Finally, the crown
jewel of the post-World War II, liberal international system, the United Nation’s and its Foreign
Policy and Global Health Initiative (FPGHI, 2006) reflects again the state-centric bias of the
governance system.

As a characteristic feature of health security, the concept of health security encompasses

activities and measures across sovereign boundaries that mitigates public health incidents to
ensure the health of populations. It is an evolving paradigm within the fields of international
relations and security studies.

Looking at the advantages of health security, standardization of healthcare protocols and

procedures is an established practice that helps create a safer and more affordable patient culture.
Today, the standardization trend is expanding as healthcare facilities nationwide are realizing the
benefits of creating uniformity in non-clinical services including physical security services
(MacIntyre, Engells, Scotch, Heslop, Gumel, Poste, & Broom, 2018).

Disadvantageously, population growth, rapid urbanization, environmental degradation, and the

misuse of antimicrobials are disrupting the equilibrium of the microbial world. New diseases,
like COVID-19, are emerging at unprecedented rates disrupting people’s health and causing
social and economic impacts. Billions of passengers travel on airplanes each year, increasing the
opportunities for the rapid international spread of infectious agents and their vectors (WHO,
2020). Dependence on chemicals has increased, as has awareness of the potential hazards for
health and the environment, like climate change and air pollution. As the globalization of food
production increases, so does the risk of tainted ingredients and risk of foodborne diseases. As
the world’s population becomes more mobile and increases its economic interdependence, these
global health threat increase and traditional defences at national borders cannot protect against
the invasion of a disease or vector.

From the review of extant literature, the researcher defines health security as the activities
required, both proactive and reactive, to minimise the danger and impact of acute public health
events that endanger people's health across geographical regions and international borders are
known as health protection (Researcher’s definition, 2021).

2.1.2 Community Safety

Geidne, Fredriksson, and Eriksson (2016) defined community safety is about feeling safe,
whether at home, in the street or at work. Wet, Somefun, and Rambau (2018) defined community
safety as promoting the concept of community based action to inhibit and remedy the causes and
consequences of criminal, intimidatory and other related anti-social behaviour. Leting and
Chepchirchir (2017) defined community safety is the delivering local solutions to local problems
that have been identified by local people. Skilling (2016) defined community safety as a process
through which key organisations in a local government area or other identified geographical area
come together to work in partnership with each other and with the public, in order to achieve a
safer living environment for all.

Community safety as a concept which is sometimes used interchangeably with that of ‘crime
prevention’ in criminological debates (Leting & Chechirchir, 2017). The argument that
the community can be both the cause and the solution of the crime problem is not new;
ironically, at a time when critiques of post-industrial or mass society are mourning the loss of
‘traditional communities’, the idea that tackling criminal victimization is the responsibility of a
broad base within the community has regained prominence in criminal justice policies and
practices (Leting & Chechirchir, 2017). This indicates that members of the community are
encouraged to take a share in deviance control by co-operating with the police and fulfilling their
moral obligations as active citizens.

According to Wet et al. (2018), the successful implementation of a community safety scheme
rests upon the following key principles: respecting the rights of citizens; responding to public
concerns about safety and feelings of safety; recognising that local people often have the best
understanding of local problems; working in partnership with the community and all relevant
organisations or groups to identify and address these problems; recognising that working
together and sharing resources is the most cost-effective means of resolving problems;
recognising that no single organisation working alone can solve problems affecting the whole
community. A successful community safety scheme will improve security and safety, and
increase citizens’ feelings of safety and encourage community participation.

Looking at the benefits of Community Security, it provides a methodology that is important for
peace, security and development progress, because it allows communities to define and
implement interventions tailored to their exact needs and priorities, and in this way helps
communities find creative, collaborative and preventative solutions to security challenges,
including: weak/poor state–citizen relations, overly state-centric models and views of security,
ack of institutional resources and capacity, challenges in fostering genuine accountability and
political incentives for security and justice reform, the need to anticipate tensions and security
challenges and work on them preventatively and constructively (Mitzen, 2018; Putra, 2019).

From the review of extant literature, the researcher defines community security as a process
focused on promoting a community driven approach to understanding and providing security
(Researcher’s definition, 2021). It has a clear focus on improving the relationships between and
behaviours of communities, authorities and institutions. The process uses participatory
assessments and planning and seeks to contribute to a full range of security and development
improvements as decided by communities themselves. The process may lead to anything from
better service delivery, to reduced social exclusion, enhanced relations between social groups, or
strengthened democratic governance. The key is that the problems addressed, the process behind
it, and the results achieved, contribute to a more secure environment.

2.2 Theoretical Review

This sub-section focused on theoretical review such as structural functionalism theory, conflict
and phenomenology theories related to this study objective.

2.2.1 Structural Functionalism Theory

Structural functionalism founded by Emile Durkheim (1895, 1969) and elaborated further by
Parsons (1979) holds that society is made up of interdependent parts which are functionally
dependent on each other. This view sees society as analogous to living organisms; with different
organs, each organ having specific function that contributes towards the functioning of the whole
body. Each of these parts functionally depends on each other such that if one part dysfunctions,
then the whole system dysfunctions or collapses. Society reaches a state of equilibrium when
each organ or part effectively plays its expected role. According to Parsons (1979), one of
the assumptions of structural functionalism is that a society is cohesive if it consists of various
intermediate groups which share the same norms. This assumption leads to another proposition:
The higher the level of integration between these intermediate groups, the more cohesive society
will be as a whole.

Parsons (1979) criticized structural functionalism theory for being unable to account for social
change, or for structural contradictions and conflict (and thus was often called consensus theory).
Also, it ignores inequalities including race, gender, class, which cause tension and conflict.
Parson (1979) talked of role differentiation within society. His emphasis is on individual parts
acting together to achieve a specific goal, thus, the coexistence, which implies harmony and
structural efficiency. Merton (1968) argued that not all parts of a modern, complex society work
for the functional unity of society. Some institutions and structures may even be generally
dysfunctional, or be functional for some, while at the same time being dysfunctional for others.
This is because not all structures are functional for society as a whole. Some institutions will be
functional for a powerful individual, dominant class or group (Merton, 1968). Even though
functionalist theory may be applied to explain how ineffectiveness of community policing and
safety can cause society’s decline and collapse, it does not sufficiently explain the causal factors
behind the dysfunction of policing hence the need for a complementary theory (Skilling, 2016).
The theory is thus inadequate in explaining other external (macro level) factors that are also
significant in explaining dysfunctions in policing i.e. the politics of class and power that micro
manage the appointment of police chiefs by the executive arm of government irrespective of
merit (Skilling, 2016).

2.2.2 Conflict Theory

The conflict theory was propounded by Darhendorf (1969) and he stated that conflict perspective
contends that individuals and groups (social classes) within the society have differing amounts of
material or non-material resources (e.g. the wealthy vs. the poor) and that the more powerful
groups use their power in order to exploit groups with less power. Conflict theory as based on the
assumption that; society has institutionalized class conflict into the institutions of the state and
economic spheres such that class conflict has been entrenched in unions, collective bargaining,
the court system and legislative debates amongst other institutions of governance such as the
police; the theory contends that due to institutionalized conflicts, a common trend emerges; state
and its institutions practicing differential distribution of authority and differential treatment in
such institutions, that invariably becomes the determining factor of systematic social conflicts.
Accordingly, the implication here is that political influence of the dominant class determines
who becomes important and influential in society (Yagboyaju, 2019).
Dahrendorf (1969) depicts society as a collection of diverse groups; bourgeoisies, proletariats,
professionals etc who are in constant and continuing conflicts. Accordingly, conflicts work to
promote crime by creating a social atmosphere in which law is a mechanism for controlling the
dissatisfied, have-not members of the society while maintaining the position of the powerful.
Dahrendorf argued that crimes that are the province of the wealthy; such as corruption,
embezzlement, misappropriation of public funds, frauds and other illegal corporate activities are
sanctioned much more leniently than those, such as burglary, that are considered lower class
activities. In addition, the poor go to prison for minor law violations while the wealthy are given
lenient sentences for even serious breaches of law.
Banning violent acts ensures domestic tranquility and guarantees that the anger of the poor and
disenfranchised classes will not be directed at the wealthy capitalist class. Given the class
struggles, crime is controlled by wealth, power and position, not by moral consensus or the fear
of social disruption. According to Dahrendorf (1979; 1988), crimes such as violation of human
rights and brutality by the police, political assassinations, crimes of economic and political
domination are all associated with the ruling elites and the wealthy (Yagboyaju, 2019).
Even though the three theories review has explained the ineffectiveness and dysfunction of
community policing and safety in Nigeria, they are not short of limitations; but both functional
structuralism and phenomenology theories are inadequate in explaining the social forces or
factors that shape public perceptions about effectiveness of community safety and policing,
hence this study anchored on conflict theory.

2.2.3 Phenomenology Theory

This theory founded by Husserl (1859–1938) focuses on the structure of various types of
experience ranging from perception, thought, memory, imagination, emotion, desire, and volition
to bodily awareness, embodied action, and social activity, including linguistic activity.
According to this theory, people tend to describe a phenomenon just as they find it in their own
(past) experience; thus, Husserl (2001) spoke of pure description of lived experience. In this
case, previous encounters between members of public and the police; either during patrol or
when reporting an incident, or in any other way may be instrumental in shaping public
perception about police effectiveness.
The theory also argues that we interpret our world through the lens of our previous experiences.
Hence, people who had negative experiences with the police like for instance; harassment
unlawful arrests, torture by the police may never have a positive view of the police. Similarly,
people who had a dire need for police help and were adequately assisted may have positive
experiences with the police. This agrees with Maxson et al. (2002) argument that community
residents' perceptions of the police are often ambivalent, they see officers both as friend and
enemy depending on their previous encounters with the police. Delayed or non-response to calls
for service after a crime has been committed or low frequency of patrols in the neighbourhoods
where crimes are high may create a negative perception of the police or even cause none
reporting of subsequent crimes. This view may explain why sometimes official crime statistics
may show a decline of crime rates while in the real sense crime rate are increasing.

2.3 Empirical Review

This sub-section focused on empirical review based objectives of the study
2.3.1 Economic Security and Community Safety
Leting (2017) empirically examined Nyumba Kumi Strategy of Community Policing and its
impact on curbing crime in Kenya. The participants agreed that nyumba kumi community
policing strategies, political support and good will of the government for nyumba kumi
community policing strategy and police administration had positive impact on Nyumba kumi
community policing strategy in curbing crime rate. The study also established that Nyumba kumi
community policing initiatives can be effective where the jurisdiction have achieved some
degree of political stability and shared values. Gasper and Gomez (2015) examined the link
between human security and community threat. Their study revealed that sound human security
measures reduced community threat. Muchemi and Karungari (2017) studied the peace building,
challenges, implementation of community policing as a critical factor. Cluster sampling and
simple random sampling techniques were used to draw a representative sample consisting of 130
residents and 35 police officers. Data was collected using questionnaires and interview guides.
Descriptive statistics namely frequency counts and percentages were generated to capture the
distribution of responses on the key issues addressed in the study’s questionnaire. The study
found that 71.8% of the respondents agreed that community policing helped in peace building
compared to 28.2% of the respondents who disagreed.
Extant literatures have shown that human security measure determine community safety, affect
climate change and produce economic shocks (Adam, 2013; Bergholt & Lujala, 2012;
Hallegatte, 2012), although the direct association between disasters and armed conflict is
contested (Pelling and Dill, 2010; Bergholt and Lujala, 2012; Slettebak, 2012). Studies have
inferred that climate change can undermine the consistency of institutions that provide public
goods (Barnett & Adger, 2007; Scheffran et al., 2012) and hence weaken states and increase
conflict risks. However, there is some evidence that, under certain circumstances, disasters can
provide critical opportunities to build peace in conflict settings and to improve governance
institutions (Bruckner & Ciccone, 2011; Kingsbury, 2007; Olson & Gawronski, 2010).

2.3.2 Food Security and Community Safety

The study of Ahungwa, Umeh, and Muktar (2013) on empirical analysis of food security status
of farming households in Benue State, Nigeria. Their study employed a multi-stage random
sampling technique to obtain 180 households. Descriptive statistics were used to assess the
socio-economic characteristics of the households and the Food Security Index was used to
measure the household food security status. Using the FAO benchmark of 2500kcal per capita
per day; households were profiled into food secure and food insecure where 36.67% were food
secure while 63.33% were food insecure. The shortfall or surplus index (P) indicated that, the
food secure households exceeded the benchmark by 33.80% while the food insecure categories
fell short by 29.60%.
Researchers such as Kim (2015), and Zaccardelli, Pane, Villecco, Palese and Celano (2018) have
examined the link between food security and community peace. These studies found that food
security significantly improve community peace and food productivity. They further confirmed
that community peace induce bio-stimulant effects on the plants, so as to improve efficiency use
of the farm inputs and production. This empirically established that community safety reduce
farm cost of production, thus enhance food security (Broussard et al., 2018; Hegazi & Algharib,
2014). Similarly, Cuce, Harjunowibowo, and Cuce (2016), Ji Jiang, Li, Zhang, Sha, and Li
(2016) and Ting, Lin, and Davidson (2016) modern human security and agriculture measures
have positive and significantly enhance optimization of farm land, community safety, increase
farm output and affordability of farm products as well as food security.

2.3.3 Health Security and Community Safety

Interestingly, the relationship between Socio Economic Status (SES) and health holds true
whether it is measured as the prevalence rate of illness, the severity of illness, or the likelihood
of mortality, and it is true for most types of diseases, as well as for many risk factors for disease
(Chen, 2004; Berkman & Epstein, 2008). It also holds true across the life span, from childhood
to older adulthood. And perhaps most intriguing, the relationship between SES and health exists
as a gradient—i.e., it is not just that poor people have poorer health than rich people. Rather,
each step increase in SES is accompanied by incremental benefits in health (Chen 2004). In
addition to low SES, higher levels of income inequality have also been shown to have a negative
effect on health, including higher rates of mortality and morbidity (see Diez-Roux 2000; Pickett
& Wilkinson, 2010; Johnson et al., 2015). In a survey of data from 12 developed countries,
Pickett and Wilkinson (2010) discovered that countries with higher income inequality had three
times as many individuals with mental illness than those with lower income inequality. And
Kahn et al. (2016) found that those living in states with higher income inequality had higher
rates of depressive symptoms and poorer self-rated health in mothers at the bottom 20% of
household income.

One of the most important determinants of health and criminal behavior is poverty and
socioeconomic status. In 2015, 43.1 million people in the United States (13.5% of the
population) lived below the official poverty line (United States Census Bureau, 2016), and
worldwide 9.6% of the world’s population lived on $1.90 or less a day (The World Bank, 2015).
This is significant because we know that poverty or low socioeconomic status can have profound
negative effects on health and increase community threat. Numerous studies have shown that
individuals with lower socioeconomic status (or SES) have higher rates of mortality and
morbidity, including obesity, cardiovascular disease, and mental illness (see Akil & Ahmad,
2011; Franks et al., 2011). One study found that low SES had almost the same impact on health
than smoking or a sedentary lifestyle, and was associated with a reduced life expectancy of 2
years (Stringhini et al., 2016). Conclusively, empirical studies reviewed have shown that there is
empirical gap in literature within and outside Nigeria literature context on the effect of human
security (food security, economic security and health security) on community safety in Sothern
Kaduna Community, Kaduna State, Nigeria. Therefore, the study empirically investigated the
effect of human security (food security, economic security, and health security) on community
safety within Nigeria context.
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

This chapter described the methodology framework used in attaining the stated objectives of the
study. This chapter focused on the procedures of data gathering and analysis employed in the
study. The research method presented in this chapter was related to the statement of problem and
objectives of study. This chapter contains the research method, the research design, population of
the study, sample size determination, sampling techniques and procedure, sample frame, sources
of data and data collected, research instrument and design, validity and reliability of the research
instrument.

3.1 Research Design

This research study adopted a cross-sectional survey research design. This design was
appropriate for this study because it describes the effect of the variables extensively. The cross-
sectional survey research design will be adopted because it allows data to be collected within a
limited time horizon on given phenomena. This design is used to evaluate the thoughts; different
groups of people's opinions and feelings which allow them to give more valid and authentic
answers (Dunette, 2019).
The cross-sectional survey research design. assisted to assess the determined sample at the
specific time without changing the behaviour or trying to make casual statements. The survey
research design was necessary to verify formulated hypotheses that referred to the situation at
hand. This method also concerned with the process and nature of this study (Leting &
Chechirchir, 2017; Yagboyaju, 2019).

3.2 Population of the Study

The study population cuts across all learned citizen or people in Southern Kaduna region which
are categorized into Hausa, Gbagyi, Bajju, Ham, Atyap, Igbo and Yoruba ethnic group. The
characteristic of the study population is mixed ethnic group of gender, age, marital status, highest
educational qualification, ad job status within Southern Kaduna, Nigeria. The population for the
study is 402,390 people in Southern Kaduna region of Kaduna State, Nigeria (Kaduna State
Water Board, 2017).

3.3 Sample size and sampling Technique

The sample size was determined using Cochran (1997) formula sample size determination. The
sample size for this study is determined by applying the Cochran (1997) formula as a standard
method of randomization and identifies the limits of errors considered as the most essential items
in the survey. This helped the researcher obtain the sample and used the results to make sampling
decisions based on the data.

The formula is:

NZ2pq
n=
d2(N-1) + Z2pq
Where:

n = sample size

N = Total number of population in Southern Kaduna (N=402,390)

Z = 95% Confidence Interval (Z = 1.96),

p = 0.5, = p is the estimated proportion of an attribute that is present in the population. q Is 1-p. (p) (q)
are the estimate of variance

q=1–p

d = degree of accuracy or estimation (d = 0.04)

Therefore;

n =402,390 (1.96) 2 (0.5) (0.5) = 599

(0.04) 2 (402,390– 1) + (1.96)2 (0.5) (0.5)

n = 599

Simple random sampling method was used for the selection of 599 people from Southern
Kaduna, Kaduna State, Nigeria. Dodge (2003) points out that stratified random sampling, is the
ratio of the sample size to the size of the strata. The reason for the adoption of this technique in
this study was that stratified random sampling ensured that all the elements or groups under
investigation were well represented in the sample. Furthermore, the technique helped in the
observation of relationships between two or more subgroups.

3.5 Method of Data Collection

This study adopted the primary source of data collection (questionnaire) in gathering data from
people in Southern Kaduna, Kaduna State, Nigeria. The primary source of data collection
originality, opinions and perceptions of respondents under study. Data were collected by
administering a structure questionnaire to 599 business people, farmers and community heads in
Southern Kaduna, Kaduna State. The questionnaire was appropriate for this study based on the
level of originality, confidentiality, and non-biases on the responses of the respondents. In this
study four trained research assistants helped in the administration and collection of the research
instruments. The research assistants attended three-day training on process and purpose of
carrying out the research in line with ethical standards.

3.6 Instrument of Data Collection

The data gathering instrument employ for this study was a well-structured questionnaire. The
questionnaire instrument was used to capture respondents’ demographics and also questions on
human security measures (food security, health security and economic security) and community
safety in Southern Kaduna communities, Kaduna State, Nigeria. The purpose of using
questionnaire survey is because of the direct response, feedback and the literacy level of the
propose respondents. The study utilized the close-ended questions using a six (6) point scale. The
questionnaire was divided into three sections (A, B and C). The section A addressed the
demographic with items such as gender, age, marital status, educational/ professional
qualification and industry. Section B dealt with questions items on human security measures
while section C is on question items related to community safety. The six (6) point interval scale
was used to guide respondents in their responses with 6-points indicating; VH-Very High=6, H-
High=5, MH-Moderately High=4, ML-Moderately Low=3, L-Low=2, VL-Very Low=1. This
modified scale increased the reliability of the responses and also gain more effective result from
the respondents.

3.7 Validity and Reliability Test

3.7.1 Pilot Study

A pilot study was conducted to pre-test the questionnaire in communities in Zamfara state that
experienced and encountered community crises and conflict, thus these communities are not part
of this study (10% of the sample size) which were randomly selected from the sample across
communities in Zamfara State that are not part of this study. In this study, communities in
Zamfara State were used for pilot study; as the communities were among the state in North that
has recorded highest number of community clashes and banditry. The purpose of the pilot study
was to adjust the questionnaire so that respondents would have no problems in answering the
questions and there would be no problems in recording the data. The pilot was considered
necessary in order to determine the willingness of the respondents to have a fore knowledge of
the reactions of the respondents and to ascertain the reliability of the questionnaires when used in
an environment. The total number of copies of the questionnaire retrieved from the sample was
fifty-nine (59). The responses were analyzed in order to determine the reliability of the research
instrument. Those questions that failed the validity and reliability test were dropped in the final
questionnaire used for data collection.

3.7.2 Validity of the Instrument

The research instrument was subjected to expert opinion validity as recommended by Raza and
Nawaz (2011). In order to make sure that the research instrument was valid, the instrument was
subjected to content validity. For content validity, the questionnaire included a variety of
questions on the effect of human security measures on community safety. This study also
ensured content validity of the questionnaire by passing through peer review process. The
questionnaire was reviewed by the researcher’s supervisor and experts in the field of business
information and security management in Babcock University. Their suggestions were taken and
corrections were effected so as to ensure that the research instrument was able to measure the
variables investigated effectively.

For construct validity, the questionnaire was divided into many sections such that each of the
section assessed information for specific objectives in the study. Construct validity was
measured statistically using exploratory factor analysis (EFA). The standardized factor loading,
and average variance extracted (AVE) are the two statistical procedures employed under the
EFA to examine the underlying items for the extracted component structure of the variables.
According to Hair, Tatham, Anderson, and Black (2006) the accepted threshold valued of
standardized factor loading is 0.50, while AVE is recommended at 0.50 (Fornell & Larcker,
1981). The results of convergent validity showed that all the constructs have an AVE value
above the threshold 0.5.

Furthermore, the study employed the KMO sampling adequacy and Bartlett’s Sphericity test to
determine whether the statements that comprise the research instruments of each variable
actually measure what are intended. If the result of the KMO is greater than 0.5, it means that the
questions actually measure the variables in the study. The result of the Bartlett test of Sphericity
at 0.000 which is less than 5% indicated that there was highly significant relationship among
variables in measuring the variables under study. In this study, the KMO test is greater than 5%
and Bartlett test of Sphericity result is less than 5% indicating that statements that comprised the
research instruments of each variable actually measured what were intended. The result of the
KMO and Bartlett test of Sphericity are shown in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: Validity Results

S/N Variables No of Items KMO Bartlett’s Test Average
Variance
Explained
1. Economic Security 6 0.756 764.143 0.714
2. Food Security 6 0.768 723.167 0.861
3. Health Security 6 0.720 614.920 0.874
4. Community Safety 10 0.795 681.898 0.799
Source: Researcher’s Field Survey (2021)

3.7.3 Reliability of Instrument

The Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient was used to establish the internal consistency of the research
instrument. In order to determine the internal consistency reliability of each variable, coefficient
alpha was applied on the pilot test conducted. The construct validity of the research instrument
was further established through confirmatory factor analysis. The Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient
for all the study variables are above 0.70, which suggests that the instrument used for evaluation
was highly reliable. Hence, the researcher affirms that the research instrument used is reliable.
The result of the Cronbach Alpha for each of the variable is presented in Table 3.2.

Table 3.2: Reliability Statistics

S/N Variables No of Items Composite Cronbach’s
Reliability Alpha
1. Economic Security 6 0.819 0.710
2. Food Security 6 0.821 0.812
3. Health Security 6 0.742 0.762
4. Community Safety 10 0.801 0.730
Source: Researcher’s Field Survey (2020)

3.8 Method of Data Analysis

Data analysis for this study were done in two stages: the descriptive and inferential analysis. The
first stage (the descriptive analysis) features descriptions of the properties of the data to show the
variations in responses of the study’s participants using such tools as frequencies and percentage
distribution tables, bar charts, means and standard deviations. It also provides the views and
opinions of the respondents on the link between human security and community safety.

The second stage (the inferential analysis) was the analysis of the responses on the quantitative
data and the effect of independent variables on the dependent variables. This was carried out
using statistical tools of simple and multiple regression method of analysis using SPSS
(Statistical Package for Social Sciences) software version 25.0 to test the effect of independent
variables (Human security measures) on the dependent variable (community safety). In this
study, hypothesis one, two and three employed simple regression method of analysis while
hypothesis four employed multiple regression method of analysis.

3.8.1 Data Treatment and Model Specification

This section focused on conditional tests such as normality, linearity, heteroscedasticity, and
multicollinearity tests to screen the data before the main analysis. It also includes model
specification for the various objectives to facilitate data analysis. The data screening tests are
presented first followed by model specification.

Normality Test
Tests of normality was used to determine if the data is well modelled and normally distributed
(Gujarati, 2003). Normality of data distribution was checked by examining its skewness and
kurtosis. Any variable with an absolute skew value higher than 3.0 is assumed skewed and also if
the kurtosis index is greater than 8.0, it is extreme kurtosis, however, the skewness is smaller
than 2.0 and kurtosis is less than 7.0 is the lowest value to be assumed for normality of data of all
the variables of the study (Kline, 2005). Similarly, Tabachnick and Fidell (2001), a skewness and
kurtosis statistic between -4 to +4 is deemed acceptable. The results of skewness and kurtosis
showed normal distribution and thus the assumption of normality were satisfied.

Linearity Test

Linearity test was carried out in order to establish a linear relationship among the independent
and the dependent variables. Linearity is the ability (within a given range) to provide results that
are directly proportional to the concentrations of the items in the test sample. The assumption of
linearity test is that the predictor variables in the regression have a straight-line relationship with
the outcome variable and that residuals are normally distributed and homoscedastic. Pearson
product moment correlation coefficient was used to test linearity assumption.

Test for Heteroskedasticity

Test for heteroskedasticity was done using standardized residuals (the errors) plot. The null
hypothesis in the test is that error terms have a constant variance (i.e. should be Homoskedastic).
The error terms are said to be Homoskedastic, if the p-value is greater than the conventional p-
value 0.05, otherwise the errors terms are said to be heteroskedastic. The assumption of
heteroskedasticity is that errors must beindependent and identically distributed.

Multicollinearity Test
Multicollinearity is a high degree of correlation among independent variables. The study used
variance inflation factors (VIF) to test for problem of multicollinearity in the multiple regression
models. According to Field (2009) VIF value in excess of 10 is an indication of the presence of
Multicollinearity. VIF statistic of a predictor in a model is the reciprocal of tolerance and it
indicates how much larger the error variance for the unique effect of a predictor (Baguley, 2012).
The assumption of multicollinearity is that there must be a linear relationship between the
outcome variable and the independent variables and that the independent variables are not highly
correlated with each other. Runkle, Glosten, and Jagannathan (2013) argued that if two or more
variables have a Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) of 5 or greater than 5, one of them must be
removed from the regression analysis as this indicates presence of multicollinearity. Thus, in the
study if two or more variables have a Variance Inflation Factor of 5 or greater than 5, one of
them must be removed from the model.

3.8.2 Model Specification

In order to research on the constructs of this study, it was necessary to operationalize the
variables in this study. The variables in this study were classified into two – dependent and
independent variables. The independent variable (X) was Human Security (HS) measure with
Economic Security (ES), Food Security (FS) and Health Security (HS) while the dependent
variable was Community Safety (CS).

Human Security (HS)= X = Independent Variable

Where:
ES = Economic Security
FS = Food Security
HES = Health Security
Community Safety (CS)= Y = Dependent Variable
The function relationship and regression equations to test the specific hypotheses formulated are:
Hypothesis One
Y = f(x1)
Y = β0 + β1x1+εi
CS = β0 + β1ES+εi---------------------------Eqn 1
Hypothesis Two
Y = f(x2)
Y = β0 + β2x2 +εi
CS = β0 + β2FS+εi---------------------------Eqn 2
Hypothesis Three
Y = f(x3)
Y = β0 + β3x3 +εi
CS = β0 + β3HS+εi---------------------------Eqn 3
Hypothesis Four
Y = f(x1, x2, x3)

Y = β0 + β1x1+ β2x2 + β3x3 + εi

CS = β0 + β1ESi + β2FSi + β3HSi + εi ……………………………...... Eqn 4

Where:
β0 = Constant term
β1 – β3 = Beta coefficient of variable i the measure of the change in Y associated with the change
in X.
εi = The expected error that is assumed to be associated with the variables.
The A priori Expectations for the study was β1 – β3 >0

3.9 A priori Expectation

In line with the hypothesis formulated and extant literature, the study expected that human
security components (Economic Security, Food Security and Health Security) would have
positive effect on community safety.

S/N Models A-priori expectation

Ho1 CS = β0 + β1ES+εi ------Eqn (1) βi1 - βi4 ≠0, p ≤0.05; H01 will
be rejected
HO2 CS = β0 + β2FS+εi ---------Eqn (2) βi1 - βi4 ≠0, p ≤0.05; H02 will
be rejected
HO3 CS = β0 + β3HS+εi ----------Eqn (3) βi1 - βi4 ≠0, p ≤0.05; H03 will
be rejected
HO4 CS = β0 + β1ESi + β2FSi + β3HSi + εi ------ Eqn (4) βi1 - βi4 ≠0, p ≤0.05; H04 will
be rejected
Table 3.3: Apriori Expectation

Source: Developed by the Research for the study

3.10 Ethical Consideration

This research carried out under the supervision of Babcock University Health Research Ethics
Committee (BUHREC) and in accordance with her rules and guidelines. In order to ensure
anonymity of the respondents, the researcher ensured that names and other personal details that
could be traced back to the respondents were not sought for or documented anywhere in the
study. Also, in the course of carrying out the research, the researcher ensured that considerable
efforts were put in place to ensure the confidentiality of data collected as well the identities of
the subjects that provided information for this study when reporting the outcome of the study.

The researcher was honest all through the course of the study and ensured that the process of
data reporting, result reporting is honest as well as the method and procedure that are used for the
study. The researcher also ensured that no false data are included in the data collected and that
the process of presenting and interpreting the data is free from bias. Money or any other material
benefit was not given to respondent in order to fill the questionnaire or to cooperate with the
researcher concerning the study but the researcher ensured that cooperation on the part of the
respondents was voluntary and self-willing.
 CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

This chapter presents an analysis of data collected from the field. It also presents, interprets and
discusses the findings as contained in the study. The descriptive analysis of the data involves the
use of tables, percentages, mean and standard deviation. While inferential statistics was carried
out using simple linear regression and multiple regression, so as to determine the effect, and
statistical significance of the relationships among the selected variables.

4.1 Response Rate

Category Frequency Percentage %
Distributed questionnaire 599
Completed and valid questionnaire 532 89.0%
Unreturned and disqualified copies 67 11.0%
Total 100%
Source: Field Survey (2021).

Table 4.1 illustrates the rate of responses from people in Southern Kaduna, Kaduna State,
Nigeria. From Table 4.1 shows that 599 questionnaires were distributed, out of which 532
completed and valid questionnaires were returned giving a response rate of 89.0%. Unreturned
and disqualified questionnaires were 67 representing 11.0%. This response rate is considered
adequate because it is more than 70% as confirmed by Arikan and Enginoglu (2016).

4.2 Diagnostic Test

Diagnostic tests such were carried out to screen the data. Osborne and Waters (2002) stated that
when these assumptions are not met, the results may not be valid. The following assumptions for
linear regression were checked: normality, homoscedasticity and multicollinearity.
4.2.1 Normality Test

The data was tested for normality. Normality which has the ability to detect departure from
normality. An assessment of the normality of data is a prerequisite for many statistical tests
because normal data is an underlying assumption in parametric testing. The result of normality
test of the residual seems normal. The histogram above has a bell-shaped curve. This means that
they do not pose any challenge, and that the data is normal.
4.2.3 Linearity test

Correlations
ECONOMICSE FOODSECURI HEALTHSEC COMMUNITY
CURITY TY URITY SECURITY
ECONOMICSECURITY Pearson Correlation 1 .280** .394** .395**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000
N 532 532 532 532
** **
FOODSECURITY Pearson Correlation .280 1 .245 .229**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000
N 532 532 532 532
** **
HEALTHSECURITY Pearson Correlation .394 .245 1 .277**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000
N 532 532 532 532
** ** **
COMMUNITYSECURIT Pearson Correlation .395 .229 .277 1
Y Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000
N 532 532 532 532
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Table 4.2.3 shows the result of the linearity test. The linearity test is a requirement in the
correlation and linear regression analysis. The Pearson bivariate correlation test for the variables
was carried out. The table revealed a significant positive relationship between economic security,
food security, health security and community security. Thus, they were found to be fit for further
analysis on the basis of regression assumptions of linearity.
4.2.4 Homoscedasticity
Homoscedasticity describes a situation in which the error term (that is, the “noise” or random
disturbance in the relationship between the independent variables and the dependent variable) is
the same across all values of the independent variables. A test for Homoscedasticity is made to
test for variance in residuals in the regression model used. If there is an equal variance of the
error term then we have a normal distribution. Lack of an equal level of variability for each value
of the independent variables is known as heteroscedasticity. Regression analysis assumes that
variances of the populations from which different samples are drawn. The scatter plot shows an
absence of systematic pattern, indicating that the obtained differences in sample variances are
likely not to have occurred based on random sampling from a population with equal variances.
Thus, there is significant difference between the variances in the population. Thus, that there was
Homoscedasticity in the data (that is, the data is not heterogeneous in variance), which
satisfies the assumption of regression hence the data was perfect for conducting inferential
statistics.

4.2.5 Multicollinearity Test

Multicollinearity is defined as a situation in which the independent variables are highly
correlated (Ho, 2006). Multicollinearity refers to a situation in which more than two explanatory
variables in a multiple regression model are highly linearly related. We have perfect
multicollinearity if, for example as in the equation above, the correlation between two
independent variables is equal to 1 or −1. To establish whether multicollinearity would pose a
problem, regression analysis was conducted. Tolerance and Variance inflation factors (VIF) are
given below in Table 4.3. Table

Table 4.2 Multicollinearity Result

Collinearity Statistics
Model Tolerance VIF

Economic Security .809 1.237

Food Security .900 1.111
Health Security .825 1.213
a. Dependent Variable: COMMUNITY SECURITY

Table 4.2 indicates that all the VIFs of the variables were less than 10 and Tolerance greater than
0.1 respectively. Variance inflation factors greater than 10 and Tolerance less than 0.1 suggests
multicollinearity (Landau & Everitt, 2004). Food Security yielded the least VIF at 1.111 and
Economic Security generated the highest VIF at 1.237. This implies that there was no
multicollinearity and thus all the predictor variables were maintained in the regression model, as
this is within the threshold recommended by Landau and Everett (2004).
4.3 Demographic Profile

This section gives a brief description of the demographic characteristics of the sampled respondents involved in this
study. The demographic characteristics include gender, age, and marital status, and highest education qualification,
level of management and length of service

Table 4.2 Demographic Profile

Count %
AGE 18-28 years 91 17.1%
29-39 years 243 45.7%
40-49 years 187 35.2%
50-60 years 11 2.1%
GENDER Male 263 49.4%
Female 269 50.6%
MARITALSTATUS Single 281 52.8%
Married 242 45.5%
Others 9 1.7%
NATION Nigeria 516 97.0%
Foreigner 16 3.0%
HIGHEST EDUCATIONAL Primary Certificate 13 2.4%
QUALIFICATION
WAEC/NECO 372 69.9%
National Diploma 147 27.6%
HND/B.Sc. 0 0.0%
M.Sc/M.A 0 0.0%

Source: Field Survey (2021)

Table 4.2 shows the demographic profile of the respondents. From the analysis carried out, the
study shows the frequency distribution of respondents’ demographic data. A total of 532 which
represents (89.0%) valid respondents were recorded. The age distribution of the respondents
shows that 91 (17.1%) of the respondents were within 18-39 years, 243 (45.7%) were within the
age of 29-39 years, 187 representing (35.2%) were within the age of 40-49 years, while 11
representing (2.1%) are within the age of 50-60 years. There were 263 males representing 49.4%
and 269 females representing 50.6%. The marital status of the respondents shows 281
representing (52.8%) of the respondents are single, 242 representing (45.5%) of the respondents
are married, while 9 representing (1.7%) are of different status. The nationality of the
respondents indicates that 516 respondents representing (97.0%) were Nigerians, while 16
representing (2.4%) were of foreigners. The educational qualification of the respondents shows
that 13 which represented (2.4%) had primary certificate, 372 representing (69.9%) had
WAEC/NECO, 147 representing (27.6%) were National Diploma holders.

Table 4.3 Descriptive Analysis on Economic Security

Very Moderatel Moderatel Very
High High y High y Low Low Low Total
Public service 214 280 35 2 .00 1 5.32
40.23% 52.63% 6.58% 0.38% 0.00% 0.19% .64
Employment 206 248 75 3 .00 .00 5.23
38.72% 46.62% 14.10% 0.56% 0.00% 0.00% .70
Transportation 178 243 109 2 .00 .00 5.12
33.46% 45.68% 20.49% 0.38% 0.00% 0.00% .74
Physical 71 277 175 9 .00 .00 4.77
security 13.35% 52.07% 32.89% 1.69% 0.00% 0.00% .69
Basic income 214 280 35 2 .00 1 5.32
40.23% 52.63% 6.58% 0.38% 0.00% 0.19% .64

Source: Field Survey (2021)

Table 4.3 shows the descriptive analysis of the respondent’s opinion on economic security effect
on resident in Southern Kaduna communities, Kaduna State, Nigeria. The table reveals that
40.23% of the respondents rated public service very high, 52.63% high, 6.58% moderately high,
0.38% moderately low, and 0.19% very low. A mean and standard deviation of 5.32 and .64 are
given respectively. It could be deduced that on the average most of the responses rated public
service moderately. However, a high disparity is noticed in the responses with a standard
deviation of .64. Similarly, the table shows that 38.72% of the respondents rated employment
very high, 46.62% high, 14.10% moderately high, 0.56% moderately low. A mean of 5.23
indicated that most of the respondents rated employment high. Conversely, a standard deviation
of .70 shows a high disparity in the responses. This implies that on the average, there is evidence
of employment.

Also, the table shows that 33.46% of the respondents rated transportation very high, 45.68%
high, 20.49% moderately high, 0.38% moderately low. The mean and standard deviation are 5.12
and .74 respectively. Since the standard deviation is less than 1 it implies that the respondent’s
opinion on transportation was divergent. Furthermore, the table also shows that 13.35% of the
respondents rated physical security very high, 52.0% high, 32.89% moderately high, 1.69%
moderately low. The mean and standard deviation are 4.77 and .69 respectively. It could be
concluded that on the average most of the responses rated physical security high. A high
disparity is noticed in the responses with a standard deviation of .69. Likewise, the table shows
that 40.23% of the respondents rated basic income very high, 52.63% high, 6.58% moderately
high, 0.38% moderately low, while 0.19% rated basic income. A mean of 5.32 indicated that
most of the respondents rated basic income high. Nevertheless, a standard deviation of .64
shows a high disparity in the responses. This implies that on the average, there is evidence of
basic income.

Table 4.4: Descriptive Analysis on Food Security

Very Moderately Moderately Very Mean
High High High Low Low Low & SD
Food 131 271 121 7 2 .00 4.98
availability 24.62% 50.94% 22.74% 1.32% 0.38% 0.00% .75
Food 143 263 120 4 2 .00 5.02
accessibility 26.88% 49.44% 22.56% 0.75% 0.38% 0.00% .75
Food stability 157 258 109 6 .00 2.00 5.05
29.51% 48.50% 20.49% 1.13% 0.00% 0.38% .78
Food 84 274 166 8 .00 .00 4.82
utilization 15.79% 51.50% 31.20% 1.50% 0.00% 0.00% .71
Food usage 206 248 75 3 .00 .00 5.23
38.72% 46.62% 14.10% 0.56% 0.00% 0.00% .70

Source: Field Survey (2021)

Table 4.4 shows the descriptive analysis of the respondent’s opinion on food security effect on
resident in Southern Kaduna communities, Kaduna State, Nigeria. The table reveals that 24.62%
of the respondents rated food availability very high, 50.94% high, 22.74% moderately high,
1.32% moderately low, and 0.38% low. A mean and standard deviation of 4.98 and .75 are given
respectively. It could be deduced that on the average most of the responses rated food availability
moderately high. However, a high disparity is noticed in the responses with a standard deviation
of .75. Similarly, the table shows that 26.88% of the respondents rated food accessibility very
high, 49.44% high, 22.5% moderately high, 0.75% moderately low, and 0.38% low. A mean of
5.02 indicated that most of the respondents rated food accessibility high. Conversely, a standard
deviation of .75 shows a high disparity in the responses. This implies that on the average, there is
evidence of food accessibility. Also, the table shows that 29.51% of the respondents rated food
stability very high, 48.50% high, 20.49% moderately high, 1.13% moderately low, and 0.38%
very low. The mean and standard deviation are 5.05 and .78 respectively. Since the standard
deviation is less than 1 it implies that the respondent’s opinion on food stability was divergent.

Furthermore, the table also shows that 15.79% of the respondents rated food utilisation very
high, 51.50% high, 31.20% moderately high, 1.50% moderately low. The mean and standard
deviation are 4.82 and .71 respectively. It could be concluded that on the average most of the
responses rated food utilisation moderately high. A high disparity is noticed in the responses
with a standard deviation of .71. Likewise, the table shows that 38.72% of the respondents rated
food usage very high, 46.62% high, 14.10% moderately high, 0.56% moderately low. A mean of
5.23 indicated that most of the respondents rated food usage high. Nevertheless, a standard
deviation of .70 shows a high disparity in the responses. This implies that on the average, there is
evidence of food usage.

Table 4.5: Descriptive Analysis on Health Security

Very Moderatel Moderate Very Mean
High High y High ly Low Low Low & SD
Health detection to
137 255 137 3 .00 .00 4.99
infectious .73
25.75% 47.93% 25.75% 0.56% 0.00% 0.00%
Health prevention to
143 258 127 4 .00 .00 5.02
infectious .73
26.88% 48.50% 23.87% 0.75% 0.00% 0.00%
Disease surveillance
167 273 87 5 .00 .00 5.13
31.39% 51.32% 16.35% 0.94% 0.00% 0.00% .71

Health responses to
144 286 95 7 .00 .00 5.07
infectious .71
27.07% 53.76% 17.86% 1.32% 0.00% 0.00%
Health surveillance
92 302 129 8 1 .00 4.89
17.29% 56.77% 24.25% 1.50% 0.19% 0.00% .69

Source: Field Survey (2021)

Table 4.5 shows the descriptive analysis of the respondent’s view on effect of health security on
resident in Southern Kaduna communities, Kaduna State, Nigeria. The table reveals that 25.75%
of the respondents rated health detection infectious very high, 47.93% high, 25.75% moderately
high, 0.56% moderately low. A mean and standard deviation of 4.99 and .73 are given
respectively. It could be deduced that on the average most of the responses rated health detection
infectious are high. However, a high disparity is noticed in the responses with a standard
deviation of .73. Similarly, the table shows that 26.88% of the respondents rated health
prevention to infectious very high, 48.50% high, 23.87% moderately high, 0.75% moderately
low. A mean of 5.02 indicated that most of the respondents rated health prevention to infectious
high. Conversely, a standard deviation of .73 shows a high disparity in the responses. This
implies that on the average, there is evidence of health prevention to infectious.

Also, the table shows that 31.39% of the respondents rated disease surveillance very high,
51.32% high, 16.35% moderately high, 0.94% moderately low. The mean and standard deviation
are 5.13 and .71 respectively. Since the standard deviation is less than 1 it implies that the
respondent’s opinion on disease surveillance was divergent. Furthermore, the table also shows
that 27.07% of the respondents rated health responses to infectious very high, 53.76% high,
17.86% moderately high, 1.32% moderately low. The mean and standard deviation are 5.07 and .
71 respectively. It could be concluded that on the average most of the responses rated health
responses to infectious high. A high disparity is noticed in the responses with a standard
deviation of .71. Likewise, the table shows that 17.29% of the respondents rated health
surveillance very high, 56.77% high, 24.25% moderately high, 1.50% moderately low, and
0.19% low. A mean of 4.89 indicated that most of the respondents rated health surveillance
moderately high. Nevertheless, a standard deviation of .69 shows a high disparity in the
responses. This implies that on the average, there is evidence of health surveillance.

Table 4.6: Descriptive Analysis on Community Safety

Very Moderately Moderately Very Mean &
High High High Low Low Low SD
Natural Disasters 91 336 104 1 .00 .00 5.00
17.11% 63.16% 19.55% 0.19% 0.00% 0.00% .61
Health care 115 299 114 4 .00 .00 5.00
availability 21.62% 56.20% 21.43% 0.75% 0.00% 0.00% .68
Hooligans attacks 108 339 83 2 .00 .00 5.00
20.30% 63.72% 15.60% 0.38% 0.00% 0.00% .61
Social security 98 300 131 3 .00 .00 5.00
changes 18.42% 56.39% 24.62% 0.56% 0.00% 0.00% .67
Racial differences 114 273 143 2 .00 .00 5.00
21.43% 51.32% 26.88% 0.38% 0.00% 0.00% .70
Income 95 314 123 .00 .00 .00 5.00
discrepancies 17.86% 59.02% 23.12% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% .64
Climate change 97 261 174 .00 .00 .00 5.00
18.23% 49.06% 32.71% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% .70

Source: Field Survey (2021)

Table 4.6 shows the descriptive analysis of the respondent’s view on effect of community safety
on resident in Southern Kaduna communities, Kaduna State, Nigeria. The table discloses that
17.11% of the respondents rated natural disaster very high, 63.1% high, 19.55% moderately
high, 0.19% moderately low. A mean and standard deviation of 5.00 and .61 are given
respectively. It could be inferred that on the average most of the responses on natural are high.
However, a high disparity is noticed in the responses with a standard deviation of .61. Likewise,
the table shows that 21.62% of the respondents rated health care availability very high, 56.20%
high, 21.43% moderately high, 0.75% moderately low. A mean of 5.00 indicated that most of the
respondents rated health care availability high. Conversely, a standard deviation of .68 shows a
high dissimilarity in the responses. This implies that on the average, there is evidence of
healthcare availability. Likewise, the table shows that 20.30% of the respondents rated hooligans
attack very high, 63.72% high, 15.60% moderately high, 0.38% moderately low. The mean and
standard deviation are 5.00 and .61 respectively. Since the standard deviation is less than 1 it
implies that the respondent’s opinion on hooligan’s attack was divergent.

Additionally, the table also shows that 18.42% of the respondents rated social security change
very high, 56.39% high, 24.62% moderately high, 0.56% moderately low. The mean and
standard deviation are 5.00 and .61 respectively. It could be concluded that on the average most
of the responses rated social security change high. A high disparity is noticed in the responses
with a standard deviation of .61. Likewise, the table shows that 21.43% of the respondents rated
racial differences very high, 51.32% high, 26.88% moderately high, 0.38% moderately low. A
mean of 5.00 indicated that most of the respondents rated racial differences high. Nevertheless, a
standard deviation of .70 shows a high disparity in the responses. This implies that on the
average, there is evidence of racial differences. Likewise, the table shows that 17.86% of the
respondents rated income discrepancies very high, 59.02% high, 23.12% moderately high. The
mean and standard deviation are 5.00 and .64 respectively. Since the standard deviation is less
than 1 it implies that the respondent’s opinion on income discrepancies was divergent. Likewise,
the table shows that 18.23% of the respondents rated climate change very high, 49.06% high,
32.71% moderately high. A mean of 5.00 indicated that most of the respondents rated climate
change high. Conversely, a standard deviation of .70 shows a high dissimilarity in the responses.
This implies that on the average, there is evidence of climate change.

Restatement of Hypothesis One

H01: Economic security has no significant effect on community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria.

Table 4.7: Simple Linear Regression of the Effect of Economic Security on Community
Safety.
Coefficientsa

Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients
Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig.
1 (Constant) 19.920 1.005 19.814 .000
Economic Security .384 .039 .395 9.886 .000
A. Dependent Variable: Community Safety
R = 0.395, R2 = 0.156, F(1,530) = 97.726, p < 0.05

Table 4.7 shows the simple regression analysis results for the effect of economic security on
community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria. The result shows that economic security (β = .384, t
= 9.886, p<0.05) have positive and significant effect on the community safety in Kaduna State,
Nigeria. The R value of 0.395 supports this result and it indicates that economic security has a
positive effect on the community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria. The R2 = 0.156 indicates that
about 15.6% variation that occurs in the community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria can be
accounted for by economic security, while the remaining 84.4% changes that occurs is accounted
for by other variables not captured in the model. The simple regression model is thus expressed
as:
CS = 19.920 + 0.384(ES) + UI-----------------Equ 1

Where:

CS = Community Safety

ES = Economic Security

The regression model shows that when economic security is held at constant, community safety
would be 19.920 implying that irrespective of the community safety in Kaduna State, there will
still be a level of economic security as shown by the positive constant value. The results of the
simple regression analysis indicate that when economic security is improved by one unit,
community safety will be positively affected by an increase of 0.395 units. The result suggests
that economic security is an important determinant of community safety in Kaduna State,
Nigeria. The F (1,530) statistics shows the fitness of the model as the value which is F (1,530) =
97.726 P<0.05) suggests that economic security explained variations in the community safety in
Kaduna State, Nigeria. The result also shows a high level of statistical significance which leads
to the rejection of the null hypothesis (H01) which states that economic security does not have
significant effect on community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria.
Discussion

The regression analysis for the effect of economic security and community safety reveals a
significant result. Empirically it was found that economic security produced a significant effect
on community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria. The result showed that an increase in economic
security will have a corresponding positive and significant effect on community safety. It is
worthy to note that this inferential result is in consonance with the findings of other scholars.
Gasper and Gomez (2015) examined the link between human security and community threat.
Their study revealed that sound human security measures reduced community threat. Also,
Muchemi and Karungari (2017) studied the peace building, challenges, implementation of
community policing as a critical factor. The study found that community policing helped in
peace building compared. Similarly, Leting (2017) empirically examined Nyumba Kumi
Strategy of Community Policing and its impact on curbing crime in Kenya. Likewise, Leting
(2017) empirically examined Nyumba Kumi Strategy of Community Policing and its impact on
curbing crime in Kenya. The study found that community policing strategies, political support
and good will of the government had positive impact on Nyumba kumi community policing
strategy in curbing crime rate.

Restatement of Hypothesis Two

H02: Food security has no significant effect on community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria.
Table 4.8: Simple Linear Regression of the Effect of Food Security on Community Safety.

Coefficientsa
Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients
Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig.
1 (Constant) 17.087 1.398 12.222 .000
Food Security .253 .047 .229 5.422 .000
a. Dependent Variable: Community Safety
R = 0.229, R2 = 0.053, F(1,530) = 29.396, p < 0.05
Table 4.8 shows the simple regression analysis results for the effect of food security on
community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria. The result shows that food security (β = .253, t =
5.422, p<0.05) have positive and significant effect on the community safety in Kaduna State,
Nigeria. The R value of 0.229 supports this result and it indicates that food security has a
positive effect on the community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria. The R2 = 0.053 indicates that
about 5.3% variation that occurs in the community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria can be
accounted for by food security, while the remaining 94.7% changes that occurs is accounted for
by other variables not captured in the model. The simple regression model is thus expressed as:

CS = 17.087 + 0.253(FS) + U2-----------------Equ 2

Where:

CS = Community Safety

FS = Food Security

The regression model shows that when food security is held at constant, community safety would
be 17.087 implying that irrespective of the community safety in Kaduna State, there will still be
a level of food security as shown by the positive constant value. The results of the simple
regression analysis indicate that when food security is improved by one unit, community safety
will be positively affected by an increase of 0.053 units. The result suggests that food security is
an important determinant of community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria. The F (1,530) statistics
shows the fitness of the model as the value which is F (1,530) = 29.396 P<0.05) suggests that
food security explained variations in the community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria. The result
also shows a high level of statistical significance which leads to the rejection of the null
hypothesis (H02) which states that food security does not have significant effect on community
safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria.

Discussion
The regression analysis for the effect of food security and community safety reveals a significant
result. Empirically it was found that food security produced a significant effect on community
safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria. The result showed that an increase in food security will have a
corresponding positive and significant effect on community safety. The finding of this study is in
agreement with Ahungwa, Umeh, and Muktar (2013), whose empirical study found that food
security improves citizens standard of living. The study further revealed food security to an
extent promotes peaceful co-existence by reducing crime rate. It is worthy to note that productive
engagement into food production and security reduces social vices and promotes healthy
community. The findings of this study is also in agreement with the findings of other researchers.
Researchers such as Kim (2015), and Zaccardelli, Pane, Villecco, Palese and Celano (2018) have
examined the link between food security and community peace. These studies found that food
security significantly improve community peace and food productivity. They further confirmed
that community peace induces bio-stimulant effects on the plants, so as to improve efficiency use
of the farm inputs and production. This empirically established that community safety reduces
farm cost of production, thus enhance food security.

Table 4.8: Restatement of hypothesis three

H03: Health security has no significant effect on community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria.

Simple Linear Regression of the Effect of Health Security on Community Safety.

Coefficientsa
Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients
Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig.
1 (Constant) 16.146 1.352 11.940 .000
Health Security .300 .045 .277 6.642 .000
a. Dependent Variable: Community Safety
R = 0.277, R2 = 0.077, F(1,530) = 44.112, p < 0.05

Table 4.8 shows the simple regression analysis results for the effect of health security on
community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria. The result shows that health security (β = .300, t =
6.642, p<0.05) have positive and significant effect on the community safety in Kaduna State,
Nigeria. The R value of 0.277 supports this result and it indicates that health security has a
positive effect on the community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria. The R2 = 0.077 indicates that
about 7.7% variation that occurs in the community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria can be
accounted for by health security, while the remaining 92.3% changes that occurs is accounted for
by other variables not captured in the model. The simple regression model is thus expressed as:

CS = 16.146 + 0.253(HS) + U3-----------------Equ 3

Where:

CS = Community Safety

HS = Health Security

The regression model shows that when health security is held at constant, community safety
would be 16.146 implying that irrespective of the community safety in Kaduna State, there will
still be a level of health security as shown by the positive constant value. The results of the
simple regression analysis indicate that when health security is improved by one unit, community
safety will be positively affected by an increase of 0.077 units. The result suggests that health
security is an important determinant of community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria. The F
(1,530) statistics shows the fitness of the model as the value which is F (1,530) = 44.112 P<0.05)
suggests that health security explained variations in the community safety in Kaduna State,
Nigeria. The result also shows a high level of statistical significance which leads to the rejection
of the null hypothesis (H03) which states that health security does not have significant effect on
community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria.

Discussion

The regression analysis for the effect of health security and community safety reveals a
significant result. Analytically it was found that health security produced a significant effect on
community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria. The result showed that an increase in health security
will have a conforming positive and significant effect on community safety. Health security is an
important dimension of human security, as good health is “both essential and instrumental to
human survival, livelihood and dignity” (Human Security Unit, 2013). Good health of a
population is also important for social cohesion and stability. The findings of this study are
corroboration with millennium development goal of the united nations. The fact that health and
human security are closely related and the significance of health in achieving human security is
evidenced by the fact that several out of eight Millennium Development Goals involve health:
eradicate extreme poverty and hunger (MDG 1); reduce child mortality (MDG 4); improve
maternal health (MDG 4) and combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases (MDG 6). With the
aim of achieving health security, many programs were launched, the international legal
framework of the World Health Organization was revised, institutions were established

Restatement of hypothesis four

H04: Human security measures (economic security, food security, and health security) do not
significantly affect community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria.

Table 4.9: Multiple Regression of the Effect of Human Security Measures (economic
security, food security, and health security) on Community Safety
Coefficientsa
Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients
Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig.
1 (Constant) 16.558 1.265 13.090 .000
Economic Security .305 .043 .314 7.179 .000
Food Security .100 .037 .110 2.662 .008
Health Security .117 .040 .126 2.918 .004
a. Dependent Variable: Community Safety
Adj. R2 = 0.184, F(3,528) = 39.721, p < 0.05

Table 4.9 shows the simple regression analysis results for the effect of human security measures
(economic security, food security, and health security) on community safety in Kaduna State,
Nigeria. The result shows that human security factors when combined to determine their effect
on community safety produces an adjusted coefficient of multiple correlation of 0.184 with p-
value 0.000 (Adj. R2 = 0.184, p< 0.05), indicating that percentage of variance in community
safety jointly explained by the explanatory variables is 18.4%, while the remaining 81.6%
changes that occurs is accounted for by other variables not captured in the model. The table
further reveals that the coefficients of the regression model designed to investigate the effect of
human security factors on community safety are provided. From the results, economic security,
food security and health security contribute significantly to community safety in Kaduna State,
Nigeria.

The results show the unstandardized coefficients of economic security [β = 0.305, p = 0.000],
food security [β = 0.100, p = 0.008], health security [β = 0.117, p = 0.004] are all statistically
significant. This therefore implies that a percentage increase in economic security will have a
30.5% increase on community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria, a percentage increase in food
security will have a 10.0% increase on community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria, a percentage
increase in health security will have a 11.7% increase on community safety in Kaduna State,
Nigeria. The final regression model for thus becomes:

CS = 16.558 + 0.305(ES) +0.100(FS) + 0.117(HS) …………………………..eq4

Where:

CS = Community Safety

HS = Health Security

ES = Economic security

FS = Food security

Based on the regression equation above, taking into account all human security measures
(economic security, food security and health security) all have significant contributions to
community safety. The a priori expectation was that the variables of human security factors will
have a significant effect on community safety. Thus, the null hypothesis should be rejected if β1-
β3 ≠0 and p0.05 H04 otherwise it has to be accepted. Based on the results in the table, the
coefficients of the measures of human security measures (economic security, food security, and
health security) are not equal to zero and their p values are found to be less than 0.05. Thus, we
have to reject the null hypothesis and conclude that human security measures (economic security,
food security, and health security) has significant effect on community safety in Kaduna State,
Nigeria.
Discussion

The multiple regression analysis for the effect of human security measures (economic security,
food security, and health security) reveals a positive and significant result. Empirically it was
found that human security measures (economic security, food security, and health security)
produced a significant effect on community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria. The result showed
that an increase in human security measures (economic security, food security, and health
security) will have a conforming positive and significant effect on community safety. Public
health measures to prevent, detect, and respond to events are essential to control public health
risks, including infectious disease outbreaks, as highlighted in the International Health
Regulations (IHR). In light of the outbreak of 2019 novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19), it is
needful maintain quality health security capacities against public health risks and events. The
study of Kandel, Chungong, Omaar and Xing (2020) found that countries vary widely in terms of
their capacity to prevent, detect, and respond to outbreaks. Half of all countries analysed have
strong operational readiness capacities in place, which suggests that an effective response to
potential health emergencies could be enabled, including to COVID-19. Findings from local risk
assessments are needed to fully understand national readiness capacities in relation to COVID-
19. Capacity building and collaboration between countries are needed to strengthen global
readiness for outbreak control.

Food safety and food security is a determinant of the well-being of the citizens of a country and
it translates to the development and transformation of the economy in any country. The finding
of this study is in agreement with Manap and Ismail (2019) whose study has proved that food
security has an impact on economic growth, especially in dry-land developing countries. This
research has identified that food security has a significant positive impact on food security, as an
increase in food security increases economic growth. Nonetheless, food security also has an
impact on economic growth in terms of life expectancy, total employment, and poverty, whereas
life expectancy and total employment with better food security have a positive impact on
economic growth, reduce in poverty, achieving food security and enhancing economic growth.
The study of Osundahunsi, Abu and Enujiugha (2016) revealed that several factors contribute to
food insecurity includes wars, natural disasters, unemployment inadequate technological
deployment and high post-harvest losses. The study found that agriculture contributes to food
security and safety.

Economic security strengthens tolerance and happiness as well as growth and development. A
new study by the International Labour Office (ILO) highlights that people's economic security
promotes personal wellbeing, happiness and tolerance, while benefiting growth and
development. Leting (2017) empirically examined Nyumba Kumi Strategy of Community
Policing and its impact on curbing crime in Kenya. Likewise, Leting (2017) empirically
examined Nyumba Kumi Strategy of Community Policing and its impact on curbing crime in
Kenya. The study found that community policing strategies, political support and good will of
the government had positive impact on Nyumba kumi community policing strategy in curbing
crime rate. Likewise, Gasper and Gomez (2015) examined the link between human security and
community threat. Their study revealed that sound human security measures reduced community
threat. Also, Muchemi and Karungari (2017) studied the peace building, challenges,
implementation of community policing as a critical factor. The study found that community
policing helped in peace building compared.

Table 4.10: Summary on Tests of Hypotheses and Conclusion

Hypotheses Conclusion
H01: Economic security does not have significant effect
Rejected
on community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria

H02: Food security does not significantly affect

Rejected
community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria

H03: Health security does not significantly affect

Rejected
community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria
 H04: Human security measures (economic security, food
security, and health security) do not significantly affect
Rejected
community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter summarizes the study, descriptive and empirical findings as well as conclusion and
recommendation made implication of finding, the study contributions to knowledge, limitations
of the study and suggestion for further study.

5.1 Summary

The first chapter highlights the global nature of human security and community safety. Human
security being a human right, discusses the security of people and communities, as opposed to
the security of states. Human security recognises that there are several dimensions related to
feeling safe, such as freedom from fear, freedom from want, and freedom from indignity. A
people-centred approach to security has implications for how people should carry out and
understand conflict assessment, programme planning, implementation, and evaluation of
peacebuilding initiatives. The linkages and expectations of human security measures (economic
security, food security and health security) and community safety were discussed. The chapter
highlights the research gaps situated which led to the statement of the problem of the research
work. The research objectives of the study were formulated which were in congruence with the
research questions and research hypotheses. The operationalization of variables, study’ scope,
significance of the study and definition of operational terms were clearly stated.

The relevant literature to the study was reviewed in chapter two in line with the study under three
sub headings as conceptual, theoretical and empirical review. The conceptual review is review
emphasised on definitions and discussions of human security measures and its sub-variables
(economic security, food security and health security) and community security. The empirical
review was done by reviewing previous studies and their findings. Theoretically, various theories
that were related to the two variables (independent and dependent were highlighted. The theories
revised structural functionalism theory, conflict and phenomenology theories.

Chapter three discussed the methodology used for gathering the data for the study. The chapter
highlighted the research design, population of the study, sampling unit, sampling frame,
sampling technique, method of data collection, research instrument, pilot study, validity and
reliability of the study, method of data analysis, data treatment, model specification, a priori
expectation, ethical consideration.

The fourth chapter focuses on data presentation, analysis and interpretation of statistical result
analysed in correspondence with the research objectives, research question were sorted,
arranged, coded and analysed using descriptive statistics done using percentages, mean and
standard deviation. Inferential statistics was done using multiple linear regression. Data analysis
was done with the aid of Statistical Packages for Social Science (SPSS) version 21 software to
test all the hypothesis of the study and to establish the effects and the relationships between the
independent variable and the dependent sub-variables.

From the review of literature and the interpretation of analysis of data collected, the following
can be summed up as the major finding of this study;

i. There was a statistically significant effect of economic security and community safety in
Kaduna State, Nigeria (R = 0.395, R2 = 0.156, F = 97.726, p < 0.05).
ii. There was a statistically significant effect of food security and community safety in
Kaduna State, Nigeria (R = 0.229, R2 = 0.053, F = 29.396, p < 0.05).
iii. There was a statistically significant effect of health security and community safety in
Kaduna State, Nigeria (R = 0.277, R2 = 0.077, F = 44.112, p < 0.05).
 iv. There was a statistically significant effect of human security measures (economic
security, food security and health security) and community safety in Kaduna State,
Nigeria (Adj. R2 = 0.184, F = 39.721, p < 0.05).

5.2 Implication of Findings

The findings of this research work have implications on its stakeholders.

5.2.1 Government Implication

This study enables the government to create better policies and regulation with regards to the
research variables in a way to enable development and growth of communities, promote and
instil security consciousness on citizens and establish the benefits of the implementation security
measures for peaceful co-existence. This study enables the society to be more informed and
provide more knowledge with regards to human security measure (economic security, food
security and health security) and community safety.

5.2.2 Academic Implication

Lastly, this study is relevant to the academics/ researcher to help fill gaps of the existing and few
fragmented literatures on human security measure (economic security, food security and health
security) and community safety. Also, to inspire or motivate the researcher to contribute more to
the body of knowledge in these field or related fields based on the findings of this research.

5.3 Conclusion

This study investigated human security measure (economic security, food security and health
security) and community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria. The study concluded that human
security measure (economic security, food security and health security) plays important role in
enhancing community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria. The first hypothesis result shows that
economic security have significant effect on community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria. The
second hypothesis result shows that food security have significant effect on community safety in
Kaduna State, Nigeria. The third hypothesis result shows that health security have significant
effect on community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria. The fourth hypothesis result shows that
human security measure (economic security, food security and health security) have significant
effect on community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria.
5.4 Recommendations

Based on the findings, this study offers a variety of recommendations to be implemented by the
various parties concerned with the improvement of human security measure (economic security,
food security and health security) and community safety in Kaduna State, as well as Nigeria as a
whole.

i. The study found that human security promotes community safety, and human
security draws together the expertise and resources of a wide range of actors such
Governments, private sector, civil society and local communities. Therefore, the
study recommends that there should be seizing synergies that capitalize on the
comparative advantages of various stakeholders in promoting community safety.
ii. The findings revealed that prevention of unsafe environment is the core objective
of human security. The study therefore recommends that government, community
leaders should develop action-oriented strategies to address the root causes of
vulnerabilities, focusing attention on emerging risks and emphasizes early action.
It should strengthen local capacities to build resilience, and promote solutions that
enhance social cohesion and advance respect for human rights and dignity.
iii. There should be an application of human security comprehensive responses that
address the multidimensional causes and consequences of complex challenges.
The study recommends for integrated actions among a network of stakeholders to
ensure lasting responses to the most difficult deficits in peace and development.
Adoption of technologies like integrated nutrient management, integrated pest
management and integrated weed management needs to be made available for
adoption to ensure higher production and sustainability of food production base.
iv. The human security approach is a proven analytical and planning framework that
supports more comprehensive and preventive responses, cutting across sectors,
developing contextually relevant solutions, and adopting partnerships to help
realise a world free from fear, want and indignity. Every citizen should promote
human security approaches to improve community safety. Further, there is the
need for reformation of the agricultural and other sectors within the economy to
create more jobs and improve standard of living.
5.5 Contribution to Knowledge

The findings of this study made relevant contributions to knowledge. Most variables studied in
relation to the variables used in this study have been examined and studied independently. This
study is among the few studies that have examined the aggregate of the independent variables on
dependent variables in one study.

The study contributes to the new knowledge of the importance of human security measures
(economic security, food security, and health security) on community safety in Kaduna State,
Nigeria. The study also contributes to the understanding of the role of human security measures
(economic security, food security, and health security) on community safety in Kaduna State,
Nigeria. The concept helped to understand the relevance of both the independent and dependent
variables and their sub-variables on community safety in Kaduna State, Nigeria.

5.6 Limitations of the Study

The study has some limitations which can be viewed in line with the sequence used in carrying
out the study. The distance to the study areas was a limitation which was mitigated with the use
of research instrument.

The method of data analysis used in this research work included the descriptive statistics and the
inferential statistics. The limitation of descriptive analysis is that it only allows for summations
of individuals which have actually been measured; however, the use of the inferential statistics
mitigated this shortcoming.

The limitations of the study had no material effect on the findings of the study. Also, the findings
have contributed to the body of knowledge and extend literature on the effect of human security
measures (economic security, food security, and health security) on community safety in Kaduna
State, Nigeria.

5.7 Suggestion for Further Studies

To overcome the limitation of the study the researcher suggests the need for further
investigations which are;
 i. Further researchers could employ longitudinal survey research design to capture
the dynamics of human security and community safety.
ii. Further research direction could use a State of different geopolitical zone, using
broader sample of participants especially in other States that were not included in
the study.

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 APPENDIX
REQUEST FOR PERMISSION TO PARTICIPATE IN A RESEARCH
Dear Sir/Madam,

Informed consent for participation in an academic research study on

Human Security and Community Safety Questionnaire (HSCSQ)
Dear Respondent
You are herewith invited to participate in an academic research study conducted by
Mandu a postgraduate (MBA Executive) student of Babcock University, Illishan, Remo, Ogun
State, Nigeria.
The purpose of the study is to examine the effect of human security on community safety
in Southern Kaduna Community, Kaduna State, Nigeria.
All your answers will be treated as confidential, and you will not be identified in any of
the research reports emanating from this research. Your participation in this study is very
important to me. You may however choose not to participate and you may also withdraw from
the study at any time without any negative consequences.
Your participation will be limited to the completion of a questionnaire, which will take
approximately 20 minutes of your time. The questionnaire contains seven major sections
comprising:
1. Demographic Information
2. Economic Security
3. Food Security
 4. Health Security
5. Community Safety

Yours faithfully,

------------------------------------------
Surname, and other names
Tel: +234
E-mail: @gmail.com
SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHIC DATA

Kindly mark [ √ ] in the space(s) provided:

Age: [ ] 18-28yrs [ ] 29-39yrs [ ] 40-49 yrs [ ] 50-60yrs

Gender: [ ] Male [ ] Female

Marital Status: [ ] Single [ ] Married [ ] Others

Nationality: [ ] Nigerian [ ] Foreigner

Highest Educational Level: [ ] Primary Certificate [ ] WAEC/NECO [ ] National

Diploma [ ] HND/B.Sc. [ ] M.Sc./M.A

VH-Very High=6, H-High=5, MH-Moderately High=4, ML-Moderately Low=3, L-Low=2, VL-

Very Low=1.
SECTION B: INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
1. Economic Security
How will you rate economic security effect on resident in Southern Kaduna Communities,
Kaduna State, Nigeria
Items Very High Moderatel Moderately Low Very
High y High Low Low
Public service

Employment

Transportation

Economic stability

Physical security

Basic income

2. Food Security
How will you rate food security effect on resident in Southern Kaduna Communities, Kaduna
State, Nigeria
Items Very High Moderately Moderatel Low Very Low
High High y Low
Food availability
 Food accessibility

Food stability

Food utilization

Food nutrition

Food usage

3. Health Security
How will you rate health security effect on resident in Southern Kaduna Communities, Kaduna
State, Nigeria
Items Very High Moderately Moderately Low Very Low
High High Low
Health detection to
infectious

Health prevention to
infectious
Disease surveillance

Health responses to
infectious
Bio-security

Health surveillance

SECTION C: DEPENDENT VARIABLE

Community Safety
How will you rate the level of community safety in Southern Kaduna Communities in Kaduna
State, Nigeria?
Items Very High Moderately Moderatel Low Very Low
High High y Low
Natural Disasters

Health care availability

Economic fluctuation

Hooligans attacks

Social security changes

Racial differences

Unemployment rates
Air pollution

Income discrepancies

Climate change

THANK YOU