MECHANICAL ENGINEERING REVIEWER 1

ELEMENTS IN MACHINE DESIGN

Introduction
1. Artificial Intelligence (AI) – is an attempt to duplicate how the human mind works in computer
processed.
2. Computer-Aided Design (CAD) – an application of computer technology to planning, performing,
and implementing the design process.
3. Concurrent Engineering – a design approach wherein all disciplines involved with a product are in
the development process from beginning to end.
4. Design – the transformation of concepts and ideas into useful machinery.
5. English Units – a system of units where force is measured in pounds force (lb f), length in inches
(in.), time in seconds (s), mass in pounds mass (lbm), and temperature in degrees Rankine (oR).
6. Expert Systems – a computer programs that solve specialized-problems on an expert level.
7. Fail-safe – a design approach where no catastrophic loss can occur as a result of a component
failure.
8. Failure – the condition of a machine element when it is completely inoperable, cannot perform its
intended function adequately, or is unreliable for continued safe use.
9. Fault free analysis – a statistical data used to identify the most likely failure modes.
10. Finite Element Analysis (FEA) – a computational method used for solving complex shapes, such
as those found in machinery; replaces the complex shape with a set of simple elements
interconnected at a finite set of a specific purpose.
11. Machine – a combination of mechanisms and other components that transform, transmit, or use
energy, load, or motion for a specific purpose.
12. Machine Element Function – a normal load transmitter, torque transmitter, energy absorber, or
seal.
13. Manifest Danger – a design approach where needed service is made apparent before catastrophic
failure.
14. Mechanical System – a synergetic collection of machine elements.
15. Rapid Prototyping – parts produced quickly from computer geometry description files.
16. Redundancy – an additional capacity or incorporation of back up systems so that a component
failure does not lead to catastrophic loss.
17. Safety Factor (N) – the ratio of allowable stress to a design stress.
18. SI Units – a system of units where force is measured in Newton (N), length in meters, time in
seconds (s), mass in kilograms (kg), and temperature in degree Kelvin (K).

Load, Stress, and Strain

19. Beam – a structural member designed to support loads perpendicular to its longitudinal axis.
20. Bending Load – a load applied transversely to longitudinal axis of member.
21. Biaxial or Plane Stress – a condition where one surface is comparatively free of stress.
22. Cantilever Beam – a support where one end is fixed and other end is free.
23. Combined load – a combination of two or more previously defined loads.
24. Concentric Load – a load applied to small non-conformal area.
25. Critical Section – a section where largest internal stress occurs.
26. Cyclic Load – a load varying throughout cycle.
27. Distributed Load – a load distributed over entire area.
28. Free-Body Diagram – a sketch of parts showing all acting forces.
29. Impact Load – a load rapidly applied.
30. Loads – a force, moment, or torque applied to mechanism or structure.
31. Mohr’s Circle – a method used to graphically visualize state of stress acting in different planes
passing through a given point.
32. Normal Load – a load passing through centroid of resisting section.
33. Normal Strain – an elongation or contraction of linear segment of element in which stress is
applied.
34. Octahedral Plane – a plane that cuts across corner of principal element so that eight planes form
octahedron.

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35. Overhanging Beam – a support where one or both ends freely extend past support.
36. Principal Normal Stress – a combination of applied normal and shear stresses that produces
maximum principal normal stress or minimum principal normal stress, with a third principal stress
between or equivalent to the extremes.
37. Principal Shear Stress – the combination of applied and shear stresses that produces maximum
principal shear stress or minimum principal shear stress.
38. Shear Load – a load collinear with transverse shear force.
39. Shear Strain – the measure of angular distortion in which shear stress is applied.
40. Sign Convention for Normal Strain – positive if elongation is in direction of positive axes.
41. Sign Convention for Normal Stress – positive fro tension and negative for compression.
42. Sign Convention for Shear Stain – positive if interior angle becomes smaller after shear stress is
applied.
43. Sign convention Shear Stress – positive if both normal from the surface and shear are in positive
or negative direction; negative for any other combination.
44. Simply supported Beam – a support where one end is pinned and other is roller-supported.
45. Singularity Functions – functions used to evaluate shear and moment diagrams, specially when
discontinuities, such as concentrated load or moment, exist.
46. Static Load – a load gradually applied and equilibrium reached in short time.
47. Strain – a displacement produced in solid as result of stress.
48. Stress – an intensity and direction of internal force acting at given point on particular plane.
49. Sustained Load – a load constant over long time.
50. Symmetrical Tensor – a condition where principal stresses exist while all other tensor elements are
zero.
51. Torsion Load – a load subjected to twisting motion.
52. Triaxial Stress – a stress where all surfaces are considered.
53. Uniaxial Stress a condition where two perpendicular surfaces are comparatively free of stress.

Solid Materials
54. Anisotropic – is a material having different properties in all direction s at point in solid.
55. Archard Wear Constant – is the wear property of material.
56. Brittle material – is a material that fractures at strain below 5 %.
57. Ceramics – are compounds of metallic and non-metallic elements.
58. Composite Materials – are combinations of two or more materials, usually consisting of fiber and
thermosetting polymer.
59. Density – is the mass per unit volume.
60. Ductile Material – is material that can sustain elongation greater than 5 % before fracture.
61. Ductility – is the degree of plastic deformation sustained at fracture.
62. Elastic Limit – is stress above which material acquires permanent deformation.
63. Elastomers – polymers with intermediate amount of cross-linking.
64. Fracture Stress – stress at time of fracture or rupture.
65. Glasses – are compounds of metallic and non-metallic elements with no crystal structure.
66. Homogeneous – is a material having properties not function of position in solid.
67. Isotropic – is a material having same properties in all directions at point in solid.
68. Metals – are combinations of metallic elements.
69. Modulus of Elasticity – is the proportionality constant between stress and strain.
70. Necking – is decreasing cross-sectional area that occurs after ultimate stress is reached and before
fracture.
71. Orthotropic – is a material having different properties in three mutually perpendicular directions at
point in solid and having three mutually perpendicular planes of material symmetry.
72. Poisson’s Ratio - is the absolute value of ratio of transverse to axial strain.
73. Polymers – are compounds of carbon and other elements forming long-chain molecules.
74. Proportional Limit – is stress above which stress is no longer linearly proportional to strain.
75. Resilience - is the capacity of material to release absorbed energy.
76. Rule of Mixtures – is the linear interpolation between densities of alloy concentration.
77. Specific Heat Capacity – is the ratio of heat stored per mass to change in temperature of material.

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78. Strain Hardening – is the increase in hardness and strength of ductile material as it is plastically
performed.
79. Thermal Conductivity – is the ability of material to transmit heat.
80. Thermal Expansion Coefficient – is the ratio of material elongation to temperature rise.
81. Thermoplastics – are polymers without cross-link.
82. Thermosets – are polymers with highly cross-linked structure.
83. Toughness – the ability of material to absorbed energy up to fracture.
84. Ultimate Strength – is the maximum stress achieved in stress-strain diagram.
85. Yield Strength – is a stress level defined by intersection of reference line (with slope equal to
initial material elastic modulus and x intercept of 0.2 %) and material stress-strain curve.
86. Yielding – is an onset of plastic deformation.
87. Young’s Modulus or Modulus of elasticity or Elastic constant – is the proportionality constant
between stress and strain.

Stresses and Stain

88. Area moment of inertia – is represented by integral  r dA , m4.
2

89. Average normal stress – the average normal load divided by cross-sectional area, Pa.
90. Centroid area – the geometric center of area, m.
91. Mass moment of inertia – the product of element’s mass and square of element’s distance from the
axis, kg-m2.
92. Normal stain – the elastic deformation divided by length without any load.
93. Parallel axis theorem – a theorem that area’s moment of inertia with respect to any axis is equal to
the second moment of area with respect to parallel axis through centroid added to product of area
and square of distance between two axes.
94. Power – is the rate of doing work, or force times velocity, N-m/s.
95. Radius of gyration – radius that when squared and multiplied by area gives area moment of inertia,
m.
96. Section modulus – area’s moment of inertia divided by farthest distance from centroidal axis to
outer fiber of solid, m3.
97. Spring rate – the normal load divided by elastic deformation, N/m
98. Torsion – a loading resulting in twisting of shaft.

Deformation
99. Castigliano’s theorem – a theorem that when a body is elastically deformed by a system of loads,
deflection at any point p in any direction is equal to partial derivative of strain energy (with system
of loads acting) with respect to load at p in direction a.
100.Method of superposition – the principle that deflection at any point in bar is equal to sum of
deflection caused by each load acting separately.
101.Moment-curvature relation – relationship between beam curvature and bending moment, given by
d2y M
(for small bend angles) 2

dx EI
102.Radius of Curvature – is the radius geometrically represented in Cartesian coordinates as
d2y

1 dx 2
 3
r
  dy 2  2
1    
  dx  
103.Singularity function – a function that permits expressing in one equation what would normally be
expressed in several separate equations with boundary conditions.
104.Strain energy – the internal work that was converted from external work done by applying load.

Static Loading
105.Coulomb-Mohr Theory – a failure theory identical to internal friction theory.
106.Crack – is a microscopic flaw, always present, that can compromise material strength.

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107.Distortion-Energy Theory – a postulate that failure is caused by elastic energy associated with
shear deformation.
108. Fracture Control – is maintenance of nominal stress and crack size below critical level.
109.Fracture Toughness – is a critical value of stress intensity at which crack extension occurs.
110.Internal Friction Theory – is a failure criterion accounting for difference between compressive and
tensile strengths of brittle materials.
111.Maximum-Normal-Stress Theory – is a theory that yielding will occur whenever greatest positive
principal stress exceeds tensile yield strength or whenever greatest negative principal stress
exceeds compressive yield strength.
112.Maximum-Shear-Stress Theory – is a theory that yielding will occur when largest shear stress
exceeds critical value.
113.Modes of Crack Propagation – is a principal mechanisms for cracks to enlarge; Mode I, opening
through tension; Mode II, sliding or in-plane shearing; Mode III, tearing.
114.Modified Mohr Theory – a failure postulate similar to Coulomb-Mohr theory, except that curve is
altered in quadrants II and IV of plane stress plot of principal stress.
115.Stress Concentration – is a region where stress raiser is present.
116.Stress Concentration Factor – is a factor used to relate actual maximum stress at discontinuity to
average stress without discontinuity
117.Stress intensity Factor – is stress intensity at crack tip.
118.Stress Raiser – discontinuity that alters stress distribution so as to increase maximum stress
119.Tresca Yield Criterion – is a criterion identical to maximum-shear-stress theory.
120.Von Mises Criterion – a criterion identical to distortion-energy theory
121. Von Mises Stress – is the effective stress based on von Mises criterion, given by
1
2
  2  1    3  1    3   2  
2 2 2 2
e 
2 

Cyclic and Impact loading

122.Amplitude Ratio – is a ratio of stress amplitude to mean stress.
123.Cyclic Stress – is a stress sequence that repeats over time.
124.Dynamic – is an adjective indicating variation with time.
125.Endurance Limit – is stress level below which infinite life can be realized.
126.Fatigue – is a failure, at relatively low stress levels, of structures that are subject to fluctuating and
cyclic stresses.
127.Finite Life – is a stress level that causes failure due to fatigue
128.Gerber Line – is a parabolic relationship taking mean and alternating stresses into account
129.Goodman Line – is a theory connecting modified endurance limit and ultimate strength on plot of
alternating stress versus mean stress.
130.High-cycle Fatigue – is a fatigue failure that occurs above 103 cycles but below 106 cycles.
131.Impact Loading – is a load rapidly applied to body
132.Infinite Life – a stress levels that do not cause fatigue failure
133.Linear Damage Rule – is a theory that damage at any stress level is proportional to number of
cycles.
134.Low-Cycle Fatigue – is a fatigue failure that occurs below 103 cycles.
135.Mean Stress – is an average of minimum and maximum stresses in cycle
136.Miner’s Rule – same as linear damage rule
137.Manson-Coffin Relationship – is theoretical approach to fatigue based on strain
138.Modified Endurance Limit – is corrections for endurance limit based on surface finish, material,
specimen size, loading type, temperature, etc.
139.Modified Goodman Diagram – is a diagram that defines all stress states not resulting in fatigue
failure or yielding.
140.Notch Sensitivity – is a material property that reflects ability of ductile materials to be less
susceptible to stress raisers in fatigue.
141.Paris Power Law – is a postulate that crack growth in cyclic loading follows power law
142.Residual Stress – is an internal stress usually caused by manufacturing process

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143.Soderberg Line – is a theory connecting modified endurance limit and yield strength on plot of
alternating stress versus mean stress.
144.Stress Amplitude – is one-half of stress range
145.Stress Range – is the difference between maximum and minimum stresses in cycle
146.Stress Ratio – is the ratio of maximum and minimum stresses
147.Yield Line – is a fatigue criterion that postulates yielding on first cycle loading with non zero
mean.

Lubrication, Friction, and Wear

148.Abrasive Wear – a wear caused by physical damage from penetration of hard surface into softer
one.
149.Absolute Viscosity – is a shear stress divided by shear strain rate having SI units of Pa-s
150.Adhesive Wear – a wear caused by fracture of solid-state weld junctions of two surfaces
151.Boundary Lubrication – a lubrication condition where considerable asperity interaction occurs
between solids and lubrication mechanism is governed by properties of thin surface films that are
of molecular proportion.
152.Conformal Surfaces – surfaces that fit snugly into each other with high degree of conformity as in
journal bearings.
153.Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication – a lubrication condition where nonconformal surfaces are
completely separated by lubricant film and no asperities are in contact.
154.Ellipticity Parameter – the diameter of contact ellipse in y-direction divided by diameter of contact
ellipse in x-direction.
155.Fatigue Wear – a wear caused by propagation of subsurface damage to surface due to cyclic
loadings.
156.Film Parameter – a minimum film thickness divided by composite surface roughness
157.Fluid Film Lubrication – a lubrication condition where lubricated surfaces are completely
separated by a lubricant film and no asperities are in contact.
158.Friction – a force resisting relative movement between surfaces in contact.
159.Hydrodynamic lubrication – a fluid film lubrication of conformal surfaces as in journal bearings
160.Kenimatic viscosity – absolute viscosity divided by density with SI units of m 2/s.
161. Laws of Friction
a. Friction Force is proportional to normal load
b. Friction force is not dependent on apparent area of contact solids; that is, it is independent
of size of solid bodies.
c. Friction force is independent of sliding velocity
162.Laws of wear
a. Wear increases with sliding distance
b. Wear increases with normal applied load
c. Wear decreases as hardness of sliding surface increases
163.Lubricant – any substance that reduces friction and wear and provides smooth running and
satisfactory life for machine elements.
164.Mixed Lubrication – same as partial lubrication
165.Non-conformal Surfaces – surfaces that do not conform to each other very well as in rolling-
element bearings.
166.Partial Lubrication – a lubrication condition where load between two surfaces in contact is
transmitted partially through lubricant film and partially through asperity contact.
167.Running in – a process through which beneficial wear causes surfaces to adjust to each other and
improve performance.
168.Tribology – the study of lubrication, friction, and wear of moving or stationary parts
169.Wear – the progressive loss of substance from operating surface of body occurring as result of
loading and relative motion of surface.
Columns
170.AISC Equations – estimations of allowable stress for prevention of buckling in structures
(corrections for reduction in elastic modulus as column stress exceeds proportional limit)
171.AISC – American Institute of Steel Construction
172.Buckling – a sudden large deformation of structure due to slight increase of existing load

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173.Column – a straight and long (relative to a cross-sectional dimension) member subjected to

compressive axial loads
ec
174.Eccentricity Ratio – the measure of how far off center load is applied, given by r 2
g

175.Essenger Equation – refers to the equation of critical buckling load in nonlinear elastic buckling,
2E t
 cr  2
given by   
 rg 
 
2 E I
176.Euler Load – referring to critical load of elastic column, given by Pcr 
2
177.Johnson Equation – equation for critical load for inelastic buckling, given by
2
 Pcr  J S 2
y
 e 
 cr   Sy   
A 4 E  rg 
2

178.Secant Equation – equation for the deflection due to eccentric loading, given by
  P 
y max  e sec  e  
  2 EI  
  2E2
179.Slender Ratio – the measure of column slenderness, given by Cc   e  
rg  E Sy
180.Tangent Modulus – an elastic modulus at stress level in column
181.Tangent-Modulus Equation – same as essenger equation.

Cylinders
182. Allowance – the difference between nominal diameters of mating parts
183.Bilateral Tolerance – a variation above and below nominal size
184.Hoop Stress – the tangential stress in pressure vessel
185.Interference – the actual difference in size of mating parts
186.Nominal Diameter – the approximate size of element
187.Press Fit – the connections where interfacial pressure is due to interference between mating parts
and assembly is accomplished by elastic deformation due to large forces.
188.Shrink Fit – the connections where interfacial pressure is due to interference between mating parts
and assembly is accomplished by heating outer component.
189.Thick-walled Cylinder – a cylinder where radial stress is negligible, approximately true for
diameter-to-thickness ratios greater than 40.
190.Tolerance – the maximum variation in size of part
191.Unilateral Tolerance – the variation above or below nominal size, but not both.

Shafting and Flywheels

max  min
192.Coefficient of Fluctuation – the dimensionless speed, average
193.Critical Speed – the speed at which rotating shaft becomes dynamically unstable.
194.Dunkerly Equation – equation of the relation for first critical speed that underestimates frequency.
195.First Critical Speed – the lowest frequency at which dynamic instability occurs.
196.Flywheel – an element that stores energy through rotational inertia
197.Hub – the portion of member mounted onto shaft directly contacts shaft
198.Key – a machine element that transmits power from shaft to hub
199.Lowest Natural Frequency – same as first critical speed
200.Natural Frequency – same as critical speed
201.Rayleigh Equation – the relation for first critical speed that overestimates frequency
202.Shaft – a rotating or stationary member, usually of circular cross section with small diameter
relative to length and used to transmit power through such elements as gears, sprockets, pulleys,
and cams.

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Hydrodynamic Bearings
203.Adiabatic Temperature Rise – the temperature rise in lubricant if all heat is carried through
convection
204.Bearing Number – a dimensionless operating parameter, specific to each type of bearing, that is
important for determining bearing performance.
205.Couette Flow – the velocity-driven fluid flow
206.Density Wedge – a term dealing with density changes in bearing
207.Eccentricity – the displacement of shaft center relative to bearing center
208.External pressurized bearings – same as hydrostatic bearings
209.Fluid Film Lubrication – a lubrication condition where two surfaces transmitting a load are
separated by a pressurized fluid layer or film.
210.Gas-lubricated Film Bearings – bearings where lubricating fluid is gas
211.Hydrodynamic Lubrication – a lubrication activated by motion of bearing surfaces.
212.Hydrostatic Lubricated Bearings – slider bearings where lubricant is provided at elevated pressure
213.Journal Bearings – bearings whose surfaces are parallel to axis of rotation
214.Line of Centers – a line containing bearing and shaft centers
215.Local Expansion – a term involving time rate of density change
216.Normal Squeeze – a term dealing with approach of two bearing surfaces toward one another.
217.Petrov’s or Petroff’s Equation – an equation for frictional torque of concentric journal bearings,
42o r 3 w t N a 2 2o r 3 w t 
given by T  Fr  
c c
218. Physical Wedge – a term dealing with rate of channel convergence.
219.Poiseuille Flow – is a pressure-driven fluid flow.
220.Preload Factor – the fractional reduction of film clearance when pads are brought in.
221.Reynolds Equation – the differential equation governing pressure distribution and film thickness
in bearings.
222.Sommerfeld Number – a bearing characteristic number for a journal bearing.
223.Squeeze film bearings – bearings where one dominant film-generating mechanism is squeeze
effect.
224.Stretch term – a term dealing with the rate of velocity change in sliding direction.
225.Thrust bearings – bearings whose surfaces are perpendicular to axis of rotation.
226.Translation squeeze – a term dealing with translation of two surfaces.

Rolling Element Bearings

227.Angular-contact ball bearings – bearings with two-shouldered groove in one race and single-
shouldered groove in other.
228.Angular-contact bearings – bearings that have clearance built into unloaded bearings, which allow
operation under high thrust loads.
229.Ball bearings – rolling element bearings using spheres as rolling elements
230.Cage – the fitting or spacer to keep proper distance between balls in bearing track.
231.Conrad bearing – is a bearing the same as deep-groove bearing.
232.Crown – a curvature machined into rollers to eliminate high edge stresses.
233.Cylindrical-roller bearings – bearings using cylinders as rolling elements.
234.Deep-groove bearing – a ball bearing with race containing pronounced groove for rolling
elements.
235.Duplex pairs – sets of two angular-contact ball bearings that preload each other upon assembly to
shaft.
236.Endplay – maximum axial movement of inner race with respect to outer race under small forces.
237.Equivalent static load – a load equivalent to resultant load when considering thrust and radial
components.
238.Free contact angle – an angle made by line through points where ball contacts both races and plane
perpendicular to bearing axis rotation under low loads.
239.Pitch diameter – a mean of inner-and outer-race contact diameters.
240.Races – grooves within bearing rings for rolling elements to roll in.
241.Race control – a condition where pure rolling occurs at controlling race.

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242.Race depth – same as shoulder height.

243.Retainers – same as cage.
244.Rolling-element bearings – the machinery elements where surfaces are non-conformal and motion
is primarily rolling.
245.Self-aligning bearings – bearings with one race having spherical shape to allow for larger
misalignment.
246.Separator – same as cage
247.Shoulder height – the depth of race groove.
248.Spherical roller bearing – same as self-aligning bearings
249.Split-ring bearing – a bearing that has one race made from two halves allowing for accurate axial
positioning shafts
250.Static load rating – a load at which, under defined operating conditions, load carried by most
heavily loaded rolling element Wmax equals allowable rolling-element load wall, or maximum load
before plastic (rather than elastic) deformation occurs within bearing.
251.Static thrust load-carrying capacity – the maximum thrust load that bearing can endure before
contact ellipse approaches race shoulder.
252.Thrust ball bearings – bearing with race grooves arranged to support large axial or thrust forces.
253.Weibull Distribution – the relationship between survival and life of bearings.

Gears
254.Backlash – the clearance measured on pitch circle.
255.Bevel gears – bearings that are nonparallel, coplanar gears with straight.
256.Circular Pitch – distance from one tooth to corresponding point on adjacent tooth.
257.Diametral pitch – number of teeth per inch of pitch diameter.
258.Fundamental law of gearing – law stating that common normal to tooth profile must pass through
fixed point, called pitch point.
259.Gear – toothed wheel, when mated with another toothed wheel, transmits power between shafts
260.Gear ratio – ratio of number of teeth between two meshing gears
261.Gear trains – machine elements of multiple gears used to obtain desired velocity ratio
262.Helical gears – parallel-axis gears with teeth cut on spiral that wraps around cylinder.
263.Lewi’s equation – equation for bending stresses on gear teeth based on cantilever beam theory
264.Modified Lewi’s equation – Lewi’s equation with correction factors for gear geometry
265.Module – ratio of pitch diameter to number of teeth
266.Pinion – smaller of two meshed gears
267.Pitch point – point defined by normal to tooth profile of meshing gears at point of contact on line
of centers.
268.Spiral gears – nonparallel coplanar gears with teeth cut on spiral
269.Spur gears – parallel-axis gears with straight teeth
270.Worm gears – nonparallel, non-coplanar gear with typical high reduction ratio

FASTENERS AND POWER SCREWS

271.Adhesive bonding – process of joining materials chemically through formation of inter-atomic or
intermolecular bonds
272.Bolt – externally threaded fastener intended to be used with nut.
273.Cap screw – externally threaded fastener intended to be used with internally threaded hole
274.Coarseness – quality and threads per inch of thread profiles on bolt, nut, or screw.
275.Gasket – compliant member intended to provide seal
276.Lead – distance that screw would advance in one revolution
277.Nut – internally threaded mating member for bolt
278.Pitch – distance from point on one thread to same point on adjacent thread
279.Power screws – power transmission device using mechanical advantage of threads to apply large
loads
280.Proof load – maximum load that bolt can withstand without acquiring permanent set
281.Proof strength – limiting value of stress determined by proof load and tensile stress area.

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282.Rivets – fasteners that function through mechanical interference, usually by upsetting one end of
rivet extending outside of free hole.
283.Self-locking – power screw where thread friction is high enough to prevent loads from lowering in
absence of externally applied torque.
284.Snap fasteners – integrated fasteners that operate through elastic deformation and recovery of part
of structure after insertion into proper retainer.
285.Stud – externally threaded member with threads on both ends in lieu of cap
286.Threads per inch – number of threads in one inch, related to the pitch by p = 1/n
287.Thread series – standardized thread profile, either UN (unified) or M (metric)
288.Throat – thinned section of weld
289.Weld – junction formed through diffusion of two materials to be joined, combined with optional
filler materials.

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