ELEMENTS ON ENERGY SYSTEMS

A. GEOTHERMAL PLANT

1. SIX GEOTHERMAL PLANT

 Makiling-Banahaw Geothermal Fields – in Los Baños, Laguna
 Tiwi-Albay Geothermal Fields – in Albay
 Tongonan Geothermal Fields – in Leyte
 Mambukal Geothermal Fields – in Negros Occidental
 Palimpinon-Dauin Geothermal Fields – in Negros Occidental
 Manat-Masara Geothermal Fileds – in Davao

2. DEFINITION:
 Well-Bore product – the effluent coming out from the geothermal well as produced after drilling. This can be
purely steam or hot water, or a mixture of both.
 Steam-dominated geothermal fields – refers to a geothermal plant with its well producing all steam as the well-
bore product.
 Liquid geothermal field – the well-bore product for this type of filed is practically all hot water, pressurized.
 Ground subsidence – a condition in a geothermal plant wherein the ground surface where the well is drilled is
depressed or subsides due to depleting.

3. DISADVANTAGES ENCOUNTERED IN THE OPERATION OF GEOTHERMAL PLANTS

 Ground subsidence – which can be controlled by underground reinjection of residual water or by natural influx of
underground water.
 Thermal pollution – this refers to the disposal of heat plant. A proper planning of the gathering system may be
necessary to minimize this.
 Chemical pollution – the presence of relatively large amount of hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide from the well-
bore.
 Low thermal efficiency – because a great amount of heat is wasted away with the effluent from the condenser,
which is not recovered.

4. A. TWO GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF FEEDWATER HEATERS:

 Open Type – there is direct contact of feed water to be heated and the heating system. A mixture results as the
steam is condensed.
 Close type or surface type – feed water to be heated is separated from the heating steam by means of tubes.
Usually, feedwater enters the tubes while the steam is outside the tubes or in the shell side.

B. TWO GENERAL TYPES OF STEAM SEPARATORS IN GEOTHERMAL PLANTS:

 Horizontal Flash Drum Type – a mixture of wet steam and hot water is flowed into a horizontally mounted tank
and allowed to flash into saturated steam.
 Vertical Centrifugal – especially equipped with internals so as to produce a rotating movement of the mixture of
wet steam and liquid water. This rotating movement of the mixture of wet steam and liquid water. This rotating
motion produces a centrifugal force making the water droplets fall while the steam rises.

B. TYPES OF HYDROELECTRIC PLANTS:

 Storage or Reservoir Plants – those plants wherein excess in river flow is being impounded for use during seasons.
Usually a dam is installed upstream to backup a reservoir.
 Run of the River Plants with or without Pondage – those plants that utilize flow of the running river which may
either have pondage or not. Pondage is the accumulations of water to provide for the load changes throughout a
period of one week. The quantity of water being held is of relatively smaller amount. Run-of-river plants without
pondage are usually for peak load power supply while those with pondage can be used for base load or peak load
power supply.

C. VARIABLE LOADINGS
 Diversity Factor – the ratio of the sum of the individual maximum demands of various subdivision of a system or
part of the system, to the maximum demand of the whole system or part of the system under consideration
 Demand Factor – the ratio of maximum demand of a system or part of the system to the total connected load of the
system, or part of the system, under consideration.
 Load Factor – ratio of the average load over a designated period of time to the peak load occurring in that period.
 Capacity Factor – the ratio of the average load on a machine or equipment, for the period of time considered to the
rating of the machine or equipment.
 Output Factor – also called use factor, is the ratio of actual energy output, in the period of time considered, to the
energy output which would have occurred if the machine or equipment had been operating at its full rating
throughout each actual hours of service during the period.
 Load Curve – a curve of power versus time, showing the value of specific load for each unit of the period covered.
 Load Duration Curve – a curve showing the total time within a specific period, during which load equaled or
exceed the power values shown.
 Peak Load – maximum load consumed or produced by a unit or group of units in a stated period of time.
 Connected Load – sum of continuous rating of the load consuming apparatus connected to the system, or part of
the system considered.
  Operation Factor – ratio of the duration of the actual service of a machine or equipment to the total duration of
time considered.
 Dump Power – hydro power in exceed of load requirements that is made available surplus water.
 System Reserve – the capacity, in equipment and conductors, installed in a system in excess of that required to
carry the peak load.
 House Turbine – a turbine installed to provide a source of auxiliary power.
 Mini-hydro Power Plants – are those plants designed and operated based on low head usually in the range of from
3 to 30 meters and power capacities of from 100 to 5, 000 KW.
 Draft Tubes – are necessary in reaction turbine in order to conserve for conversion into power by turbine as much
of the remaining head from the turbine to tailrace, as practicable by decreasing the exit velocity of the power coming
out from the turbine through the expanded section of the tube. The draft tube is also used to lead the way of the
water from the turbine to the tailrace and enable the turbine to be set above tailwater.

D. EFFICIENCIES:
 Thermal Efficiency – this is a measurement of performance of a power plant or unit expressed as a ratio of output
work to the energy input.
 Engine Efficiency – is a measurement of the performance of a heat engine or prime mover unit expressed as a ratio
of actual work output to the ideal work that the engine could possibly produced.
 Nozzle Efficiency – in power plants, this refers to a measurement of the performance of a nozzle which is expressed
as the ratio of the actual expansion energy to the theoretical or ideal energy of expansion. It predicts the quantity of
energy being lost due to friction.
 Blade Efficiency – refers too the performance of turbine blades which is expressed as the ratio of the energy output
of the blade to the energy of the steam jet supplied.
 Grate Efficiency – a measurement of the performance of grates, expressed as the ratio of the actual heat liberated
by burning solid fuel in it to the quantity of heat that could have been obtained from the fuel (available energy).
 Heater Efficiency – a measurement of heater performance which is the ratio of the heat absorbed by cold fluid to
the heat supplied or given off by the hot fluid.
 Volumetric Efficiency – express the ratio of actual volume handled by a reciprocating engine or compressor to the
displacement volume measured from cylinder dimensions and speed. For pumps, this refers to the ratio of the actual
volume of liquid entering the pump impeller. For hydraulic turbine, this is the ratio of the effective volume of water
doing work to the total volume of water that enters turbine.
 Boiler Efficiency – measurement of performance of boilers expressed as a ratio of the heat absorbed by feedwater
to the total amount of head supplied from the fuel.
 Stage Efficiency – the ratio of actual enthalpy drop across the turbine stage of the isocloropic enthalpy drop for the
same pressure differential.
 Combustor Efficiency – the ratio of actual heat liberated to the heat input to a combustor of a gas turbine plant.

E. DUST REMOVAL
Flyash maybe removed from the fuel gas either by the following methods:
 Cinder Trap or Catcher – consists of cubical structure with the bottom made of an inverted pyramid. The inlet
passage, for the flue gas is installed with a series of vertical baffles to change the direction and reduce the velocity
of the flue gas resulting in the separation of dust and fly ash and fall to the bottom for removal by a vacuum system.
 Cyclonic Spray Scrubber – consists of a cylindrical tank structure provide with a tangential opening at one end for
gas passage and a spray manifold at the center of which is made of a vertical pipe attached with spray nozzles where
water is introduced at the bottom of this spray pipe. The gas revolves around the cylindrical body as it enters the
scrubber, and comes in contact with the water spray; the dust and fly ash are then wetted and hence separated from
the gas that leaves the scrubber at the top.
 Cyclone Separator – uses a downward flowing vertex for dusty laden gases along the inner walls, of a cylindrical
tank with the conical bottom. The gas enters through a tangential inlet, producing the whirling or vertex flow. Dust
particles and flyashes are thrown to the walls by centrifugal forces and fall to the bottom for removal cleaned air or
gas leaves from an inner upward-flowing vertex and passing through the center tube or pipe.
 Electrostatic Precipitators – consists of two sets of electrodes, insulated from each other, that maintain an
electrostatic field between them at high voltage. The field ionides the dust particles that pass through it, attracting
them to the electrode of opposite charge. The high-voltage system maintains a negative potential of 30,000 – 60,000
volts with the collecting electrode grounded. The collecting electrodes have a large contact surface. Accumulated
dust or flyash falls off the electrode when it is rapped mechanically. Basic components:
 a. Source of high voltage c. Dust-Removal Mechanism
b. Ionizing and Collecting Electrode d. Shell Housing the elements

F. DEFINITION OF TERMS:

STEAM POWER PLANT

 Economizers – a heat-saving equipment made of a bundle of tubes where the feedwater, before introduced to the
boiler is heated by the outgoing flue gas. This is normally installed in the breaching which is the part of the boiler
between the gas outlet and the chimney.
 Attemperator – an equipment used to control steam temperature by removing energy from the steam. It can of the
contact type or the shell-and-tube kind, using boiler water as the cooling medium.
 Desuperheater – a contact type desuperheater using boiler as the cooling medium sprayed directly into the
superheated steam inside a mixing chamber equipped with nozzles.
 Deaerator – an open type of feedwater heater equip with internal accessories such as air-separating trays in the
feedwater, especially oxygen. Excessive oxygen dissolved in feedwater causes corrosion in boiler drums and tubes.
 Zeolite Softener – water-softening material of complex chemical structure and of sandy texture contained in a
cylindrical tank where raw water is made to pass through. The zeolite removes various ions from the water,
replacing then with other ions of like charge. In this process, the hardness of raw water like calcium salts will be
removed. Two types of zeolites are commonly available: sodium zeolite and drydrogen zeolite.
 Orsat Apparatus – an apparatus consisting of glass burettes and graduated cylinder containing the proper chemical
reagents; used to analyze the volumetric composition of an exhaust gas or similar gases by absorption process.
 Uniflow Steam Engine – a type of steam engine wherein steam is admitted into the cylinder and is being exhausted
at an opposite point. Steam enters the throttle valve and is usually exhausted at a center port or opening at the
cylinder which is uncovered by the piston. Thus the path of the steam is in only one direction.
 Running Over in Steam Engine Operation – it refers to the rotation of the flywheel of a horizontal steam engine
wherein the direction is clockwise with observer facing the engine with the head end at his left side. Opposite to this
is running under.
 Cylindrical Ratio – refers to the ratio of displacement volume of the low-pressure cylinder to the high pressure
cylinder of a compound steam engine.
 Runaway Speed – the speed at which a rotating machine such as a hydraulic turbine attains when the torque is
reduced to zero with the throttle or intake valve fully open.
 Critical Speed – the speed of a rotating machine at which severe vibration would occur on its shaft. At speed below
or above this the machine runs smoothly. If the machine is operated near or at critical speed, large amplitudes of
vibration are built up which could result to dangerously high stresses, possible rubbing of the rotating parts and an
undesirable vibration being transmitted to the foundations.
 Diagram Factor – the ratio of the actual mean effective pressure developed in a reciprocating engine cylinder to the
theoretical or ideal mean effective pressure.

HARMFUL EFFECTS THAT WOULD RESULT WHEN USING FAULTY FEEDWATER IN BOILERS:
 Scaling – takes place in boiler tubes and drums due to the dissolved solids or salts in the feed water. These salts are
usually calcium, magnesium and silicates. Essentially scaling takes place when the water in the boiler reaches
chemical saturation and precipitation with sedimentation flows, forming a layer of scale on the heating surface and
loose precipitates in drums.
 Corrosion – the destruction conversion of metal into oxides or salts. This is due to the acid condition of water or the
presence of too much oxygen, carbon dioxides or chlorides. The most serious factor is the oxygen dissolved in the
feedwater.
 Foaming and Priming – the condition of boiler operation where stable foam is produced which may or may not be
accompanied by priming, which is the production of wet steam or slugs of waters. Wet steam or slugs of water is
destructive to turbine blades, steam piping, and engine because of resulting metal erosion. Foaming is primarily
caused by too high concentration of dissolved salts, floating organic matter, or saponification of boiler water
through mixture of oil or grease with the alkali.
 Carryover – the presence of impurity bearing droplets of water in the steam flow. This is primarily caused by
foaming.
 Caustic Embrittlement – the condition at which the steel tubes or drums or a boiler lose their toughness and cracks
appear along the seams below the water line. This is essentially due to the presence of relatively high concentration
of sodium hydroxide in the absence of inhibit agents. A high concentration of sodium hydroxide is attributed to the
presence of too much sodium bicarbonate in the feedwater.
 Supersaturation – the condition that would occur when superheated steam expands suddenly to the most regions
with little to condense partially, and there are no nuclei to promote condensation. This results in steam temperature
at a given pressure, and a lower specific volume.

TERMS RELATED TO THE COAL FIRED PLANT

 Ash Fusion Temperature – lowest temperature at which the ash will melt.
 Ringellman Chart – a pollution control chart used to measure the smoke density by visual comparison.
 Proximate vs. Ultimate Analysis – chemical analysis of coal
Proximate: percent mass of the following constituents:
Fixed Carbon, Volatile Matter, Ash and Moisture
Ultimate: percent mass of the chemical constituent of:
Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen, Water, Sulfur and Ash
 Hardgrove Index – a measure of the relative case of grinding coal.
 Higher Heating Value (HHV) – if the water due to combustion reaction considered to be a liquid than then the
calorific value of the fuel is the higher heating value.
  Lower Heating Value (LHV) – if the water due to the combustion reaction is considered to a vapor then the
calorific value of the fuel is the lower heating value.
 Orsat Apparatus – dry gas analysis apparatus which determine by percent volume of the carbon dioxide, oxygen,
carbon monoxide and nitrogen by difference contents of the flue gas.
 Tuyeres – air passage in the grates.

WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY THE FOLLOWING TERMS?

1. Peat 4. Bituminous
2. Lignite 5. Semi-Anthracite
3. Sub-bituminous 6. Anthracite
DEFINE THE MEANING OF THE FOLLOWING BITUMINOUS COALS
 Coking or Coking Coals – bituminous coals which contain plenty of hydrocarbons, forming lumped masses when
burned. The coals are ideals for forming carbonaceous gases for reduction of ore.
 Free Burning Coal – non-coking coal. Ideal for fire steam power plants.

WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF CENTRALIZED STEAM GENERATOR DESIGN?

(Cite at least five objectives and give methods of attaining such objectives)
 High Efficiency thru proper design of heat thru transfer area, baffles, and auxiliary heating surface areas.
 Constant Superheat thru superheat controls.
 Reliability at steam supply thru well design pressure parts and joints and ash removal system.
 Clean or pure steam thru steam purifier ash disposal system.
 Capable of responding to variations in steam loads thru various instrumentations and control systems.

WHAT ARE THE FIVE ESSENTIAL PARTS OF A STEAM GENERATOR?

 Setting – include all materials to support the heat transfer areas like furnace walls, refractories and baffles.
 Heat transfer areas – includes the steam drum, the boiler tube banks and super heater.
 Boiler Trim – equipments essential for the safe operation of boilers.
 Stop and check valve at boiler feed entrance and drain outlet; sight gauges or water gauges to include its low
water alarm heater; safety valve (steam); blow-off valve (steam); pressure gauge and inspection sock; fusible
plugs
 Boiler Auxiliaries: economizer and air preheater

DEFINE AND EXPLAIN THE PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF FOLLOWING INSTRUMENTS:

 Odometer – measures the linear distance traversed.
 Bourdon Gauge – a pressure measuring device.
 Pitot tube – measure the total pressure (static and velocity pressure)
 Temperature Measurements
1.0 Expansion and Contraction of Liquid Thermometer
2.0 Gas Thermometer – expansion and contraction of gases
3.0 Thermocouple or see back effect
 Westphal Balances – measure specific gravity of a fluid.
 Hydrometer – measure the specific gravity of a liquid.
 Radiation Pyrometer – measure the high extremely temperature.
 Optical Pyrometer – measure the temperature thru varying resistance.
 Bomb Calorimeter – measuring device used to measure the HHV of coal.
 Throttling Calorimeter – use to determine quality of high quality of steam by a throttle valve.
 Anemometer – use to measure the air speed (wind).
 Psychrometer – use to measure the relative humidity of air.
 Velometer – use to measure all velocity.
 Geiger-Muller Counter – measure the presence of radioactivity.
 Separating Calorimeter – measures sound intensity.
 Vibrating Rod – measures the frequency of an element.
 Magneto Hydrodynamic Converter (MHD) – a direct conversion system using the principle of Faraday’s Law.
When a magnetic flux is disturbed by a conduct, an electromotive force driving current is induced.

WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY THE FOLLOWING TERMS?

 Heat Balance of a steam generator unit – accounting of the disposition of the energy available to the steam
generating unit.
1. Heat absorbed by the unit
2. Heat loss due to moisture in the fuel
3. Heat loss due to water from combustion of hydrogen
4. Heat lost due to CO
5. Heat loss due to combustible in refuse
6. Heat loss due to radiation ( during convection from setting)
7. Unaccounted for
Total – higher heating value of fuel

 Orsat Apparatus – a device used in analyzing the dry products of combustion

 Grindability Index – term used in pulverizing coal. It is the measure of the relative hardness or easiness of grinding
of pulverized coal.
 Electrostatic Precipitator – a pollution control device is used to control very small or minute particulates which
not be dispersed by mechanical collector. This uses electrostatic charges on two electrodes which ionize the
particulates as they pass thru.
  Monolithic Foundation – foundation whose structures composed of the same consistency of materials due to
continuous pouring.

TYPES OF COMPRESSOR
 Reciprocating Compressor – for high pressure, low capacity and low speed.
 Centrifugal Compressor – for low pressure, high capacity, and high speed.
 Rotary Compressor
1) Screw Compressor 2) Vane Compressor

USES OF COMPRESSED AIR

 to drive pneumatic tools  supply air to mine tunnel
 sand blasting  spray painting
 to start diesel engine  industrial cleaning

 Preventive Maintenance – periodic time schedule inspection to detect wear and tear in advance of actual
equipment breakdown with subsequent replacement of worn out parts before they fall in order to minimized
interference in operation.
 Maintenance Chart – a typical time schedule chart indicating the equipment and the maintenance activity to
accomplished such as lubrication or replacement of parts.
 Corrective Maintenance – improvements or minor changes in design and substitution of more suitable components
or improve materials of construction to eliminate a problem.
 Inspection Schedule – a typical weekly schedule of servicing an equipment to detect possible defect.
 Routine Maintenance – consist of the regular maintenance activities like lubrication, recharging of batteries and
replacement of certain parts.

EQUIPMENT USED TO CONTROL AIR POLLUTION

 Chimney – provide effective atmospheric dispersion of gaseous and particulate pollutants with acceptable ground
level concentration. Chimneys are high enough to produce draft.
 Cyclone Dust Collector – in this type of industrial dust collector, the gas passed tangentially into a vertical cylinder
with a conical bottom The gas follows a spiral path with most of the separation taking place in the smaller section.
 Spray Scrubber–tower type – the gas passing upward concurrently as the descending liquid. Set of spray are place
in the tope come with the various materials used in the layers to channel and mix the gas and water.
 Electrostatic Precipitator – charged dust particles are attracted to the electric field of the electrostatic precipitator
* When oil is carried by feedwater foaming occurs. Foaming causes the pressure of impurities in the steam and also
slows down evaporation because of the presence of bubbles at the water surface.

THREE CHANGES THAT TEND TO INCREASE RANKINE CYCLE EFFICIENCIES

 Decrease the turbine exhaust pressure, by using plenty of cold water in the condenser.
 Preheat the feedwater, this will decrease the heat input.
 Increase the super heat, this will increase the energy contact of the steam and will therefore increase turbine
power.

OTHER TERMS:
 Run off River Station – a hydro-electric generating station this utilizes the steam flow of the river without water
storage.
 Steam Flow – quantity of water passing a given point.
 Spinning Reserve – a part of the generating capacity that is connected to the bus and ready to take the load.
 Hot Reserve – reserve generating capacity that is in service but not in operation
 Cold Reserve – reserve generating capacity that is in service but not in operation
 Prime Power – maximum power intended always to be available even under emergency conditions.
 Firm Power – power intended always to be available even under emergency conditions.

CONE TYPE RICE MILL

 Paddy Separator – removes the impurities from the palay stalks and even iron because the paddy separator has a
magnet.
 Huller – removes the hull or husk form the rice.
 Winnover – blower which separates the rice husk from the rice.
 Polisher – removes the brown skin of the rice to produce pearly white rice.
 Sifter – vibrating screen which separates the rice bran.
 Separator – sorts out the various size f rice, unhulled rice is return to huller.
 Pagging Machine – packs the rice in bags, usually 50 kilos a bag.
 Input-Raw Materials: 1.4 MTons, representing 70% recovery. For a 500 Kw-hr. No water is need in the process
except for cleaning the sifter during shutdown, but water requirement will be approximately 5 cubic meters per day.

PLYWOOD MANUFACTURE
 Log Pond – here the logs are soaked so that they are not brittle when processed.
 Log Cutter – cuts the veneers which are removed and used as fuel for boilers.
 Sorting Table – here the defective veneers are removed and are used for boilers.
 Curing Room – here the veneer are stored to dry slowly.
 Gluing Machine – this is use to apply glue to the veneer and assemble to form the plywood.
 Hot Press – using the steam as heat source, the plywood sheets are pressed to flatten and to dry the glue.
 Trimming Machine – plywood sheets are cut to exact dimension.
 Sanding Machine – using the sanding belt, one side of the plywood is smooth finished.
 Patching – small crack in the plywood are patched up annually.
 Crating – plywood sheets are bundled for delivery to the market.

GENERATION OF POWER
 Fossil Fuel Plant – the main source of energy is heat energy from the combustion of fossil fuel such as coal,
petroleum products of natural gas. The heat energy is converted to mechanical energy to a mechanical energy by the
used of the internal combustion engine of steam turbine which drive generators.

SIX BASIS TYPES OF REFRIGERANT FLOW CONTROL OR EXPANSION DEVICES

 Thermostatic or Superheat – controls or regulate the rate of flow of the magnitude of superheat of the gas leaving
the evaporator.
 Constant Pressure Expansion Valve maintains a constant pressure at its outlet the entrance to the evaporator.
 Capillary Tube – controls the flow of refrigerant by the size of its internal diameter and its length.
 Thermostatic Expansion Valve with External Equalizer- controls both the magnitude of superheat of the gas
leaving the evaporator and pressure at the entrance of the evaporator.
 Float Valve – controls the flow of refrigerant by maintaining the liquid at a constant level in a vessel or an
evaporator.
 Gate Valve – control the flow of refrigerant manually.

ADVANTAGES OF GASOLINE ENGINE

 Low first cost  Cheaper spare parts
 Lighter  Low compression pressure
 Easy to install

ADVANTAGES OF DIESEL ENGINE

 Low fuel cost  Uniformly higher efficiency at all sizes
 No long warming up period  Simple plant layout
 No standby losses  Need no large water supply

REASONS FOR FAILURE OF AN INJECTOR TO WORK PROPERLY

 Friction reappears as heat carried into the boiler
 Clogging up of nozzle by solid impurity
 Utilization of other sources of waste heat for boiler feed heating
_________
Sudden rise in pressure will cause part of the steam to condense while sudden drop in pressure will cause the steam to
flash and becomes superheated.

 Positive Suction Head – is the difference between the actual suction pressure of a pump and saturation vapor
pressure of liquid which is determine by the pump manufacturer.
 Draw Down – the difference between static water level and operating water level.

CAUSES WHY PUMPS DOES NOT DELIVERED ENOUGH WATER

 Leakage Loss
a) between casing and impeller
b) between two adjacent stages in multi-stage pump
c) through stuffing box
d) through axial thrust balancing devices
e) past vanes in open impeller pumps

CAUSES OF CAVITATION
 low suction pressure  sharp bends
 high liquid temperature  rough surfaces
 high suction velocity  water hammer

EFFECTS OF CAVITATION
 noise  corrosion
 vibration  pitting

FACTORS NEEDED IN SELECTING A PUMP

 nature of liquid handle  suction condition  type of service
 discharge  discharge condition  number of units
 total head  method of drive  atmospheric condition
 FOUR SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION
 exhaust gas from combustion  mineral processes
 chemical industries  inhabitants

BREWING OF A BEER
 Brewing is a meticulous scientific process. First, precisely measure malt, prepared form quality barley, is stirred
into a mash tub of hot, sterile water. The malt mash is added to a mash of the grains to convert starches into
fermentable sugar, and the mixture is cooked in a cooker and filtered. The filtered liquid called wort is brewed with
hops for flavor nonspoilage and then strain. The temperature of the liquid as it leaves the brew kettle is about
100°C. It passes through a cooler to bring down the temperature to 10°C. Once the wort is pumped into the starter
tank, yeast is added, about 6 kilograms to each 1000 liters of wort, to initiate the production of alcohol. The wort
and yeast is then pumped into a fermentation tank to raise the alcohol content to the proper level, a process that may
take several days to a week. The brew is pump into aging tanks and it remains there for several weeks to age
properly. After carbonation and a last filter operation, the beer is put into clean barrels. Beer which is to bottled or
canned is not only filtered but is also pasteurized.

MANUFACTURING CEMENT
 Dry Process: Raw material, shale, silica, and natural rocks are to the crushers. Belt conveyors, traveling overhead
electric transfers these materials into respective bins, raw grinding mill, there raw materials are fed into the mill
simultaneously by constant weight proportioning feeder with water added, sump tanks, slurry tanks, slurry pumps,
blending tanks pump to slurry basin, kiln feed tanks, calcinatory, coal is burned as fuel to heat the slurry, rotary
kilns, gas kilns, clinker elevator, gypsum clinker, conveyor, finishing grinding mill, cement elevators, separator,
cement, silos, packer feed bin, 4-tube packets, bag conveyor, to market.

ELEMENTS OF POWER PLANT ENGINEERING

Pressure Parts of Steam Generators

 Boiler heating surface with attached drums or shells for storage of water and steam.
 Superheater surface which is simply more heating surface thru which the steam must pass after leaving the boiler in
a final superheated state is desired.

CLSSIFICATION OF BOILERS
 Fire Tube Boilers – are those in which the products of combustion passes through the tubes and the water lies
around the outside of them
a) Horizontal Return Tubular
b) Horizontal two pass or economic boiler
c) Horizontal multi-pass or modified marine type
d) Round upright type
e) Package oil burner fire tube boiler
 Water Tubes Boiler – a type of boiler in which the water is inside the tubes while the hot gasses are outside.
a) Straight tubes boiler – water tubes boilers having a parallel group of straight equal-length tubes, arranged in
a uniform pattern and joined at either ends to headers.
1) Box header type – header is in horizontal position
2) Sectional heaper type – header is vertical
b) Bent-tube boilers – water tube boiler which is headerless, it consists of drums that serve the same function
as headers. Tubes are connected to the drums thru holes bored directly in the drum walls.
1) Drum-and-a-half – bent tube boiler with a long upper drum in parallel with a shorter lower
drum.
2) Two-drum-boilers – consist of two parallel horizontal drums of equal length but not necessarily
or equal diameter joined by multiple rows of bent tubes.
3) Three-drum-boilers – two upper drums and one lower are arranged so the one upper drum carries
the water level and the other, being lower, really acts as a header.
4) Once-through-boilers – a boiler in which heating evaporation and superheating are
accomplished in one pass, usually of the forced circulation type, and does not need separation
tanks.

BOILER AUXILLIARIES
 Setting of a Boiler – all those materials contributing to the encasement of the heating surface and furnace region.
 Feedwater pump
 Furnace – a chamber for combustion which also provides support and enclosure for the combustion equipment.
Types of Furnace walls:
a) solid masonry c) partially water cooled walls
b) air-cooled masonry walls d) water jacketed furnace
 Stokers (for solid fuel) or burners (for fluid fuels) – combustion equipment necessary to receive the fuel air for
burning in the furnace.

BOILERS ACCESSORIES AND TRIM:

 Soot blower – a device used to removed soot, cinder and fly ash that have accumulated at the surface of the boiler
tubes utilizing steam jets or compressed air.
 Steam purities – device that removes solid or dissolved matter in steam which can become a source of operating
difficulties in superheater and turbine.
  Economizer – a feed water heater deriving heat form gaseous products of combustion
 Low-water safeguards – device that protect the boiler from overheating, some of these are:
a) Fusible plugs – a metallic plug of low melting temperature place in the boiler shell below the minimum
safe water line.
b) Low-high water alarm whistles – usually place in water columns.
c) Float operated, low water cut offs for stopping electric motors driving fuel feeders.
 Safety Valves – prevent rise of steam pressure above a predetermined limit.
 Water Column – a device that gives information on the water level in the boiler.
 Blow-off-valve – a valve that is used to removed some of the water to reduce its concentration.
 Steam vent – a small outlet on the top drum normally closed by a valve, which may be opened when it is desired to
hold atmospheric pressure in the boiler, as during initial boiling out.
 Steam pressure gage with siphon, cock and inspectors test cock
 Water Wall – a system of furnace cooling tubes which can extend the evaporative capacity of a water tube boiler
and at the same time protect the furnaces walls against high temperature.

Principal Parts of Steam Turbine:
a) Rotor
b) Casing or Cylinder
Classification of Steam Turbine
 By Application
a) Central Power Station Turbines
b) Industrial Power Turbines
STEAM TURBINES
c) Shaft Seals
d) Steam controls
c) Auxiliary Service Turbines
d) Mechanical Drive Turbines

 By Steam Flow
1. Method of Imparting Energy
a) Impulse Turbine
b) Reaction Turbine
c) Impulse Reaction Turbines
2. Number of Stages
a) Single Stage
b) Multi Stage
3. Arrangement
a) Tandem
b) Compound
c) Tandem Compound

 By Degree of Expansion
1. Condition of Exhaust Steam
a) Condensing
b) Non-condensing
2. Pressure at Exhaust
a) Vacuum
b) Atmospheric
c) Back pressure

3.
a) Superposed engine
b) Bleeder turbine
c) Automatic extraction turbine
d) Low pressure turbine

STEAM CONDENSERS
TYPES
 Surface Condenser
a) Shell and Tube
b)Shell and Coil
c) Double Pipe
 Contact Condenser
a) Jet Condenser

Types of Flue Gas Cleaning Equipment

 Gravitational Separators
 Inertial Separators
 Electrostatic precipitator
a) Louvre type
b) Cyclone type

Types of Air Preheaters

 Recuperative Air Heater
 Regenerative Air Heater
Types of Combustion Equipment for Coal
 Overfeed Stoker
a) Spreader Stoker
 Mechanical Throw
 Jet Throw
b) Conveyor Stoker
 Traveling grate
 Chain grate
 Underfeed Stoker
a) Horizontal Retort Stoker
 Single or twin ram feed
 Single or twin screw feed

b) Slopping Retort Stoker

 Multiple Retort, large capacity

Types of Superheaters
 Convection Superheaters
 Radiant Superheaters

Function of “Gas Lamp”

1. Creating the proper condition for combustion
2. Supplying ingredients for combustion in the proper proportions
3. Moving the products of combustion to the atmosphere

 Combustion – a chemical reaction in which certain element of the fuel combine with oxygen casing an increase in
temperature of the gases.
 Higher Heating Value – heat value are determined experimentally by calorimeters. In this case, the products of
combustion are cooled to practically atmospheric temperature at which mist of the water vapor from combustion of
hydrogen is condensed giving up its Latent Heat. The heating value thus determined is called a higher heating
value.
 Lower Heating Value – calculation of the temperature attained by combustion are facilitated by the used of this so-
called lower heating value, which eliminates the necessity of taking into account the latent heat. The heating value
thus determined is called a higher of water vapor and the differences by the specific heats of liquid water and of
water vapor.
QL = QH – 9450 Btu/lb or QL = QH – 2242 KJ/Kg
 Carburetion – the formation of an inflammable mixture of air and a finely atomized light hydrocarbon fuel.
 Supercharging – the admittance into the cylinder if an air charge larger than what the cylinder would obtained as
the result of the regular suction stroke. Supercharging is done by outside mean, in contrast to the suction, which in
the case is called natural aspiration.
 Porting – the determination of the proper size, shape and arrangement, in short of the exhaust and scavenge port.
 Scavenging – removing the burned gases of a two-stroke engines and admitting the fresh charge
 Thermosiphon Circulation – of cooling water jacket, is based on the fact that when water is heated its density
decreases and the water tends to rise, the colder particles sinking to the place of the rising one. Circulation is
obtained if the water is heated at one point and cooled at another. This is used in small engines only, seldom over 50
hp.

Purpose of Lubrication
 Reduce friction and Wear.
 Seal a space adjoining the surfaces such as a piston moving in a cylinder.
 Cool the surfaces by carrying away heat generated by friction.
 Clean the surfaces by washing away carbon and metal particles caused by wear.

Methods of Starting I.C.E.

 Hand starting  Compressed air starting
 Battery starting  Explosive cartridges starting
 Auxiliary gasoline engine starting  Inertia starter

HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PLANTS

 Impulse Turbine – one in which the total drop in pressure of the fluid takes place in one or more stationary nozzles
and there is no change in the pressure of the fluid as its flows through the rotating wheel.

Function of Draft Tube:

 To enable the turbine to be set above the tailwater level without losing any head thereby.
 To reduce the head loss at submerged discharge to increase the net head available to the turbine runner.

Types of Reaction Turbine

 Radial-flow Francis Turbines are all inward flow reaction hydraulic turbines.
 Mixed-flow Francis Turbines are more compact turbines with inner diameters reduced and the water discharges
with a velocity having an axial as well as radial component.
 Axial-flow (Propeller) are turbine which may have fixed blades, or the pitch of the blades may be adjusted to vary
the area between them in proportion to the load.
 Kaplan Turbine – type of axial flow turbine with adjustable blades.
 Cavitation – the formation of cavities or bubbles of water in pipes, the causes of which are any of the following:
a) low suction pressure d) sharp bends
b) high temperature e) rough surfaces
c) high velocity f) low atmospheric pressure

Effects of Cavitation
 noise  corrosion
 vibration  pitting

Types of Pressure Regulator

1. Water Wasting type – is a synchronous bypass, generally attached to the turbine casing. It is operated directly
from the governor or the gate mechanisms of the turbine and waste such an amount as to keep the total water
discharge equal at all times to the full load discharge of the turbine.
2. Water Saving Type – permits the regulator to open rapid closure of the turbine gates, and then close slowly, so
that water discharge is gradually reduced and finally limited to the turbine.

 Surge Tank – a standpipe with an atmospheric tank, attached to the penstock is close as possible to casing inlet.

Functions of the Surge Tank

1. To provide a reservoir and expansion chamber for the water demand.
2. To provide water rejection following sudden gate movements so that sudden acceleration or deceleration of
the flow in the penstock are avoided.

 Runaway Speed – is the overspeed that results when the turbine runner is allowed freely without load and with the
wicket gates wide open.
 Specific Speed – is the constant relationship between a speed of a runner at the point of highest efficiency and the
maximum power output at this speed regardless of size and is therefore a common basis of comparison between
turbine runners.
 Pump-Storage Plant – involve a special application of hydroelectric generation allowing the use of off-peak energy
supplied at incremental charges by low operating station to evaluate and store water for the daily generation of
energy during peak load hours.
 Pondage – the body of water behind the dame of a run of the river.
 Tailrace – a channel which lead the water from the turbine to the tailwater.
 Spillway – a weir in the reservoir of a high head longitude plant, the purpose of which is to maintain the head of the
power plant.

INSTRUMENTATION
 Instrument – a device for determining the value of magnitude of a quality of variable. The variables of interest are
those which help decrease on decline an object system on process.
 Accuracy – is the closeness with which reading approaches the true value of the variable being measured.
 Precision – the reproducibility of the measurements, i.e., with a fixed value of the variable, how much successive
reading differ from one another.
 Sensitivity – the ration of output signal or response of the instrument to a change in input or measured variable.
 Error – error may be classified as systematic or random. Systematic errors are those due to assignable causes.
These may be static or dynamic. Static errors cause by limitations of the measuring device or the physical laws
governing its behavior. Dynamic errors are caused by the instrument not responding fast enough to follow the
changes in measured variable.

Parts of an Instrument
1. Sensing Element – responds directly to the measured quantity producing a related motion, pressure, or an
electrical signal.
2. Transmitting Means – transmits the motion, pressure or electrical signal produced by the sensing element to
the output or indicating element by means of linkage tubing, wiring, etc.
3. Output or Indicating Element – indicate the value of the measurement on an appropriately calibrated scale
or chart, or store it in a memory device.

 Bourdon-Tube Gage – the most commonly used pressure device. It consists of a flattered tube of spiral bronze or
steel bent into a circle. The pressure inside the tube tends to straighten it. Since one end is fixed to the pressure inlet,
the other end moves proportionately to the pressure difference existing between the inside and outside of the tube.
 Steam Measurement – the quality of steam passing into any system may be determined (1) by collecting and
weighing the condensate at intervals or by passing it through suitable liquid meters, and (2) by measuring the rate of
flow of the steam itself in pipe lines.
 Tachometers – all tachometers indicate directly the speed of the machine to which they are attached and are
independent of time determination. The most commonly used devices depend upon the centrifugal force of
revolving weight for their operation
 Dynamometers – dynamometers for measuring power are of two distinct type, absorption and transmission. In the
former the power is absorbed or converted into energy of another form, while in the latter the power is transmitted
through the apparatus without loss except for minor friction losses in the mechanism itself.
 Orsat Apparatus – the Orsat Apparatus forms the basic of nearly all of the portable appliances on the market for
analyzing fuel gases and the ordinary products of combustion. In this apparatus a measured volume, representing an
average sample of the gas is forced successively through pipette containing solutions of caustic potash, pyrogallic
acid, and cuprous chloride, in hydrochloric acid, respectively,, thus absorbing the carbon dioxide, the oxygen, and
the carbon monoxide, the contraction of volume being measured in each case.
  Optical Pyrometer – based upon the measurement of the brightness of hot body by comparison with a standard.

ELEMENTS ON ENERGY SYSTEM

1. Acid Numbers – property usually measured by the amount of KOH (potassium hydroxide) required to neutralize all or
part of petroleum oil acidity. Also known as Neutralization Number.
2. Additive – chemical compound added to a petroleum base-oil to alter its physical or chemical properties.
3. Absolute Pressure – gage pressure plus the pressure of the atmosphere, normally 14.696 psia at sea level at 68° F.
4. Absolute Zero Temperature – the lowest obtainable temperature where molecular motion stops, -460°F and - 273°C.
5. Accumulator -a storage tank located in the suction line of a compressor. It allows small amounts of liquid refrigerant to
boil away before entering the compressor. Sometimes used to store excess refrigerant in heat pump systems during the
winter cycle.
6. Acid-Contaminated System – a refrigeration system that contains acid due to contamination.
7. ACR Tubing – air conditioning and Refrigeration tubing that is very clean, dry, and normally charged with dry nitrogen.
The tubing is sealed at the ends to contain the nitrogen.
8. Activated Alumina – a chemical desiccant used in refrigerant driers.
9. Air Heat Exchanger – a device used to exchange heat between air and another medium at different temperature levels,
such as air-to-air, air-to-water, or air-to-refrigerant.
10. Air Conditioner – equipment that conditions air by cleaning, cooling, heating, humidifying or dehumidifying it. A term
often applied to comfort cooling equipment.
11. Air Conditioning – a process that maintains comfort conditions in a defined area.
12. Air Cooled Condenser – one of the four main components of an air-cooled refrigeration system. It receives hot gas
from the compressor and rejects it to a place where it makes no difference.
13. Air Gap – the clearance between the rotating rotor and the stationary winding in an open motor. Know as a vapor gap in
a hermetically sealed compressor motor.
14. Air Handler – the device that moves the air across the head exchanger in a forced-air system-normally considered to be
the fan and its housing.
15. Air Sensor – a device that registers changes in air condition such as pressure, velocity, temperature, or moisture content.
16. Air Standard – Dry air at 70°F and 14.696 psia at which it has mass density of 0.075 lb/ft 3 and a specific volume of
13.33 ft3/lb., ASHRAE 1986.
17. Air Vent – a fitting used to vent air manually or automatically from a system.
18. Algae – a form of green or black, slimy plant life that grows in water systems.
19. Allen Head – a recessed hex head in a fastener.
20. Alternating Current –an electric current that reverses its direction at regular intervals.
21. Ambient temperature – the surrounding air temperature.
22. American Standard Pipe Thread – standard thread used on pipe to prevent leaks.
23. Ammeter – a meter used to measure current flow in an electrical circuit
24. Amperage – amount of electron or current flow (the number of electrons passing a point in a given time) in an electrical
circuit.
25. Ampere – unit of current flow
26. Anemometer – an instrument used to measure the velocity of air.
27. Angle Valve – valve with open opening at a 90° angle from the other opening.
28. A.S.A. – abbreviation for the American Standard Association (now known as American National Standards Institute,
ANSI).
29. ASHRAE – abbreviation for the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers.
30. ASME – abbreviation for the American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
31. Aspect Ratio – the ratio of the length to the width of a component.
32. Antifoam agent – chemical added to oils to reduce the foaming that results from continuous aeration.
33. Antiwear Agent – chemical added to oils to minimize wear by reacting with the metal surface to provide a protective
layer.
34. Atmospheric Pressure – the weight f the atmosphere’s gases pressing down on the earth. Equal to 14.696 psia at sea
level and 70°F.
35. Atom – the smallest particle of an element.
36. Atomize – using pressure to change liquid to small particles of vapor.
37. Automatic Control – controls that react to a change in conditions to cause the condition to stabilize.
38. Automatic Defrost – using automatic means to remove ice from a refrigeration coil.
39. Automatic Expansion Valve – a refrigerant control valve that maintains a constant pressure in an evaporator.
40. Ash (Sulfated) – metallic-based formed in an engine during high temperature combustion
41. Base Number – property usually measure by the amount of acid needed to neutralize all or part of petroleum oil’s
basicity. It is usually expressed in KOH equivalent.
42. Back Pressure – the pressure on the low-pressure side of a refrigeration system (also know as suction pressure)
43. Back Seat – the position of a refrigeration service valve when the steam is turned away form the valve body and seated.
44. Baffle – a plate used to keep fluids from moving back and forth at will in a container.
45. Ball Check Valve – a valve with a ball-shaped internal assembly that only allows fluid flow in one direction.
46. Barometer – a device used to measure atmospheric pressure that is commonly calibrated in inches or millimeter or
mercury. There two types: mercury column and aneroid.
47. Battery – a device that produces electricity from the interaction of metals and acids.
48. Bearing – a device that surrounds a rotating shaft and provides a low-friction contact surface to reduce wear from the
rotating shaft.
49. Bellows – an accordion-like device that expands and contracts when internal pressure changes.
50. Bellows Seal – a method of sealing a rotating shaft or valve stem that allows rotary movement of the shaft or steam
without leaking.
51. Bending Spring – a coil spring that can be fitted inside or outside of tubing to prevent its walls from collapsing when is
being formed.
52. Bimetal – two dissimilar metals fastened together to create a distortion of the assembly with temperature changes.
53. Bimetal Strip – two dissimilar metal strips fastened back to back.
54. Bleeding – allowing pressure to move from one pressure level to another very slowly
55. Bleed Valve – a valve with a small port usually used to bleed pressure from a vessel to the atmosphere.
56. Boiler – a container in which a liquid may be heated using any heat source. When the liquid is heated to the point that
vapor forms and is used as the circulating medium, it is called steam boiler.
57. Boiler Point – the temperature level of a liquid at which it begins to change to a vapor. The boiling temperature is
controlled by the vapor pressure above the liquid..
58. Bore – the inside diameter of a cylinder.
59. Bore Polishing – action of lubrication in which a chemical reaction between the lubricant and the surface to be
lubricated occurs.
60. Bourdon Tube – C-shape tube manufactured of thin metal and closed on one end. When the pressure is increase inside,
it tends to straighten. It is used in a gage to indicate pressure.
61. Brazing – high temperature (above 800°F) soldering of two metals.
62. Breaker – a heat-activated electrical devices used to open an electrical circuit to protect it form excessive current flow.
63. British Thermal Unit – the amount (quantity) of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 lb of water 1°F.
64. Bright Stock – heavy lubricant used in lubricant blends to provide good bearing film strength, prevent scuffling, and
reduce oil consumption.
65. BTU – British Thermal Unit
66. Bulb, Sensor – the part of a seated automatic control to sense temperature.
67. Burner – a device used to prepare and burn fuel.
68. Butane Gas – a liquefied petroleum gas burned for heat.
69. Calibrate – to adjust instrument or gages to the correct setting for conditions.
70. Cams – eccentric shaped lobes in the engine’s camshaft used to open and closed valve in proper sequence.
71. Capacitance – the termed used to describe the electrical storage ability of a capacitor.
72. Capacitor –an electrical storage device used to start motors (start capacitor) and to improve the efficiency of motors
(run capacitor)
73. Capacity – the rating system of equipment used to heat or cools substances.
74. Carbon Monoxide – a poisonous, colorless, odorless and tasteless gas generated by incomplete combustion.
75. Cavitation – a vapor formed due to a drop in pressure in a pumping system.
76. Celsius Scale – a temperature scale with 100 graduation between water freezing (0°C) and water boiling (100°C).
77. Centigrade Scale – (see Celsius)
78. Centrifugal Compressor – A compressor used for large refrigeration systems. It is not positive displacement but it is
similar to a blower.
79. Cetane Index – a value of the ignition of a diesel fuel calculated from the fuel’s properties.
80. Cetane Number – measure of the ignition of diesel fuel. Higher Cetane number provides a shorter ignition lag (better
ignition quality). Cetane number is measure by a single cylinder engine in the laboratory.
81. Change of State – the condition that occurs when a substance changes from one physical state to another, such as ice to
water and water to steam.
82. Charge – the quantity of refrigerant in a system.
83. Check Valve – a device that permits fluids flow in one direction only.
84. Chill Factor – a factor or number that is a combination of temperature, humidity, and wind velocity that is used to
compare a relative condition to a known condition.
85. Chimney – a vertical shaft used to convey flue gases above the rooftop.
86. Chimney Effect – a term used to describe air or gas when it expands and rises when heated.
87. Circuit – an electron or fluid flow path that makes a complete loop.
88. Circuit Breaker – a device that opens an electric circuit when overload occurs.
89. Clearance Volume – The volume at the top of the stroke in a compressor cylinder between the top of the piston and the
valve plate.
90. Closed Circuit – a complete path for electrons to flow on.
91. Closed Loop – piping circuit that is complete and not open to the atmosphere.
92. Cloud Point – temperature at which an oil sample become clouded by the formation of wax crystals. Clouding is
characteristics of paraffinic oils.
93. Code – the local, state, or national rules that govern safe installation and service of systems and equipment for the
purpose of safety of the public and trade personnel.
94. Coefficient of Performance (COP) – the ratio of usable output energy divided by input energy.
95. CO2 Indicator – an instrument used to detect the quantity of carbon dioxide in the flue gas for efficiency purposes.
96. Cold – the word used to describe heat at lower levels of intensity.
97. Cold Junction – the opposite junction to the hot junction in a thermocouple.
98. Cold Wall - the term used in comfort heating to describe a cold outside wall and its effect on human comfort.
99. Comfort Chart – a chart used to compare the relative comport of one temperature and humidity condition to another
condition.
100. Compound Gage – a gage used to measure the pressure above and below the atmosphere’s standard pressure. It is a
Bourdon tube sensing device and can be found on all gage manifold used for air conditioning and refrigeration service
work.
101. Compression – a term used to describe a vapor when pressure is applied and the molecules are compacted closer
together.
102. Compression Ratio – a term used with compressors to describe the actual difference in the low-and-high pressure sides
of the compression cycle. It is absolute discharge pressure divided by absolute suction pressure.
103. Compression Ratio – ratio of the volume in an engine’s cylinder above the piston at bottom dead center to the volume
above the piston at top dead center.
104. Compressor – a vapor pump that pumps vapor (refrigerant or air) from one pressure level to a higher pressure level.
105. Compressor Displacement – the internal volume of a compressor, used to calculate the pumping capacity of the
compressor.
106. Compressor Shaft Seal – the seal that prevents refrigerant inside the compressor from leaking around the rotating shaft.
107. Condensate – The moisture collected on an evaporator coil.
108. Condensate Pump – a small pump used to pump condensate to a higher level.
109. Condensation – liquid formed when a vapor condenses.
110. Condenser – the component in a refrigeration system that transfers heat from the system by condensing refrigerant.
111. Condensing Pressure – the pressure that corresponds to the condensing temperature in a refrigeration system.
112. Condensing Unit – a complete unit that includes the compressor and the condensing coil.
113. Conductivity – the ability of a substance to conduct electricity or heat.
114. Conductor- a path for electric energy to flow on.
115. Contaminant – any substance is a refrigeration system that is foreign to the system, particularly if it causes damage.
116. Control –A device use to stop, start, or modulate flow of electricity or fluid to maintain a present condition.
117. Control System – a network of controls to maintain desired conditions in a system or space.
118. Convection – heat transfer from one place to another using a fluid.
119. Conversion Factor – a number used to convert from one equivalent value to another.
120. Cooler – A wall-in or reach-in refrigerated box.
121. Cooling Tower – the final device in many water cooled systems, which rejects heat from the system into the atmosphere
by evaporation of water.
122. Copper Plating – small amounts of copper are removed by electrolysis and deposited on the ferrous metal parts in a
compressor.
123. Corrosion – a chemical action that eats into or wears away material from a substance.
124. Corrosion Inhibitor – an additive that reacts chemically with non-ferrous bearing metals to form a tightly adhering film
that protects bearing surface from corrosive attacks.
125. Counter EMF – voltage generated or induced above the applied voltage in a single-phase motor.
126. Counterflow – two liquids flowing in opposite direction.
127. Coupling – a device for joining tow fluid-flow lines. Also the device connecting a motor drive shaft to the driven shaft
in a direct-drive system.
128. Crackage – small spaces in a structure that allow air to infiltrate the structure.
129. Crankshaft Seal – same as the compressor shaft seal.
130. Crankshaft Throw- the off-center portion of a crankshaft that changes rotating motion to reciprocating motion.
131. Crisper – a refrigerated compartment that maintains a high humidity and a low temperature.
132. Cross Charge – a control with a sealed bulb that contains two different fluids that works together for common specific
condition.
133. Crown – the top of the piston which faces the combustion chamber.
134. Current Electrical – electrons flowing along a conductor.
135. Current Relay- an electrical device activated by a change in current flow.
136. Cut-in and Cut-out – the two points at which a control opens or closes its contacts based on the condition it is supposed
to maintain
137. Cycle – a complete sequence of event (from start to finish) in a system.
138. Cylinder – a complete container with straight sides used to contain fluid or contain the compression process ( the piston
movement) in a compressor.
139. Cylinder Compressor – the part of the compressor that contains the piston and its travel.
140. Cylinder head, compressor – the top of the cylinder on the high-pressure side of the compressor.
141. Cylinder, Refrigerant – the container that holds refrigerant.
142. Damper – a component in air distribution system that restricts airflow for the purpose of air balance.
143. Defrost – melting of ice.
144. Defrost Cycle – the portion of the refrigeration cycle that melts the ice of the evaporator.
145. Defrost Timer – a timer used to start and stop the defrost cycle.
146. Degreaser – a cleaning solution used to removed grease from parts and coils.
147. Dehumidify – to remove moisture from air.
148. Dehydrate – to remove moisture from a sealed system or a product.
149. Demulsibility – measurement of an oil’s ability to separate from water.
150. Density – the weight per unit of volume of a substance.
151. Desiccant – substance in a refrigeration system drier that collects moisture.
152. Design Pressure – the pressure at which the system is designed to operate under normal conditions.
153. Detector – a device to search and find.
154. Detergent – oil additive that prevents deposits from forming on engine surfaces and may remove previously formed
deposits.
155. Dew – moisture droplets that form on a cool surface.
156. Dew Point – the exact temperature at which moisture begins to form.
157. Diaphragm – a thin flexible (metal, rubber, or plastic) that separates two pressure differences.
158. Differential – the difference in the cut-in and cut-out of a control, pressure, time, temperature, or level.
159. Diffuser – the terminal or end device in an air distribution system that directs air in a specific direction using louver.
160. Direct Current – electricity in which all electron flow is continuously in one direction.
161. Direct Expansion – the term used to describe an evaporator with an expansion device other than a low-side float type.
162. Dispersant – oil additive that keeps engines clean by holding in suspension the insoluble products of oil oxidation and
fuel combustion formed during temperature engine operation.
163. Double Flare – a connection used on copper, aluminum, or steel tubing that folds the tubing wall to a double thickness.
164. Dowel Pin – a pin that may or may not be trapped, used to aligned and fasten two parts.
165. Draft Gage – a gage used to measure very small pressure (above and below atmospheric) and compare them to the
atmosphere’s pressure. Use to determine the flow of flue gas in chimney or vent.
166. Drier – a device used in a refrigerant line to remove moisture.
167. Drip pan- a pan shaped to collect moisture condensing on an evaporator coil in an air conditioning or refrigeration
system.
168. Dry-Bulb Temperature – the temperature measured using a plain thermometer.
169. Duct – a sealed channel used to convey air from the system to and from the point of utilization.
170. Eccentric – an off-center device that rotates in a circle around a shaft.
171. Effective Temperature – different combinations of temperature and humidity that provide the same comfort level.
172. Electric Heat - the process of converting electrical energy, using resistance, into heat.
173. Electromagnet – a coil or wire wrapped around a soft iron core that create a magnet.
174. Electron – the smallest portion of an atom that carries a negative charge.
175. Electronic Air Filter – a filter that charges dust particle using high-voltage direct current and then collect these particle
on a plate of an opposite charge.
176. Electronic Leak Detector – an instrument used to detects gases in very small portion by using electronic sensors and
circuits.
177. Electronics – the used of electron flow in conductors, semiconductors and other devices.
178. End Bell – the end structure of an electric motor that normally contains the bearings and lubrication system.
179. End Play – the amount of lateral travel in a motor or pump shaft.
180. End Point – temperature required to distill 99.9 +% of a petroleum fluid’s volume excluding residuum.
181. Energy – the capacity for doing work.
182. Environment – our surroundings, including the atmosphere.
183. Ethane Gas – the fossil fuel, natural gas, used for heat.
184. Evacuation – the removal of any gases not characteristic to a system or vessel.
185. Evaporation –the condition that occurs when heat is absorbed by liquid at its changes to vapor.
186. Evaporator – the component in a refrigeration system that absorbs heat into the system and evaporates the liquid
refrigerant.
187. Evaporator Fan – a forced convector used to improve the efficiency of an evaporator by air movement over the coil.
188. Evaporator Types – Flooded – an evaporator where the liquid refrigerant level is maintain to the top of the heat
exchange coil. Dry Type – an evaporator coil that achieves the heat exchange process with a minimum of refrigerant
charge.
189. Exhaust Valve – the movable component in a refrigeration compressor that allows hot gas to flow to the condenser and
prevents if from refilling the cylinder on the downstroke.
190. Expansion Joint – a flexible portion of a piping system or building structure that allows for expansion of the materials
due to temperature changes.
191. External Drive – an external type of compressor motor drive, as opposed to a hermetic compressor.
192. External Equalizer – the connection from the evaporator outlet to the bottom of the diaphragm on a thermostatic
expansion valve.
193. Fahrenheit Scale – the temperature scale that places the boiling point of water at 212°F and the freezing point at 32°F.
194. Fan – a device that produces a pressure difference in air in order to move it.
195. Farad – the unit capacity of a capacitor. Capacitors in our industry are rated in microfarads.
196. Female Thread – the internal thread in a fitting.
197. Filter – a fine mesh or porous material that removes particles from passing fluids.
198. Fin Comb – a hand tool used to straighten the fins on an air-cooled condenser.
199. Flapper Valve – see read valve
200. Flare – the angle that may be fashioned at the end of a piece of tubing to match a fitting and create a leak-free
connection.
201. Flare Nut – a connector used in a flare assembly for tubing.
202. Flash Gas – the term used to describe the pressure drop in an expansion device when some of the liquid passing through
the valve is change quickly to a gas and cools the remaining liquid to the corresponding temperature.
203. Flash Point – minimum temperature at which a fluid will support instantaneous combustion before it will burn
continuously.
204. Float, Valve or Switch – an assembly used to maintain or monitor a liquid level
205. Flooded System – a refrigeration system operated with the liquid refrigerant level very close to the outlet of the coil for
improved heat exchange.
206. Flooding – the term applied to a refrigeration system when the liquid refrigerant reaches the compressor.
207. Flue – the duct that carries the products of combustion out of a structure for a fossil-or a solid-fuel system.
208. Fluid – the state of matter of liquid and gases.
209. Flash – the process of using a fluid to push contaminant from a system.
210. Flux – a substance applied to soldered and brazed connections to prevent oxidation during heating process.
211. Foaming – a term used to describe oil when it has liquid refrigerant boiling out of it.
212. Foot-Pound – the amount of work accomplished by lifting 1 lb of weight by1 ft ; a unit of energy.
213. Force – energy exerted.
214. Forced Convection – the movement of fluid by mechanical means.
215. Freezer Burn – the term applied to frozen food when it becomes dry and hard from dehydration due to poor packaging.
216. Freeze Up – excess ice or frost accumulation on an evaporator to the point that airflow may be affected.
217. Freezing – the change of state of water from liquid to a solid.
218. Freon – the trade name for refrigerants manufacture by E.I du Pont de Nemours & Co., Inc.
219. Frost Back – a condition of frost of the suction line and even the compressor body usually due to liquid refrigerant in
the suction.
220. Frozen - the term used to describe water in the solid state, also used to describe a rotating shaft that will not return.
221. Fuel Oil – fuel used for heating; a petroleum distillate.
222. Furnace – equipment used to convert heating energy, such as fuel oil, or electricity, to a usable heat. It usually contains
a heat exchanger, blower, and the controls to operate the system.
223. Fuse – a safety device used in electrical circuits for the protection of the circuit conductor and components.
224. Fusible Link – an electrical safety device normally located in a furnace that burns and opens the circuit during an
overheat situation.
225. Fusible Plug – a device (made of low-melting-temperature metal) used in pressure vessels that is sensitive to low
temperature and relieves the vessel contents in an overheating situation.
226. Gage – an instrument used to detect pressure.
227. Gage Manifold – a tool that may have more that one gage with a valve arrangement to control fluid flow.
228. Gage Port – the service port used to attach a gage for service procedures.
229. Gas – the vapor state of matter.
230. Gas Valve – a valve use to stop, start, or modulate the flow of natural gas.
231. Gasket – a thin piece of flexible material used between two metals plates to prevent leakage.
232. Grain – unit of measure. One pound = 7000 grains.
233. Gravity – relationship of weight per unit volume. For petroleum products, expressed as specific gravity or API gravity.
Specific gravity is the ration of the weight of a volume of a petroleum product to the weight of an equal volume of water
at a designated temperature. API gravity varies inversely with the specific gravity.
234. Grille - louvered, often decorative, component in an air system at the inlet of the outlet of the airflow.
235. Grommet – a rubber, plastic, or metal protector, usually used where wire or pipe goes through a metal panel.
236. Ground Electrical – a circuit or path flow to the earth ground.
237. Ground Wire – a wire from the frame of an electrical device to wired to the earth ground.
238. Halide Refrigerants – refrigerants that contain halogen chemicals, R-12, R-22, R-500, and R-502 are among them.
239. Halide Torch – a torch-type leak detector used to detect the halogen refrigerants.
240. Halogens – chemical substances found in many refrigerants containing chlorine, bromine, iodine, and fluorine.
241. Hanger – a device use to support tubing, pipe, duct or other components of a system.
242. Head – another term for pressure, usually referring to gas or liquid.
243. Head Pressure Control – a control that regulates the head pressure in a refrigeration or air conditioning system.
244. Heat – energy that causes molecules to be in motion and to raise the temperature of a substance.
245. Heat Exchanger – a device that transfers heat from one substance to another.
246. Heat of Compression – the part of the energy form the pressurization of a gas or a liquid converted to heat.
247. Heat of Fusion – the heat released when the substance is change from liquid to a solid.
248. Heat of Respiration – when oxygen and carbohydrates are taken in by a substance or when carbon dioxide and water
are given off, Associated with fresh fruits and vegetables during their aging process while stored.
249. Heat Pump – a refrigeration system used to supply heat or cooling using valveness to reverse the refrigerant gas flow.
250. Heat Sink – a low-temperature surface to which heat can transfer.
251. Heat Transfer- the transfer of heat from a warmer to a colder substance.
252. Heating Coil – a device made of tubing or pipe designed to transfer heat to a cooler substance by suing fluids.
253. Hermetic System – a totally enclosed refrigeration system where the motor and compressor are sealed within the same
system with the refrigerant.
254. Hertz – cycle per second
255. Hg –abbreviation for the element mercury.
256. High-Pressure Cut-out- a control that stops a boiler heating device or a compressor when the pressure becomes too
high.
257. High Side – a term used to indicate the high-pressure side or condensing side of the refrigeration system.
258. High-Vacuum Pump – a pump that can produce a vacuum in the low micron range.
259. Horsepower – a unit equal to 33,000 ft-lb of work per minute.
260. Hot-Gas Bypass- piping that allows hot refrigerant gas into the cooler low-pressure side of a refrigeration system
usually for a system capacity control.
261. Hot Junction – the part of a thermocouple or thermopile where heat is applied.
262. Hot Water Heat – a heating system using hot water to distribute the heat.
263. Hot Wire – the wire in an electrical circuit that has a voltage potential between it and another electrical source or
between it and ground.
264. Humidifier – a device use to add moisture to the air.
265. Humidistat – a control operated by a change in humidity.
266. Humidity – moisture in the air.
267. Hydraulics – producing mechanical motions by using liquids under pressure.
268. Hydrocarbons – organic compounds containing hydrogen and carbon found in many heating fuels.
269. Hydrometer – an instrument used to measure the specific gravity of a liquid.
270. Hydronic – usually refers to a hot-water heating system.
271. Hydrocracking – the cracking or thermal degradation of petroleum in the presence of hydrogen to result in finished
petroleum products. Sometimes referred to as hydrotreating.
272. Hydrodynamic Lubrication – a condition of lubrication which involves the physical separation of sliding surfaces by a
lubricant film.
273. Hydrofinishing – a process used to saturate raw base stocks with hydrogen for improved stability.
274. Hygrometer – an instrument use to measure the amount of moisture in the air.
275. Idler – a puller on which a belt rides. It does not transfer power but is used to provide tension or reduce vibration.
276. Ignition Transformer – provide a high-voltage, current, usually to produce a spark to ignite a furnace fuel, either gas or
oil.
277. Impedance – a form of resistance in an alternating current circuit.
278. Impeller – the rotating part of a pump that causes the centrifugal force to develop fluid flow and pressure difference.
279. Induced Magnetism – magnetism produced, usually in a metal, from another magnetic field.
280. Induction Motor – a resistance to the flow of an alternating current produced by an electromagnetic induction.
281. Infiltration – air that leaks into a structure through cracks, windows, door, or other opening due to less pressure inside
the structure that outside the structure.
282. Insolubles – contaminants in used oils resulting from dust, wear particles, and oxidation products. Often measured as
benzene or pentane insolubles.
283. Insulation, Electric – a substance that is a poor conductor of electricity.
284. Insulation, Thermal – a substance that is a poor conductor of the flow of heat.
285. Junction Box – a metal or plastic box within electric connections are made.
286. Kelvin - a temperature scale where absolute 0 equals 0 or where molecular motion stops at 0. It has the same graduation
per degree of changes as the Celsius scale.
287. Kilowatt – a unit of electrical power equal to 1000 watts.
288. Kilowatt-Hour – 1 Kilowatt (1000 watts) of energy used for 1 hour.
289. King Valve – a service valve at the liquid receiver.
290. Knock – detonation occurring in an engine’s combustion chamber due to uncontrolled burning of the last portion of the
air-fuel mixture. Knock results in the development of sudden excessive pressure, reduces engine efficiency, and can
destroy engine parts.
291. Latent Heat – heat energy absorbed or rejected when a substance is changing state and there is no change in
temperature.
292. Lead Antiknocks – chemical compounds based on lead (e.g. tetraethyl lead and tetramethyl lead) used as gasoline
additives to improve octane ratings.
293. Leak Detector – any device used to detect leaks in a pressurized system.
294. Limit Control – a control used to make a change in a system, usually to stop it when predetermined limits of pressure or
temperature are reached.
295. Liquid – a substance where molecules push outward and downward and seek a uniform level.
296. Liquid Line – a termed applied in the industry to refer to the tubing or piping from the condenser to the expansion
valve.
297. Liquid Nitrogen – nitrogen is liquid from.
298. Liquid Receiver – a container in the refrigeration system where liquid refrigerant is stored.
299. Low Side – a term used to refer to that part of the refrigeration system that operates at the lowest pressure, between the
expansion device and the compressor.
300. Magnetic Field – a field or space where magnetic lines of force exist.
301. Magnetism – a force causing a magnetic filed to attract ferrous metals, or where like poles of magnet repel and unlike
poles attract each other.
302. Male Thread – a thread on the outside of a pipe, fitting, or cylinder; and external thread.
303. Manometer – an instrument used to check low vapor pressure. The pressure may be checked against a column of
mercury or water.
304. Mass – matter held together to the extend that it is considered one body.
305. Megaohm – a measure of electrical resistance equal to 1,000,000 ohms.
306. Melting Point – the temperature at which a substance will change from solid to a liquid.
307. Micro – a prefix meaning 1/1,000,000.
308. Microfarad – capacitor capacity equal to 1/1,000,000 of a farad.
309. Micrometer – a precision measuring instrument.
310. Micron – a unit of length equal to 1/1000 of a millimeter, 1/1,000,000 of a meter.
311. Micron Gage – a gage used when it is necessary to measure pressure difference close to a perfect vacuum.
312. Milli – a prefix meaning 1/1,000.
313. Moisture Indicator – a device for determining moisture in a refrigerant.
314. Molecule – the smallest particle that a substance can be broken into and still retain its chemical identity.
315. Monochlodifluoromethane – the refrigerant R-22.
316. Motor Starter – electromagnetic contactors that contain motor protection and are used for switching electric motors on
and off.
317. Muffler, Compressor – sound absorber at the compressor.
318. Mullion – stationary frame between two doors.
319. Mullion Heater – heating element mounted in mullion of a refrigerator to keep moisture form forming on it.
320. Naphthenic – petroleum fluid derive form naphthenic crude oil characterized by its cycloparaffin ring structure.
321. Natural Convection – the natural movement of a gas or fluid caused by difference in temperature.
322. Needle Point Valve- a device having a needle and a very small orifice for controlling the flow of a fluid.
323. Neoprane – synthetic flexible material used for gasket and seals.
324. Neutral Oil – light overhead cuts of lubricant stocks. Neutral oils are the basis for most commonly used automotive
lubricants.
325. Neutralizer – process by which nitrogen oxides attack petroleum fluids at high temperatures. Often cause viscosity
increase.
326. Nominal – a rounder off stated size. The nominal size is the closest rounded off size.
327. Noncondensable Gas – a gas that does not change into a liquid under normal operating conditions.
328. Nonferrous – metals containing no iron.
329. North Pole, magnetic – one end of a magnet.
330. Octane Number –measure of antiknock quality of gasoline. The higher the octane number, the greater the resistance to
knock. Measure in the laboratory by the Research method (RON) and the more severe Motor method (MON).
331. Octane Requirement Increase – tendency of gasoline to require higher octane fuels due to carbonaceous deposits that
accumulate in the combustion chamber(s).
332. Off Cycle – a period when a system is not operating.
333. Ohm – a unit measurement of electrical resistance.
334. Ohmmeter – a meter that measure electrical resistance.
335. Ohm’s Law – a law involving electrical relationships discovered by George Ohm: E = I x R.
336. Oil, Refrigeration – oil used in refrigeration system.
337. Oil Separator – apparatus that removes oil form a gaseous refrigerant.
338. Open Compressor – a compressor with an external drive.
339. Operating Pressure – the actual pressure under operating conditions.
340. Organic – materials formed from living organisms.
341. Orifice – a small opening through which fluid flows.
342. Overhead Protection – a system or device that will shut down a system if an overcurrent condition exists.
343. Oxidation – process in which oxygen attacks petroleum fluids. Oxidation is accelerated by high temperature and certain
metals (e.g. copper and iron) and can lead to varnished, sludges, corrosive acids, and increased viscosity.
344. Oxidation Inhibitor – additive that retards oxidation by interfering with the chain reaction that leads to undesirable
oxidation products.
345. Package Unit – a refrigerating system where all major components are located in one cabinet.
346. Packing – a soft material that can be shaped and compressed to provide a seal. It is commonly applied around valve
stems.
347. Paraffinic – petroleum fluid derived from paraffinic crude oil characterized by containing a high proportion of strain
chain saturates.
348. Parallel Circuit – an electrical or fluid circuit where the current or fluid takes more than one path at a junction.
349. Permanent Magnet – an object that has its own permanent magnetic field.
350. Piston – the part that moves up and down in a cylinder.
351. Piston Displacement – the volume within the cylinder that is displaced with the movement of the piston form top to
bottom.
352. Piston Grooves – channels in the position that carry the piston rings.
353. Piston Lands – raised area between the piston grooves.
354. Piston Rings – circular metal elements that ride in the grooves of the piston and contact the cylinder wall to provide
compression sealing and oil control.
355. Pitot Tube – part of an instrument for measuring air velocities.
356. Phase – one distinct part of a cycle.
357. Plenum – a sealed chamber at the inlet or outlet of an air handler. The duct attaches to the plenum.
358. Poise – dynamic measurement unit of a fluid’s resistance to flow. Defined by the shear stress (dryness per square
centimeter) required to move one layer of fluid along another over a total layer thickness of one centimeter at a shear rate
of one centimeter per second.
359. Polyphase – three or more phases.
360. Porcelain – a ceramic material
361. Potentiometer – an instrument that controls electrical current.
362. Pour Point – Lowest temperature at which fluid will flow.
363. Pour Point Dispersant – additive to lower the pour point of an oil by modifying the structure of wax crystals or
preventing their formation.
364. Power – the rate at which work is done.
365. Pre-ignition – ignition of the air-fuel mixture by a hot spot in an engine’s combustion chamber. Wastes power and may
lead to engine damaging knock.
366. Pressure Drop – the difference in pressure between two points.
367. Pressure Limiter – a device that opens when certain pressure is reached.
368. Pressure Regulator- a valve capable of maintaining a constant outlet pressure when a variable inlet pressure occurs.
Used for regulating fluid flow such as natural gas, refrigerant, and water.
369. Pressure Switch – a switch operated by a change in pressure.
370. Primary Control – controlling device for an oil burner to insure ignition within a specific time span, usually 90
seconds.
371. Propane – a liquefied petroleum gas used for heat.
372. Proton – the part of an atom having a positive charge.
373. psi – abbreviation for pounds per square inch.
374. psia – abbreviation for pounds per square inch absolute.
375. psig – abbreviation for pounds per square inch gage.
376. Psychrometer – to use a compressor to pump the refrigerant charge into the condenser and /or receiver.
377. Purge – to remove or release fluid from a system.
378. Quench – to submerge a hot object in a fluid for cooling.
379. Quick-Connect Coupling – a device designed for easy connecting or disconnecting of fluid lines.
380. R-12 – dichlorodifluoromethane, a popular refrigerant for refrigeration systems.
381. R-22 – monochlorodifluoromethane, a popular refrigerant for air conditioning systems.
382. R-502 – an azeotropic mixture of R-22 and R-115, a popular refrigerant for low-temperature refrigeration systems.
383. Radian Heat – heat that passes through air heating solid objects that in turn heat the surrounding area.
384. Radiation – heat transfer by electromagnetic emanation.
385. Rankine – the absolute Fahrenheit scale with 0 at the point where all the molecular motion stops.
386. Reactance – a type of resistance in an alternating current circuit.
387. Receiver-Drier – a component in a refrigeration system for storing and drying refrigerant.
388. Reciprocating – back-and-forth motion.
389. Rectifier – a device for changing alternating current to direct current.
390. Reed Valve – a thin steel plate used as a valve in a compressor.
391. Refrigerant – the fluid in a refrigeration system that changes from liquid to vapor and back to a liquid at practical
pressures.
392. Registered – a terminal device on an air distribution system that directs air but also has a damper to adjust air flow.
393. Reclaiming – process of restoring used lubricating oils by filtration, clay absorption, and/ or chemical treatments to a
condition similar to virgin stocks. This is not to be confused with refining operations in which the use oil is vacuum
distilled and chemically treated to return it to a state similar to its virgin condition.
394. Relative Humidity – the amount of moisture contained in the air as compared to the amount of the air could hold at the
temperature.
395. Relay – a small electromagnetic device to control a switch, motor, or valve.
396. Relief Valve – a valve designed to open and release liquid at a certain pressure.
397. Remote System – often called a split system where the condenser is located away from the evaporator and / or other
parts of the system.
398. Resistance – the opposition to the flow of an electrical current drop or a fluid.
399. Resistor – an electrical or electronic component with a specific opposition to electron flow. It is used to create voltage
drop or heat.
400. Restrictor – a device used to create a planned resistance to a fluid flow.
401. Reverse Cycle – the ability to direct the hot-gas flow into the indoor or the outdoor coil in a heat pump to control the
system for heating or cooling purposes.
402. Rotary Compressor – a compressor that uses rotary motion to pump fluid. It is a positive displacement pump.
403. Rotor – the rotating or moving component of a motor, including the shaft.
404. Running time – the time a unit operates, also called the “on time”.
405. Run Winding – the electric winding in a motor that draws current during the entire running cycle.
406. Rust Inhibitor – additive that provides protection against rusting in an engine by neutralizing harmful acids or by
forming a water-and-acid repellant layer on the surface of the metal.
407. Saddle Valve - a valve that straddles a fluids line and is fastened by solder or screws. It normally contains a device to
puncture the line for pressure readings.
408. Safety Control – an electrical, mechanical, or electromechanical control to protect equipment or public from harm.
409. Safety Plug – a fusible plug.
410. Saturation – a term used to described a substance when it contains all of another substance it can hold.
411. Scavenger Pump – a pump use to removed the fluid from a pump.
412. Schrader Valve – a valve similar to the valve on an auto tire that allows refrigerant to be charged or discharged from the
system.
413. Scotch Yoke – a mechanism used to create reciprocating motion from the electric motor drive in a very small
compressors.
414. Screw Compressor – a form of positive displacement compressor that squeezes fluid from a low-pressure area to a
high-pressure area, using screw-type mechanisms.
415. Scuffing – abrasive wear in an engine due to localized welding and fracture of rubbing surfaces.
416. Sealed Unit – the termed used to describe a refrigeration system, including the compressor, that is completely welded
closed. The pressures can be accessed by saddle valves.
417. Seat – the stationary part of a valve that the moving part of the valve presses against for shutoff.
418. Semiconductor – a component in an electronic system that is considered neither an insulator nor a conductor but a
partial conductor.
419. Semihermetic Compressor – a motor compressor that can be opened or disassembled by removing bolts and flanges;
also known as a serviceable hermetic.
420. Sensible Heat – heat that causes a change in the level of a thermometer.
421. Sensor – a component for detection that changes shape, form or resistance when a condition changes.
422. Sequencer – a control that causes a staging of events, such as sequencer between stages of electric heat.
423. Series Circuit – an electrical or piping circuit where all of the current or fluid flows through the entire circuit.
424. Service Valve – a manually operated valve in a refrigeration system used for various service procedures.
425. Serviceable Hermetic – see semihermetic compressor.
426. Shaded-Pole Motor – used for very light loads.
427. Shear Index – measure of an oil’s percentage of viscosity loss.
428. Shell and Coil – a vessel with a coil of tubing inside that is used as a heat exchanger.
429. Shell and Tube – a heat exchanger with straight tubes in a shell that can normally be mechanically cleaned.
430. Short Circuit – a circuit that does not have the correct measurable resistance; too much current flows and will overload
the conductors.
431. Short Cycle – the term used to describe the running time (on time) of a unit when it is not running long enough.
432. Shroud – a fan housing that insures maximum air-flow through the coil.
433. Sight Glass – a clear window in a fluid line.
434. Silica Gel – a chemical compound often used in refrigerant driers to remove moisture from the refrigerant.
435. Silver Brazing – A high-temperature (above 800°F) brazing process for bonding metals
436. Sine Wave – the graph or curve used to describe the characteristics of AC voltage.
437. Single Phase – the electrical power supplied to equipment or small motors, normally under 7.5 hp.
438. Sling Psychrometer – a device with two thermometers, one a wet bulb and one a dry bulb, used for checking air
conditions, temperature and humidity.
439. Sludge – an undesirable, insoluble substance that forms in an internal combustion engine due to oil oxidation and /or
interaction with water.
440. Slugging – a termed used to describe the condition where large amount of liquid enter a pumping compressor cylinder.
441. Smoke Test – a test performed to determine the amount of unburned fuel in an oil-burner flue-gas sample.
442. Solar Heat – Heat from the sun’s rays.
443. Soldering – fastening two base metals together by using a third, filter metal that melts at a temperature below 800°F.
444. Solvent Refining – the process for extracting lubricant base stocks from stripped crude streams using selective.
445. Solvent such as furfural or phenol.
446. Specific Gravity – the weight of a substance compared to the weight of an equal volume of water.
447. Specific Heat – the amount of heat required to the temperature of 1 lb of a substance 1°F.
448. Specific Volume – the volume occupied by one pound of a fluid.
449. Splash Lubrication System – a system of furnishing lubrication to a compressor by agitating the oil.
450. Split-Phase Motor – a motor with run and start windings.
451. Split System – a refrigeration or air conditioning system that has the condensing unit remote from the indoor
(evaporator) coil.
452. Squirrel Cage Fan – a fan assembly used to move air.
453. Standard Atmosphere, or Standard Conditions – Air at see lever at 70°F when the atmosphere pressure is 14.696 psia
(29.92 in.Hg). Air at this condition has a volume of 13.33 ft3/lb.
454. Starting Relay – an electrical relay used to disconnect the start winding in a hermetic compressor.
455. Starting Winding – the winding in a motor used primarily to give the motor extra starting torque.
456. Stator – the component in a motor that contains the windings, it doe not turn.
457. Steam – the vapor state of water.
458. Stoke (ST) – Kinematic measurement unit of a fluid’s resistance to flow. Defining by the ratio of a certain fluid’s
viscosity to its density. Usually measure in centistokes (cST).
459. Strainer – a fine-mesh device that allows fluid flow and hold back solid particles.
460. Stratification – the condition where a fluid appears layers.
461. Subcooling – the temperature of a liquid when it is cooled below its condensing temperature.
462. Sublimation – when a substance changes from the solid state to the vapor state without going through the liquid state.
463. Suction Line – the pipe that carries the heat-laden refrigerant gas from the evaporator to the compressor.
464. Suction Service Valve – a manually operated valve with font and back seats located at the compressor.
465. Superheat – the temperature of vapor refrigerant above its saturation change of state temperature.
466. Swagin Tool – a tool used to enlarge a piece of tubing for a solder or braze connection.
467. Swamp Cooler – a termed used to describe an evaporative cooler.
468. Sweating – a word used to describe moisture collection on a line or coil that is operating below the dew-point
temperature of air.
469. Syncrude – unconventional crude (e.g., derived from coal liquefaction, oil shale, or tar sands).
470. Tank – a closed vessel use to contain a fluid.
471. Tap – a tool used to cut internal threads in a fastener or fitting.
472. Temperature – a word used to describe the level of heat or molecular activity expressed in Fahrenheit, Rankine,
Celsius, or Kelvin.
473. Test Light – a light-bulb used to prove the presence of electrical power in a circuit.
474. Therm – quantity of heat, 100,000 Btu.
475. Thermistor – a semiconductor electronic device that changes resistance with a change in temperature.
476. Thermocouple – a device made of two unlike metals that generates electricity when there is a difference in temperature
from one end to the other. Thermocouples have a hot and cold junction.
477. Thermometer – an instrument used to detect differences in the level of heat.
478. Thermopile – a group of thermocouples connected in series to increase voltage output.
479. Thermostat – a device that senses temperature change and changes some dimensions or condition within to control an
operating device.
480. Thermostatic Expansion Valve – a valve used in refrigeration systems to control the superheat in an evaporator by
metering the correct refrigerant flow to the evaporator.
481. Three-Phase Power – a type of power supply usually used for operating heavy loads. It consists of 3 sine waves that out
of phase with each other.
482. Throttling – Creating a restriction in a fluid line.
483. Timers – clock operated device used to time various sequences of events in circuits.
484. Ton of Refrigeration (TR) – the amount of heat required to melt a ton (2000 lbs) of ice at 32°F, 288,000 Btu/24 hr,
12,000 Btu/hr, or 200 Btu/min.
485. Torque – the twisting force often applied to the starting power of a motor.
486. Torque Wrench – a wrench used to apply a prescribed amount of torque or of tightening to a connector.
487. Total Base Number – a measure of the alkaline compounding in acid neutralizing properties of oil.
488. Total Heat – the total amount of sensible heat and latent heat contained in a substance from a reference point.
489. Transformer – a coil wire wrapped around and iron core that induces a current to another coil f wire wrapped around
the same iron core. Note: a transformer can have an air core.
490. Tribology – a science of lubrication.
491. Tube within a Tube Coil – a coil used for heat transfer that has a pipe in a pipe and is fastened together so that the outer
tube becomes one circuit and inner tube another.
492. Tubing – pipe with a thin wall thickness used to carry fluids.
493. Two-Temperature Valve – a valve used in systems with multiple evaporator pressures to control the evaporator
pressures and maintain different temperature in each evaporator. Sometimes called a hold-back valve.
494. Urethane Foam – foam that can be applied between two walls for insulation.
495. Vacuum – the pressure range between the earths’ atmosphere and no pressure, normally expressed in inches of mercury
(in.Hg) vacuum.
496. Vacuum Pump – a pump used to remove some fluids such as air and moisture from a system at a pressure below the
earth atmosphere.
497. Valve – a device used to control fluid flow.
498. Valve Lifter – hydraulic or mechanical device that transmits cam rotation to vertical valve movement to open and close
the valves in an engine.
499. Valve Plate – a plate of steel bolted between the head and the body of a compressor that contains the suction and
discharge reed or flapper valves.
500. Vapor Barrier – a thin film used in construction to keep moisture form migrating through the building materials.
501. Vapor Lock – a condition where vapor is trapped in a liquid line and impeded liquid flow.
502. Vaporization – the changing of a liquid to a gas or vapor.
503. Vapor Pressure – measure of pressure of the vapor accumulated above the liquid. Increase vapor pressure indicates
increased liquid volatility.
504. Variable Pitch Pulley – a pulley whose diameter can be adjusted.
505. Varnish – non-wipeable deposit on engine parts that can interfere with the engines operation.
506. V-Belt – a belt that has a V-shaped contact surface and is used to drive compressor, fans or pumps.
507. Velocity – the speed at which a substance passes a point.
508. Velocity Meter – a meter use to detect the velocity of fluid, air, or water.
509. V.I. Improver – additive that increases the viscosity index of an oil beyond that which could be obtained by ordinary
refining methods.
510. Viscosity – measure of the resistance to flow of a liquid. Commonly used units include centipoise, centistokes and
Saybolt Universal Seconds.
511. Viscosity Index (VI) – arbitrary number that describes the rte at which an oil’s viscosity with changes temperature. High
VI oils are desirable because they display less viscosity change with temperature.
512. Voltage – the potential electrical difference for electron flow from one line to anther in an electrical circuit.
513. Voltmeter – an instrument used for measuring electrical potential.
514. Volumetric Efficiency – the pumping efficiency of a compressor or vacuum pump that describes the pumping capacity
in relationship to the actual volume of the pump.
515. Walk-in Cooler – a large refrigerated products space used for storage of refrigerated products.
516. Water-Cooled Condenser – a condenser used to reject heat form a refrigeration system into water.
517. Watt – a unit of power applied to electron flow. One watt equals 3.414 Btu.
518. Watt-Hour – the units of power that takes into consideration the time of consumption. It the equivalent of a 1-W bulb
burning for 1 hr.
519. Wet-bulb Temperature – it is used to evaluate the humidity in the air. It is obtained with a wet thermometer bulb to
record the evaporation rate with an airstreams, passing over the bulb to help in evaporation.
520. Wet Heat – a heating system using steam or hot water as the heating medium.
521. Window Unit – an air conditioner in a window that rejects the heat outside the structure.