Psychological Flexibility / ACT / Mindfulness Literature Review (Richard Fryer, April 2020)

E. Norouzi, M. Gerber, F. F. Masrour, M. Vaezmosavi, U. Pühse and S. Brand, 2020

Implementation of a mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) program to reduce stress, anxiety, and depression and
to improve psychological well-being among retired Iranian football players, Psychology of Sport & Exercise 47

To test whether a mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) program could reduce symptoms of anxiety, stress, and
depression, and increase psychological well-being among retired Iranian football players compared to an active control
group. Randomized controlled trial, with an 8-week MBSR intervention (16 group sessions, 90 min each) and an active
control group. Three data assessments were performed at baseline, eight weeks later after completion of the
intervention, and again twelve weeks later at follow-up. Forty male retired football players (M age = 34.05, SD = 1.72)
were randomly assigned either to the MBSR intervention or the active control condition. All participants completed
questionnaires on perceived stress, anxiety, depression, and psychological well-being. Repeated measures analyses of
variance were used to assess time by group interactions. Significant time by group interaction effects were found for all
outcomes. In the MBSR group, psychological well-being improved and symptoms of stress, anxiety, and depression
decreased over time from baseline to intervention completion and to follow-up. In the active control group, the
outcomes remained relatively stable across time. The present findings suggest that among male retired Iranian football
players, a MBSR intervention has the potential to reduce symptoms of stress, anxiety, and depression, and to increase
their psychological well-being. Potential (underlying) mechanisms were not assessed in the present study. In future
investigations, researchers should try to gain a deeper understanding of the mechanisms which may explain the
observed effects. • We examine a Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) program among retired Iranian football
players. • MBSR led to reducing stress, anxiety and depressive symptoms among retired football players. • Specific
MBSR compared to an active control condition led to more psychological well-being. • The improvement of mental
health was maintained 12 weeks after the completion of the MBSR program.

A. Naderi, F. Shaabani, H. Gharayagh Zandi, L. Calmeiro and B. W. Brewer, 2020

The Effects of a Mindfulness-Based Program on the Incidence of Injuries in Young Male Soccer Players, Journal of Sport
& Exercise Psychology 42, 2 161-171

The authors tested the effectiveness of a mindfulness-based program in reducing sport-injury incidence. A total of 168
young male elite soccer players were randomly assigned to mindfulness and control groups. The mindfulness group
consisted of seven sessions based on the mindfulness-acceptance-commitment approach, while the control group
consisted of seven presentations on sport-injury psychology. Athlete exposure and injury data were recorded during
one season. State and trait mindfulness, sport anxiety, stress, and attention control of participants were assessed.
Number of injuries, average of injuries per team, and days lost to injury in the mindfulness group were significantly
lower than those in the control group. Mindfulness and attention control were lower and sport anxiety and stress were
higher in injured players than in non-injured players. Psychological variables were associated with injury. Mindfulness
training may reduce the injury risk of young soccer players due to improved mindfulness and attention control and
reduced sport anxiety.

J. Hussey, R. Weinberg and A. Assar, 2020

Mindfulness in Sport: An Intervention for a Choking-Susceptible Athlete, Case Studies in Sport & Exercise Psychology, 4,
1, 1-10

Although antecedents of choking under pressure have been studied, prevention efforts have been somewhat
inconsistent. Current choking-susceptibility criteria include trait anxiety (TA), self-consciousness (SC), and coping style.
In the present case study, a college track-and-field athlete was self-identified as choking susceptible (CS), and a sport-
specific mindfulness intervention to reduce levels of TA, SC, and alter coping to reduce choking susceptibility was
implemented. The athlete identified as CS completed the 6-wk Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE)
program. Trait and state mindfulness were assessed throughout the program, with a follow-up 6 wk postintervention to
gain further insight into the continuing effects of the mindfulness training. Visual analysis and quantitative and
qualitative data demonstrated increases in mindfulness levels and changes in TA, SC, and coping, resulting in the
participant's failing to meet the choking-susceptibility criteria postintervention, indicating a reduced likelihood of
choking in future performances. Enhanced mindfulness levels promoted greater awareness and acceptance, which may
help counter the negative effects of stressful sport performances.
J. Doron, Q. Rouault, M. Jubeau and M. Bernier, 2020
Integrated mindfulness-based intervention: Effects on mindfulness skills, cognitive interference and performance
satisfaction of young elite badminton players, Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 47

Mindfulness- and acceptance-based interventions (MABI) in sport settings need further development and validation to
fulfil the desired outcomes related to sport performance. The current study aimed to design and implement a MABI
integrated into the badminton training of young elite players (MBI programme), and to investigate its impact on sport
performance-related outcomes. Two stages: (a) design and implementation of the MBI programme, and (b) evaluation
using a mixed methods approach. Participants were young elite badminton players, assigned either to the 8-week MBI
programme (n = 18; M age = 16.22), or the 8-week placebo programme (n = 11; M age = 16.64). Participants completed
pre- and post-intervention measures of mindfulness skills, cognitive interference, and performance satisfaction. Social
validation interviews were conducted with MBI participants to collect their overall perceptions of the programme.
MANCOVA indicated a large intervention effect on the main outcome variables (partial η2 = 0.58). The results of
univariate ANCOVAs showed that post-intervention awareness, performance worries and task-irrelevant thoughts
differed significantly across the groups. In addition, follow-up t-tests provided additional information regarding changes
from pre- to post-intervention among the MBI and control groups separately. Social validation data gave further
insights into what athletes had retained and applied from the MBI programme. Contrasting results highlighted the need
to better explore mindfulness mechanisms in MABI and the way they are inter-related, in order to strengthen changes
in sport performance-related outcomes. • The 8-week Mindfulness Badminton Integrated (MBI) programme is
presented. • This study evaluated the MBI's impact through a mixed methods approach. • The MBI did not lead to clear
improvement when compared to an active control group. • Social validation provided additional insights into overall
perceptions of the MBI. • The findings have implications for researchers and practitioners.

D. Wilson, E. V. Bennett, A. D. Mosewich, G. E. Faulkner and P. R. E. Crocker, 2019

"The zipper effect": Exploring the interrelationship of mental toughness and self-compassion among Canadian elite
women athletes, Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 40, 61-70

The purpose of this study was to explore how elite women athletes perceived and experienced mental toughness and
self-compassion and their compatibility in the pursuit of athletic success and stress management. Method Adopting an
interpretivist constructionist approach, we conducted two semi-structured interviews with seven participants (14
interviews), aged 22 to 34. Through a thematic analysis, we identified and analyzed patterns within the data related to
how the athletes experienced and perceived self-compassion and mental toughness. Results Three overarching themes
were identified, including the role of mental toughness as critical for coping with sport-related adversity, the role of
self-compassion as critical for coping with sport-related adversity, and self-compassion and mental toughness as
compatible. Participants experienced mental toughness as a coping resource, which included perseverance through
adversity, remaining present, maintaining perspective, and adequate competition preparation. They perceived that
common humanity, mindfulness, and self-kindness were also key to coping with sport-related adversity. Finally, the
women identified self-compassion and mental toughness as compatible and contextual processes. Self-compassion was
critical to the development of mental toughness, and mindfulness was key to developing and maintaining both self-
compassion and mental toughness. Conclusions The findings revealed that self-compassion and mindfulness are worthy
of investigation in elite women athletes, particularly with regards to their utility in coping with sport-related adversity
and in achieving a mentally tough mindset. Self-compassion and mental toughness are compatible processes that may
both require mindfulness, and if used in an effective and complementary balance could create optimal mindsets for the
pursuit of athletic success. Highlights • Adversity was highly prevalent throughout the women's athletic careers. •
Mental toughness was critical for coping with sport-related adversity. • Mental toughness encompassed perseverance,
presence, perspective, and preparation. • Self-compassion was critical when facing adversity and to achieve mental
toughness. • Self-compassion and mental toughness were compatible, and both required mindfulness.

J. Schwabach, J. Bartley and K. Polk, 2019

Sorting it out: a framework for increasing mental flexibility and valued action in athletes using the ACT matrix
Journal of Sport Psychology in Action: The Application of Mindfulness and Acceptance Approaches to Sport Performers
Routledge, 10, 4, 208-213

Mindfulness and acceptance interventions, many of which are rooted in Acceptance and Commitment Therapy, have
gained strong support in the sport and performance psychology community. However, the nature of mental skills work
in elite sport can make it challenging to implement regimented, time-intensive programs. With this in mind, the authors
will discuss the ACT Matrix, a framework for increasing mental flexibility and valued action using few rules and minimal
time commitment. The authors will provide a description of the ACT Matrix and guidance on implementation for
practitioners and coaches in all performance settings.

A. Rei and S. Yosuke, 2019

The role of mindfulness in performance and mental health among Japanese athletes: An examination of the
relationship between alexithymic tendencies, burnout, and performance, Journal of Human Sport & Exercise, 14, 2,
456-468

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships between mindfulness, alexithymia, burnout, and
performance efficacy among athletes by means of a longitudinal survey. Participants were 125 university athletes (74
men, 50 women, 1 unknown gender; mean age: 19.84 years, SD = 1.04) who completed a survey comprising the Athlete
Mindfulness Questionnaire, Sport Alexithymia Scale, Burnout Scale for University Athletes, and Psychological
Performance Efficacy Scale (on which they assessed both themselves and a teammate) at three time points separated
by two-month intervals. Mindfulness was found to be negatively correlated with burnout, both directly and in an
indirect relationship mediated by alexithymic tendencies; mindfulness was also positively and directly associated with
self-evaluation of performance, and indirectly positively associated with performance as evaluated by a teammate, via
burnout. Structural equation modeling showed that the hypothesized model represented an acceptable fit to the data,
based on several indices. Our findings suggest that mindfulness may help to enhance performance and reduce future
burnout among athletes.

T. R. Pineau, C. R. Glass, K. A. Kaufman and T. O. Minkler, 2019

From losing record to championship season: A case study of mindful sport performance enhancement, Journal of Sport
Psychology in Action, 10, 4, 244-254

Mindful sport performance enhancement (MSPE) is one of the leading mindfulness-based mental training programs for
athletes and coaches. Following a brief introduction to the structure and spirit of MSPE, a detailed case study of work
with a Division III women's lacrosse team over a 2+ year period is presented, highlighting the adaptability of MSPE
when working within collegiate settings. In addition to discussing how the program was adapted and implemented,
ethical considerations, the quantitative and qualitative impact of the program, and guidelines for MSPE best practices
when working with collegiate athletes and coaches are presented.

M. Noetel, J. Ciarrochi, B. Van Zanden and C. Lonsdale, 2019

Mindfulness and acceptance approaches to sporting performance enhancement: a systematic review, International
Review of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 12, 1, 139-175

Mindfulness and experiential acceptance approaches have been suggested as a method of promoting athletic
performance by optimally managing the interplay among attention, cognition, and emotion. Our aim was to
systematically review the evidence for these approaches in the sporting domain. Method: Studies of any design
exploring mindfulness and acceptance in athletic populations were eligible for inclusion. We completed searches of
PsycINFO, Scopus, MEDLINE, and SPORTDiscus in May 2016. Two authors independently assessed risk of bias using the
Cochrane Risk of Bias tool, and we synthesised the evidence using the GRADE criteria. Results: Sixty-six studies (n =
3908) met inclusion criteria. None of the included studies were rated as having a low risk of bias. Compared to no
treatment in randomised trials, large effect sizes were found for improving mindfulness, flow, and performance, and
lower competitive anxiety. Evidence was graded to be low quality, meaning further research is very likely to have an
important impact on confidence in these effects. Conclusions: A number of studies found positive effects for
mindfulness and acceptance interventions; however, with limited internal validity across studies, it is difficult to make
strong causal claims about the benefits these strategies offer for athletes.

H. Macdougall, P. O'Halloran, E. Sherry and N. Shields, 2019

A Pilot Randomised Controlled Trial to Enhance Well-Being and Performance of Athletes in Para Sports, European
Journal of Adapted Physical Activity, 12, 2, 1-19

Existing mindfulness and acceptance-commitment programs in elite sport have ignored elite athletes with a physical
impairment. A pilot randomised controlled trial was conducted to determine if an eight-session mindfulness-
acceptance-commitment program delivered within a motivational interviewing framework would enhance well-being
for athletes in Para Sports. Eighteen athletes in Para Sports were randomly assigned to either intervention (n = 9) or
waitlist control (n = 9) groups, with the intervention group attending eight 60-minute face-to-face individual sessions.
Significant improvements were identified in the intervention group for the primary outcomes of satisfaction with life
(subjective well-being), personal growth, positive relation with others (psychological well-being) with large effect sizes
(i.e., partial eta squared range = .23 to .30) when compared to the waitlist control. Significant improvements were also
identified in the intervention group for a reduction in perceptions of pain (physical well-being), a secondary outcome,
when compared to the waitlist control group. Although not statistically significant, moderate to large effect sizes in
favour of the intervention group were also calculated through this trial for multiple domains of subjective and
psychological well-being. No significant or practically meaningful effect sizes were calculated for social well-being.
Through the results of this study, we have presented preliminary evidence for combining mindfulness-acceptance
interventions with motivational interviewing, which we demonstrate can result in meaningful well-being
improvements. Future research is needed to confirm the efficacy of this approach in adequately powered sample sizes.

C. R. Glass, C. A. Spears, R. Perskaudas and K. A. Kaufman, 2019

Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement: Randomized Controlled Trial of a Mental Training Program With Collegiate
Athletes, Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 13, 4, 609-628

College is a stressful time for many students, including student-athletes, who may benefit from mindfulness
interventions focusing on present-moment awareness and nonjudgmental acceptance. Mindful sport performance
enhancement (MSPE) has shown promise in previous open trials for promoting both athlete well-being and
psychological factors related to sport performance, and this first randomized controlled trial of MSPE was conducted
with mixed-sport groups of 52 NCAA Division III student-athletes. Each of the six sessions included educational,
discussion-based, experiential, and home practice components, with meditation exercises progressing from sedentary
mindfulness to mindfulness in motion. Whereas wait-list controls showed significant increases in depressive symptoms,
those who received MSPE evidenced non-significant reductions in depressive symptoms over the course of treatment.
Furthermore, once controls had also received MSPE, treatment completers (the 41% who attended at least five of six
MSPE sessions) demonstrated significant increases in flow, trait mindfulness, satisfaction with life, and self-rated sport
performance, along with reductions in worry, with medium to large effect sizes. There were no significant changes for
treatment completers from post-treatment to 6-month follow-up, suggesting that improvements were maintained over
time.

B. U. V. Danran, L. I. U. Jing Dong, Z. Chun-Qing, S. I. Gangyan and C. Pak-Kwong, 2019

Mindfulness training improves relaxation and attention in elite shooting athletes A single-case study, International
Journal of Sport Psychology, 50, 1, 4-25

The current study aimed to examine the effectiveness of a sport-specific mindfulness training program, named,
Mindfulness- Acceptance- Insight-Commitment (MAIC) for improving mindfulness, acceptance, training and
competition satisfaction, the abilities of relaxation and attention of Chinese elite shooting athletes. Methods: A single-
case study research design was adopted. Five elite shooting athletes took part in a mindfulness training intervention,
which aimed to enhance their capacity for mindfulness, experiential acceptance, relaxation and attention. The method
of the percentage of data points exceeding the median of the baseline phase approach (PEM) was used to calculate the
effect sizes for the intervention. Results: Findings of the current study demonstrated a medium to large effects of MAIC
training on the increase of mindfulness, relaxation and attention. In the first phase of the intervention, large effects
were also revealed for four participants on experiential acceptance, except one athlete. In the second phase of the
intervention, medium to large effects for all the participants on experiential acceptance were observed. In addition, in
the first phase of the intervention, medium to large effects were found for all of the participants on training and
competition satisfaction. In the second phase of the intervention, large effects were also showed for four participants
on training and competition satisfaction, except one athlete. Conclusion: It can be viewed that MAIC was effective in
improving the levels of mindfulness, attention, and relaxation of elite Chinese shooting athletes. Future studies are
suggested to adopt more robust designs such as the randomized control trial designs to further examine the
effectiveness of the mindfulness training on elite athletes.

T. Cote, A. Baltzell and R. Diehl, 2019

A Qualitative Exploration of Division I Tennis Players Completing the Mindfulness Meditation Training for Sport 2.0
Program, Sport Psychologist, 33, 3, 203-212

The present study examined college tennis players' experience of the 6-hr sport-tailored mindfulness- and self-
compassion-based intervention Mindfulness Meditation Training for Sport 2.0 (MMTS 2.0). Nine college athletes
participated in individual semistructured interviews. Interview results revealed that the athletes perceived the
mindfulness and self-compassions skills as valuable tools to respond optimally to adversity through observing,
accepting, and offering self-compassion toward negative internal states on and off the court. The mindfulness and self-
compassion skills were described as creating enhanced ability to overcome challenges and improve focus on the court
and an enhanced quality of life off the court, including self-reported well-being markers. The participants also noted
several challenges in completing the program (i.e., discomfort meditating, lack of independent practice, and hectic
schedule as a student-athlete). These findings provide insight into how the delivery of mindfulness and self-compassion
skills in a time-limited environment helps male and female athletes combat competition distress.

K. M. Shortway, A. Wolanin, J. Block-Lerner and D. Marks, 2018

Acceptance and Commitment Therapy for Injured Athletes: Development and Preliminary Feasibility of the Return to
ACTion Protocol, Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 12, 4-26

Few studies have examined the development or implementation of protocols based on acceptance and commitment
therapy (ACT) to enhance sport injury rehabilitation, despite findings that suggest ACT may be an effective intervention
for this purpose. The current article details the rationale for and design of Return to ACTion, an ACT-based protocol
intended to target psychological flexibility and mindfulness to increase rehabilitation adherence and overall well-being
for injured athletes. The initial feasibility of delivering the intervention at a Division III public university in the
northeastern United States was also explored. Return to ACTion was offered in the athletic training facility to injured
student-athletes during a 12-week period with recruitment assistance from the athletic trainers. Qualitative data
pertaining to feasibility was collected with a log of observations maintained by the principal investigator and with
verbal and electronic interactions with the athletic trainers. Although there were no participants in the intervention,
there were important findings relevant to further application and research.

L. A. MacDonald, F. Oprescu and B. M. Kean, 2018

An evaluation of the effects of mindfulness training from the perspectives of wheelchair basketball players, Psychology
of Sport & Exercise, 37, 188-195

Objectives Previous research has highlighted that mindfulness training (MT) is associated with an attenuation in
physiological stress in wheelchair basketball players during competition. However, players’ perceptions of how MT
affected their sporting and everyday life were yet to be determined. Therefore, the present study evaluated the
perceived impact of an 8-wk MT intervention on wheelchair basketball players by gathering and analysing the
perspectives of the participants in the study. Design Experimental qualitative design. Methods Eight wheelchair
basketball players completed an 8-wk MT intervention (meditations and mindfulness exercises; five times each week)
during a competition period. Participants completed an evaluation survey which explored the impact of the MT
intervention. Results 8 wk of MT was beneficial in various aspects of the participants'’ everyday lives, games and
training in the form of improved concentration, improved sleep, better stress management, awareness, as well as
improved foul shooting accuracy and regulation of heart rate. Conclusions MT may be efficacious in improving both
athletic performance and everyday life in para-athletes.

L. A. MacDonald and C. L. Minahan, 2018

Mindfulness training attenuates the increase in salivary cortisol concentration associated with competition in highly
trained wheelchair-basketball players, Journal of Sports Sciences, 36, 4, 378-383

This study determined the effect of 8 wk of mindfulness training (MT) on salivary cortisol (sCort) and rate of salivary
Immunoglobulin-A (sIgA) secretion in wheelchair-basketball players during a competition period. The mindful group
completed 8 weeks of MT in addition to training and competition. sCort and rate of sIgA secretion were measured at
baseline, at 2-week intervals, the end and 2 weeks following the intervention. A significant time and group interaction
was observed for sCort (F = 3.297, P = 0.040, ES = 0.191); sCort increased in the control group from MT-BL to MT-2wk
(P = 0.001) and remained significantly elevated at MT-4wk (P = 0.013) and MT-6wk (P = 0.002). sCort decreased from
MT-6wk to MT-8wk (P < 0.001) and concentrations were not different at MT-8wk and Post-2wk to MT-BL (P > 0.05).
Mindful group sCort increased from MT-BL to MT-2wk (P = 0.042) but decreased to concentrations no different to MT-
BL for the rest of the intervention period (P > 0.05). There were no group differences in rate of sIgA secretion during the
intervention (P = 0.810). It was concluded that 8 weeks of MT attenuated the increase in sCort associated with the
competition period.
C. Lundqvist, L. Ståhl, G. Kenttä and U. Thulin, 2018
Evaluation of a mindfulness intervention for Paralympic leaders prior to the Paralympic Games, International
Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, 13, 1, 62-71

This article presents an evaluation of the effectiveness of an applied mindfulness intervention for stress reduction
delivered to Paralympic leaders prior to the Paralympic Games. The intervention group of Swedish Paralympic leaders
(n = 10) received a mindfulness intervention of eight web-based seminars, while a Norwegian reference group (n = 6)
received no intervention. Three assessments were performed for both samples: at baseline, post-intervention and six
weeks post-intervention. The evaluation indicated intervention effects of higher psychological flexibility (p = .03), less
rumination (p = .02) and lower perceived stress (p = .001), and offers initial support for the applied usefulness of a web-
based mindfulness training program as a supplement in stress-reduction programs for elite sport leaders. General
challenges from an applied sport psychology perspective related to the implementation of mindfulness interventions in
samples with experienced high levels of stress and perceived time-constraints are discussed.

M. Gross, Z. E. Moore, F. L. Gardner, A. T. Wolanin, R. Pess and D. R. Marks, 2018

An empirical examination comparing the Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment approach and Psychological Skills
Training for the mental health and sport performance of female student athletes, International Journal of Sport &
Exercise Psychology, 16, 4, 431-451

The present study was a randomised controlled trial investigating the effectiveness of the Mindfulness-Acceptance-
Commitment (MAC) approach compared to traditional Psychological Skills Training (PST) for the mental health and
sport performance of female collegiate athletes. Two hypotheses were proposed: (a) participants in the MAC group
would demonstrate reduced behavioural issues, emotional distress, and psychological symptoms, and increased
athletic performance when compared to those in the PST group; (b) MAC participants would exhibit reduced emotion
dysregulation and increased psychological flexibility and dispositional mindfulness, compared to PST participants.
Participants included 18 National Collegiate Athletic Association Division III female student athletes who were randomly
assigned into either the MAC or PST group based upon pre-intervention levels of distress; and were assessed pre-
intervention, post-intervention, and at 1-month follow-up. A mixed-model ANOVA analysis revealed that the MAC
effectively reduced Substance Use, Hostility, and Emotion Dysregulation over time when compared to the PST group.
Several within-group differences also emerged, as MAC participants demonstrated reduced Generalised Anxiety, Eating
Concerns, and Psychological Distress, as well as increased psychological flexibility from post-intervention to one-month
follow-up. As per coach ratings, MAC participants also evidenced improved sport performance from pre-intervention to
post-intervention. Results suggest that the MAC is an effective intervention for the mental health and sport
performance needs of female collegiate athletes.

W. H. Chang, C.-H. Wu, C.-C. Kuo and L. H. Chen, 2018

The role of athletic identity in the development of athlete burnout: The moderating role of psychological flexibility,
Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 39, 45-51

Inconsistent findings have been reported regarding the association between athletic identity and emotional exhaustion,
a key dimension of athlete burnout, indicating a need to identify boundary conditions that shape the role of athletic
identity in the development of emotional exhaustion. To reconcile the mixed findings, the authors propose that
psychological flexibility, identified as "the ability to contact the present moment more fully as a conscious human being
and to change or persist in behavior when doing so serves valued ends" (Hayes, Luoma, Bond, Misuka, & Lillis, 2006, p.
8), can moderate the association between athletic identity and the development of emotional exhaustion. Using a two-
wave, time-lagged survey, a total of 132 college athletes (mean age = 19.97 years) completed assessments of athletic
identity at Time 1, psychological flexibility at Time 1, and emotional exhaustion at Time 1 and at Time 2 three months
later. The results indicated that athletic identity is positively associated with the development of emotional exhaustion
over time among individuals with low psychological flexibility but is negatively associated with emotional exhaustion for
individuals with high levels of psychological flexibility. This study suggests that the association of athletic identity with
increased or decreased emotional exhaustion over time depends on the athlete's attributes. Practically, our findings
highlight the importance of understanding athletes' levels of psychological flexibility to prevent emotional exhaustion.
Highlights • We examine psychological flexibility as a moderator of athletic identity and athlete burnout relationship. •
Athletic identity did not accounted for changes in emotional exhaustion independently. • Psychological flexibility
significantly moderates the association between athletic identity and emotional exhaustion over time.
M. W. Aoyagi, A. B. Cohen, A. Poczwardowski, J. N. Metzler and T. Statler, 2018
Models of performance excellence: Four approaches to sport psychology consulting, Journal of Sport Psychology in
Action, 9, 2, 94-110

The models of practice of four sport psychology consultants (Jon Metzler, Mark Aoyagi, Alex Cohen, and Artur
Poczwardowski) are presented. While each model is distinct, collectively they illustrate the benefits of theoretically-
grounded foundations to practice. The practitioners represented derive their models from multiple disciplines
associated with sport psychology. Pure Performance emphasizes precise definitions of key terms and components while
utilizing deliberate practice to develop authentic skills. Mental FITness is based on focus, inspiration, and trust to
conceptualize and facilitate performance excellence. The P.A.C.E. model incorporates Perception, Activation,
Concentration, and Execution and applies these elements to Performance Readiness Planning. The “5 Rs”model
comprises Respond, Release, Replay, Recharge, and Refocus. The models are presented here for the purpose of
demonstrating the breadth with which performance excellence can be conceptualized and facilitated. Implications for
practitioners include examples of how theory guides the development of service delivery programs.

Z. Vidic, M. S. Martin and R. Oxhandler, 2017

Mindfulness Intervention With a U.S. Women's NCAA Division I Basketball Team: Impact on Stress, Athletic Coping Skills
and Perceptions of Intervention, Sport Psychologist, 31, 2, 147-159

This mixed methodology study investigated the effects of a ten session mindfulness-based intervention on a women's
collegiate basketball team's (n = 13) perceived stress, athletic coping resources, and perceptions of the mindfulness
intervention. Quantitative results showed a progressive decrease in stress and an increase in athletic coping skills over
the course of the intervention. Qualitative results indicated the mindfulness intervention was beneficial in various
aspects of the athletes' lives in the form of improved awareness, control, focus, presence and relaxation. These results
suggest that mindfulness training may be an effective approach in assisting college athletes attain benefits in both sport
and life.

J. E. Perry, M. Ross, J. Weinstock and T. Weaver, 2017

Efficacy of a Brief Mindfulness Intervention to Prevent Athletic Task Performance Deterioration: A Randomized
Controlled Trial, Sport Psychologist, 31, 4, 410-421

Research has supported mindfulness as a predictor of athletic success. This study used a parallel trial design to examine
the benefit of a brief one-session mindfulness training for performance on an individual, nonpacing, closed skill athletic
task (i.e., golf putting). All participants (N = 65) answered questionnaires and engaged in two trials of the putting task.
Participants were randomly assigned to an intervention or control group using a simple randomization strategy.
Between trials, the intervention group received a mindfulness intervention. Mindfulness intervention included
psychoeducation, reflection upon previous sport experiences, an experiential exercise, and putting applications.
Repeated-measures ANOVAs demonstrated that the intervention group exhibited more successful outcomes on
objective putting performance, flow state experience, and state anxiety (p < .05). Results suggest mindfulness may
prevent performance deterioration and could produce psychological benefits after a brief training session.

M. S. Ingstrup, A. D. Mosewich and N. L. Holt, 2017

The Development of Self-Compassion Among Women Varsity Athletes, Sport Psychologist, 31, 4, 317-331

The purpose of this study was to explore factors that contributed to the development of self-compassion among highly
self-compassionate women varsity athletes. More specifically, the research question was: how did women varsity
athletes with high self-compassion perceive they became self-compassionate? To purposefully sample participants, 114
women varsity athletes completed the Self-Compassion Scale (Neff, 2003b). Ten athletes with high self-compassion
scores then participated in individual interviews and a follow-up second interview. Data were analyzed using
interpretive phenomenological analysis (Smith & Osborn, 2003). Analysis produced three main themes that contributed
to the development of self-compassion: (a) role of parents (seeking and receiving help from parents, parents teaching
self-kindness, parents putting experiences in perspective); (b) gaining self-awareness; and (c) learning from others
(peers, siblings, coaches, sport psychologists). These findings provide insights into the ways in which self-compassion
can be learned and taught, and have implications for practitioners who work with women athletes.
L. Bühlmayer, D. Birrer, P. Röthlin, O. Faude and L. Donath, 2017
Effects of Mindfulness Practice on Performance-Relevant Parameters and Performance Outcomes in Sports: A Meta-
Analytical Review , Sports Medicine , 47, 11, 2309-2321

Background: Mindfulness as a present-oriented form of mental training affects cognitive processes and is increasingly
considered meaningful for sport psychological training approaches. However, few intervention studies have examined
the effects of mindfulness practice on physiological and psychological performance surrogates or on performance
outcomes in sports. Objective: The aim of the present meta-analytical review was to examine the effects of mindfulness
practice or mindfulness-based interventions on physiological and psychological performance surrogates and on
performance outcomes in sports in athletes over 15 years of age. Data Sources: A structured literature search was
conducted in six electronic databases (CINAHL, EMBASE, ISI Web of Knowledge, PsycINFO, MEDLINE and SPORTDiscus).
The following search terms were used with Boolean conjunction: (mindful* OR meditat* OR yoga) AND (sport* OR
train* OR exercis* OR intervent* OR perform* OR capacity OR skill*) AND (health* OR adult* OR athlete*). Study
Selection: Randomized and non-randomized controlled studies that compared mindfulness practice techniques as an
intervention with an inactive control or a control that followed another psychological training program in healthy
sportive participants were screened for eligibility. Data Extraction: Eligibility and study quality [Physiotherapy Evidence
Database (PEDro)] scales were independently assessed by two researchers. A third independent researcher was
consulted to achieve final consensus in case of disagreement between both researchers. Standardized mean
differences (SMDs) were calculated as weighted Hedges' g and served as the main outcomes in comparing mindfulness
practice versus control. Statistical analyses were conducted using a random-effects inverse-variance model. Results:
Nine trials of fair study quality (mean PEDro score 5.4, standard deviation 1.1) with 290 healthy sportive participants
(athletics, cyclists, dart throwers, hammer throwers, hockey players, hurdlers, judo fighters, rugby players, middle-
distance runners, long-distance runners, shooters, sprinters, volleyball players) were included. Intervention time varied
from 4 weeks to over 2 years. The practice frequency lasted from twice daily to just once a week, and the mean session
time covered 50-60 min. In favor of mindfulness practice compared with the control condition, large effects with
narrow confidence limits and low heterogeneity were found for mindfulness scores [SMD 1.03, 90% confidence interval
(CI) 0.67-1.40, p < 0.001, I = 17%]. Physiological performance indices depicted wide confidence limits accompanied with
very large heterogeneity. However, the effect sizes remained very large, with confidence limits that did not overlap
zero (SMD 3.62, 90% CI 0.03-7.21, p = 0.10, I = 98%). Moderate to large effects were observed for both psychological
performance surrogates (SMD 0.72, 90% CI 0.46-0.98, p < 0.001, I = 14%) and performance outcomes in shooting and
dart throwing (SMD 1.35, 90% CI 0.61-2.09, p = 0.003, I = 82%). Conclusions: Mindfulness practice consistently and
beneficially modulates mindfulness scores. Furthermore, physiological and psychological surrogates improved to a
meaningful extent following mindfulness practice, as well as performance outcomes in shooting and dart throwing. It
seems reasonable to consider mindfulness practice strategies as a regular complementary mental skills training
approach for athletes, at least in precision sports; however, more high-quality, randomized, controlled trials on
mindfulness practice and performance improvements in diverse sport settings are needed.

C.-Q. Zhang, G. Si, P.-K. Chung and D. F. Gucciardi, 2016

Mindfulness and Burnout in Elite Junior Athletes: The Mediating Role of Experiential Avoidance, Journal of Applied
Sport Psychology, 28, 4, 437-451

Previous research suggests that mindfulness and experiential avoidance are negatively and positively related to athlete
burnout, respectively. It is unknown, however, whether experiential avoidance functions as a mediator between
mindfulness and athlete burnout. To address this gap, 387 elite Chinese junior athletes (M= 15.44 years,SD= 1.42)
completed self-report measures of mindfulness, experiential avoidance, and athlete burnout. Findings provided cross-
sectional evidence that experiential avoidance mediated the inverse association from mindfulness to each of the three
burnout dimensions. No gender difference of these indirect effects was revealed. This study is the first to test the
theoretical sequence in which mindfulness is associated with athlete burnout via experiential avoidance and provide
additional support the adaptive nature of mindfulness.

S. Yousuf, 2016
Mindfulness and tennis performance: A review of literature and practice, Coaching & Sport Science Review (Spanish
Version), 70, 13-14

Mindfulness practice has grown exponentially in more recent times out of two schools of thought: Eastern Bhuddist
meditative practice which has been popularised by Kabat-Zinn and colleagues (Kabat-Zinn, 2003), and a Western
approach developed by Langer and colleagues (Langer, 1989). Adaptations of both Eastern and Western practices have
been utilised by sport psychology practitioners as an alternative to psychological skills training. There have been some
practices that combine mindfulness with psychological skills training when assisting athletes in optimising performance
(Baltzell, McCarthy & Greenbaum, 2014). Indeed, mindfulness is associated with positive psychology and wellbeing. The
paper reviews some of the literature in the Eastern practice, the practice of mindfulness in sport environments, and will
highlight some of the interventions undertaken in tennis.

J. Scott-Hamilton, N. S. Schutte, G. M. Moyle and R. F. Brown, 2016.

The relationships between mindfulness, sport anxiety, pessimistic attributions and flow in competitive cyclists,
International Journal of Sport Psychology, 47, 2, 103-121

This research investigated a model connecting greater mindfulness to more occurrences of flow and less sport-specific
anxiety and pessimistic sport attributions in competitive cyclists. The research examined direct and indirect paths from
mindfulness to the subjective state of being in flow. Indirect paths examined were through pessimistic sports
attributions, sport-specific anxiety and flow conditions. Key findings were that higher levels of mindfulness were
associated with more experience of flow, fewer sports-related pessimistic cognitions, and less sport-specific anxiety.
Lower levels of sport-specific pessimistic attributions and sport-specific anxiety were associated with a higher
frequency of experienced flow conditions. A higher frequency of flow conditions was associated with more occurrence
of the subjective state of being in flow. The results support a model connecting mindfulness to flow experience through
the meeting of flow conditions and through less experience of pessimism and anxiety. The results have implications for
possible interventions focused upon increasing mindfulness to enhance the occurrence of flow.

N. Mardon, H. Richards and A. Martindale, 2016

The Effect of Mindfulness Training on Attention and Performance in National-Level Swimmers: An Exploratory
Investigation, Sport Psychologist, 30, 2, 131-140

This quasi-experimental intervention study investigated the impact of mindfulness training on attention and
performance in swimmers. Following an 8-week intervention with six national-level university swimmers (M = 20
years), single case analysis of pre- and post- measurements for three of six participants showed large improvements in
mindfulness and attention efficiency. Two participants showed a small increase in one of mindfulness or attention
efficiency, and one showed no changes. Four participants improved performance times compared with season-best,
and five participants improved self-rated performance. Athletes and coach positively evaluated mindfulness training.
This study, with strong ecological validity, shows improvements in mindfulness, attention, and performance, consistent
with theory that proposes attention as a mechanism for mindfulness based performance changes. Mindfulness training
can be an effective and practical intervention. Further applied research is required utilizing designs to determine
causality and further test the proposed mechanisms through which mindfulness may influence performance.

M. I. Jones and J. K. Parker, 2016

A conditional process model of the effect of mindfulness on 800-m personal best times through pain catastrophising,
Journal of Sports Sciences, 34, 12, 1132-1140

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between mindfulness and 800-m personal best (PB) times
through pain catastrophising and to see whether the magnitude and direction of the relationship depended on gender.
One hundred and nine participants reported their gender, completed measures of mindfulness (MAAS) and pain
catastrophising (PCS) and reported PB 800 m times that were standardised based on current world records. Results
revealed moderate-sized relationships between the predictor variables and standardised 800 m PB. The size of these
relationships reduced after we controlled for gender. The follow-up, conditional process analysis – revealed significant
direct and indirect effects that confirmed that pain catastrophising partially mediated the relationship between
mindfulness and 800 m PB and that gender moderated the indirect paths. The indirect path between mindfulness and
pain catastrophising was consistent with existing literature. However, the path between pain catastrophising and
standardised 800 m PB was positive for females and negative for males. The different direction of the relationship could
suggest that pain catastrophising could be performance enhancing for females.
L. Hung Chen and C.-H. Wu, 2016
When Does Dispositional Gratitude Help Athletes Move Away From Experiential Avoidance? The Moderating Role of
Perceived Autonomy Support From Coaches , Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 28, 3, 338-349

Experiential avoidance, the attempt to avoid negative experiences, can prevent athletes from reaching their goals. To
mitigate this tendency, the authors offer a relational approach and propose that dispositional gratitude and perceived
autonomy support from coaches will have an interaction effect in mitigating experiential avoidance. Time-lagged data
from 140 athletes were analyzed. Dispositional gratitude and perceived coach autonomy support had a significant
interaction effect on predicting experiential avoidance when Time 1 experiential avoidance was controlled. Those high
in dispositional gratitude and perceived coach autonomy support decreased their experiential avoidance over time.
Implications and application for experiential avoidance and gratitude are discussed.

J. J. DeGaetano, A. T. Wolanin, D. R. Marks and S. M. Eastin, 2016

The Role of Psychological Flexibility in Injury Rehabilitation, Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 10, 3, 192-205

The purpose of this study was to explore the influence of psychosocial factors and psychological flexibility on
rehabilitation protocol adherence in a sample of injured collegiate athletes. Self-report measures were given to injured
athletes before the start of a physical rehabilitation protocol. Upon completion of rehabilitation, each athlete was
assessed by the chief athletic trainer using a measure of rehabilitation adherence. Correlational analyses and
bootstrapped logistic regression analyses were conducted to determine whether broad psychosocial factors and level
of psychological flexibility predicted engagement and adherence to a rehabilitation protocol. Psychological flexibility, as
measured on the Acceptance and Action Questionnaire (2nd ed.; Bond et ah, 2011), contributed significantly to the
overall logistic regression model. Study findings suggested that assessment of psychological flexibility could give
medical providers a way to evaluate both quickly and quantitatively potentially problematic behavioral responding
among injured athletes, allowing for more effective adherence monitoring.

J. Bennett and P. Lindsay 2016

Case Study 3: An acceptance commitment and mindfulness based intervention for a female hockey player experiencing
post injury performance anxiety, Sport & Exercise Psychology Review, 12, 2, 36-45

Returning from injury in elite sport presents itself with numerous challenges. Although injury rehabilitation has
featured extensively in sport psychology literature, the application of case specific interventions remains scarce. The
current case study addresses the anxiety surrounding injury recovery, and presents a detailed intervention program
that was delivered to an elite female hockey player. This intervention demonstrates the application acceptance
commitment therapy (ACT; Hayes, Strosahl & Wilson, 1999), with mindfulness and relaxation strategies to reduce
imagined pain associated with an old injury, and manage anxiety associated with return to play. Six key stages will be
presented: background to case; formulation/assessment multidisciplinary; client education; learning mindfulness and
ACT in context; assessing readiness to perform; intervention evaluation. The case concludes by summarising how ACT
and mindfulness facilitated recovery from injury and return to performance, providing tentative advice for practitioners
wishing to adopt an ACT based approach within the domain of pain management and injury recovery.

R. Sappington and K. Longshore, 2015.

Systematically Reviewing the Efficacy of Mindfulness-Based Interventions for Enhanced Athletic Performance, Journal
of Clinical Sport Psychology, 9, 3, 232-262

The field of applied sport psychology has traditionally grounded its performance enhancement techniques in the
cognitive-behavioral elements of psychological skills training. These interventions typically advocate for controlling
one's cognitive and emotional processes during performance. Mindfulness-based approaches, on the other hand, have
recently been introduced and employed more frequently in an effort to encourage athletes to adopt a nonjudgmental
acceptance of all thoughts and emotions. Like many applied interventions in sport psychology, however, the body of
literature supporting the efficacy of mindfulness-based approaches for performance enhancement is limited, and few
efforts have been made to draw evidence-based conclusions from the existing research. The current paper had the
purpose of systematically reviewing research on mindfulness-based interventions with athletes to assess (a) the
efficacy of these approaches in enhancing sport performance and (b) the methodological quality of research conducted
thus far. A comprehensive search of relevant databases, including peer-reviewed and gray literature, yielded 19 total
trials (six case studies, two qualitative studies, seven nonrandomized trials, and four randomized trials) in accordance
with the inclusion criteria. An assessment tool was used to score studies on the quality of research methodology. While
a review of this literature yielded preliminary support for the efficacy of mindfulness-based performance enhancement
strategies, the body of research also shows a need for more methodologically rigorous trials.

F. Moen, F. Abrahamsen and P. Furrer, 2015

The Effects from Mindfulness Training on Norwegian Junior elite Athletes in Sport, International Journal of Applied
Sports Sciences, 27, 2, 98-113

This study investigates the effects from a 12-weeks mindfulness intervention on perceived stress, perceived
performance in school and sports, and athlete burnout among junior elite athletes in sports. In the present
investigation 50 Norwegian junior athletes from two different schools for elite sports participated in an experiment
with a pre-test, post-test control group design. Twenty three of them were in the experiment group whereas 27 were in
the control group. The athletes were from different sports such as cross country skiing, biathlon, shooting and track and
field. As hypothesized, we found significant effects from the mindfulness intervention on athlete burnout. There were
no significant effects found on perceived stress, perceived performance in school and sports. These findings are
discussed in regal'd of applied implications and possible future research.

K. Longshore and M. Sachs, 2015

Mindfulness Training for Coaches: A Mixed-Method Exploratory Study, Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology , 9, 2, 116-
137

Mindfulness-based research in sport has focused on athletes, while coaches remain unexplored. Research consistently
shows that coaches experience high stress, which can lead to burnout, reduced performance, and emotional
mismanagement. The present study developed and explored Mindfulness Training for Coaches (MTC), which is aimed at
increasing mindfulness and emotional stability while reducing anxiety. Participants were 20 Division I coaches. The
mixed-method design included trait and state measures of anxiety, mindfulness, and emotion, along with qualitative
semistructured interviews. Trained coaches reported significantly less anxiety and greater emotional stability from pre-
to posttraining. The state measures showed trained coaches were lower in anxiety and adverse emotions at each time
point. Interviews showed six distinct positive impacts on coaches: anxiety and stress; emotions; mindfulness; coaching;
athletes; and personal life. MTC is a promising intervention for coaches to reduce stress, improve well-being, and
enhance coach-athlete interactions.

A. Ivarsson, U. Johnson, M. B. Andersen, J. Fallby and M. Altemyr, 2015

It Pays to Pay Attention: A Mindfulness-Based Program for Injury Prevention With Soccer Players, Journal of Applied
Sport Psychology, 27, 3, 319-334

The aim of this study was to examine the extent to which a mindfulness-based program could reduce the number of
sport injuries in a sample of soccer players. A total of 41 junior elite soccer players were randomly assigned to the
treatment or the attentional control group. The treatment group took part in a 7-session program based on the
mindfulness, acceptance, and commitment approach. The attentional control group was offered 7 sessions of sport
psychology presentations with a particular focus on soccer. There were no statistically significant differences in injury
rates between the two groups,U(39) = 149.50,z= −1.77,p=.077, but there was a medium effect size (adjusted Cohen'sd=
− 0.59), approx. 80% confidence interval ford[−0.37, −0.74]. Moreover, 67% of the players in the mindfulness group
remained injury free in comparison to 40% in the control group. This result implies that an intervention program
focusing on strategies for improving attention could decrease injury risk. Recommendations include applying
mindfulness exercises in athletes’ daily training to help lower injury risk.

K. Henriksen, 2015
Sport psychology at the Olympics: The case of a Danish sailing crew in a head wind, International Journal of Sport &
Exercise Psychology, 13, 1, 43-55

Performing your best at the Olympic Games is a unique and stressful challenge for all involved, including athletes,
coaches, and sport psychology practitioners. This paper provides a descriptive account and personal reflections of a
sport psychology intervention aimed at helping a sailing crew perform at the ultimate event. The paper describes the
specific strategies the sport psychology practitioner used to help the two sailors prepare for, and perform at, the
Olympics as well as to cope with their disappointment after the Games. While the preparation went smoothly, the crew
experienced a significant head wind (metaphor for adversity) during the Olympics. The present case is an example of
the scientist–practitioner.The intervention was based on a clear theory, the cognitive behavioural tradition, and came
from an evidence-based perspective. After the Games, the intervention was evaluated methodically. Based on this
evaluation (alongside several similar ones), the sport psychology team of Team Denmark has decided to assess the
integration of mindfulness and acceptance-based approaches into service delivery and to include these perspectives in
the team's professional philosophy. Key components of such interventions include staying in the present moment,
accepting the multitude of thoughts and feelings that arise without necessarily acting on them, and clarifying personal
values alongside a commitment to act on these values. These processes are no less important for the sport psychology
practitioner who is expected to remain calm and focused—and to never bend even in the strongest wind.

H. Gustafsson, P. Davis, T. Skoog, G. Kenttä and P. Haberl, 2015

Mindfulness and Its Relationship With Perceived Stress, Affect, and Burnout in Elite Junior Athletes, Journal of Clinical
Sport Psychology, 9, 3, 263-281

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between dispositional mindfulness and burnout and whether
this relationship is mediated by perceived stress, negative affect, and positive affect in elite junior athletes. Participants
were 233 (123 males and 107 females) adolescent athletes, ranging in age from 15-19 years (M = 17.50; SD = 1.08).
Bivariate correlations revealed that mindfulness had a significant negative relationship with both perceived stress and
burnout. To investigate mediation, we employed nonparametric bootstrapping analyses. These analyses indicated that
positive affect fully mediated links between mindfulness and sport devaluation. Further, positive affect and negative
affect partially mediated the relationships between mindfulness and physical/emotional exhaustion, as well as between
mindfulness and reduced sense of accomplishment. The results point toward mindfulness being negatively related to
burnout in athletes and highlight the role of positive affect. Future research should investigate the longitudinal effect of
dispositional mindfulness on stress and burnout.

P. Furrer, F. Moen and K. Firing, 2015

How Mindfulness Training may mediate Stress, Performance and Burnout, Sport Journal, 1-1

The aim of this article was to explore the influence of mindfulness training on stress, perceived performance in school
and sports, and athlete burnout among junior elite athletes. One goal was to determine the usefulness of mindfulness
training in performance enhancement and burnout prevention in junior elite sports. A mindfulness-training program
(MTP) was conducted with 29 junior elite athletes over a period of 12-weeks. Six of the athletes who were participating
in the MTP were randomly chosen to voluntarily participate in a semi structural interview that explored possible effects
from the MTP. Our qualitative analyses showed that the mindfulness intervention had a positive impact on the athletes'
awareness and recovery. The authors also discuss positive effects on the athletes' focus and performances. The findings
are discussed against the usefulness of mindfulness training in athlete burnout prevention.

S. Cathcart, M. McGregor and E. Groundwater, 2014

Mindfulness and Flow in Elite Athletes, Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 8, 2, 119-141

Mindfulness has been found to be related to improved athletic performance and propensity to achieve flow states. The
relationship between mindfulness and flow has only recently been examined in elite athletes. To build on this
literature, we administered the Five-Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) and the Dispositional Flow Scale to 92
elite athletes. Psychometric analyses supported the validity of the FFMQ. Males scored higher than females on the
FFMQ facet of Nonjudging of Inner Experience. Athletes from individual and pacing sports scored higher on the FFMQ
facet of Observing than athletes from team-based and nonpacing sports. Correlations between mindfulness and flow
were stronger in athletes from individual and pacing sports compared with team-based and nonpacing sports.
Mindfulness correlated with different facets of flow in males compared with females. The results support the use of the
five-facet mindfulness construct in elite athletes and suggest the relationship between mindfulness and flow possibly
may vary by gender and sport type in this population.

M. Bernier, E. Thienot, E. Pelosse and J. F. Fournier, 2014

Effects and Underlying Processes of a Mindfulness-Based Intervention With Young Elite Figure Skaters: Two Case
Studies, Sport Psychologist, 28, 3, 302-315

This article examines the effects and underlying processes of a mindfulness-based intervention through two case
studies. A one-season intervention designed according to the mindfulness approach was implemented with young elite
figure skaters. Case studies were complemented with different measurement methods: a questionnaire assessing
mindfulness skills, percent improvement on competition scores compared with a control group, and interviews with
skaters and coaches during the intervention. The two case studies presented demonstrate how the young skaters
developed their mindfulness skills and how these skills benefited their performance. They also show the limitations of
this intervention type in young populations. Performance improvement and processes underlying the intervention are
discussed in light of the results, and new perspectives are provided for adapting them to the particular needs of young
athletes.

A. Baltzell, N. Caraballo, K. Chipman and L. Hayden, 2014

A Qualitative Study of the Mindfulness Meditation Training for Sport: Division I Female Soccer Players' Experience,
Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology , 8, 3, 221-244

This study explored how members of a Division I varsity women's soccer team experienced a 6-week, 12 session
mindfulness meditation training for sport (MMTS) program. The coaching staff and entire team participated in the
MMTS program. Seven of the team members volunteered to be interviewed after their participation in the MMTS
program. Thematic analysis was implemented. Most participants reported difficulty understanding the process of
meditation at the start of the MMTS program. Post-MMTS, they reported an enhanced ability to accept and experience
a different relationship with their emotions, both on and off the field. They also noted the importance of creating a
phrase of care for self and team for cohesion purposes. Enhanced mindfulness, awareness, and acceptance of
emotional experiences were attributed directly to the mindfulness training. Participants provided specific
recommendations for future sport-focused mindfulness meditation programs.

R. W. Thompson, K. A. Kaufman, L. A. De Petrillo, C. R. Glass and D. B. Arnkoff, 2011

One Year Follow-Up of Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE) With Archers, Golfers, and Runners, Journal of
Clinical Sport Psychology, 5, 2, 99-116

The purpose of the present investigation was to evaluate the long-term effects of mindful sport performance
enhancement (MSPE), a program designed to improve athletic performance and psychological aspects of sport. One-
year follow-up assessments were conducted on archers, golfers, and long-distance runners (N = 25) who attended
Kaufman, Glass, and Arnkoff's (2009) and De Petrillo, Kaufman, Glass, and Arnkoff's (2009) MSPE workshops. Across the
athlete groups, participants reported significant increases in the ability to act with awareness (an aspect of trait
mindfulness) and overall trait mindfulness from pretest to follow-up, along with significant decreases in task-related
worries and task-irrelevant thoughts (both aspects of cognitive interference during sport). The long-distance runners
exhibited significant improvement in their mile times from pretest to follow-up, with significant correlations between
change in runners' performance and trait variables. Results suggest that MSPE is a promising intervention associated
with long-term changes in trait variables that may contribute to optimal athletic performance.

J. J. McCarthy, 2011
Exploring the Relationship Between Goal Achievement Orientation and Mindfulness in Collegiate Athletics , Journal of
Clinical Sport Psychology, 5, 1, 44-57

Nicholls' achievement goal theory suggests that a task-oriented individual sets goals based on a desire to master
particular skills or tasks (Nicholls. 1984. 1989), thus promoting intrinsic motivation (Duda, Chi, Newton, & Walling,
1995). An ego-oriented individual evaluates one,s own performance against the performance of others with
comparable skill sets, basing success on outperlbrming the opponent (Nicholls, 1984, 1989). resulting in low intrinsic
motivation. Cognitive evaluation theory, embraced within self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1991),
suggests that an event that satisfies an inherent need for competence and autonomy leads to increased intrinsic
motivation (Standage. Duda, & Pensgaard, 2005). Similarly, Brown and Ryan (2003) found that trait-mindfulness
predicted more autonomous activity in day-to-day life and lower intensity and frequency of negative affect. It was
therefore hypothesized that in a population of collegiate athletes, a relationship between mindfulness and goal
orientation would exist; athletes higher in task-orientation would be more mindful than athletes higher in ego-
orientation. Results indicate that a relationship does in fact exist between the Acting with Awareness subscale of the
Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills (KIMS; Baer, Smith, & Allen, 2004) and task-orientation, in that as level of
awareness increases, the level of task-orientation also increases. Level of awareness also predicted level of task
orientation in athletes. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.
J. Mahoney and S. J. Hanrahan, 2011
A Brief Educational Intervention Using Acceptance and Commitment Therapy: Four Injured Athletes' Experiences,
Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology , 5, 3, 252-273

The purpose of this study was to research the experiences of four injured athletes during their rehabilitation from ACL
injuries and to examine the potential usefulness of an adapted ACT intervention in addressing individuals' adherence to
rehabilitation protocols and their general psychological well-being. We investigated the usefulness of a brief, 4-session
ACT program adapted for educational purposes and presented data as case studies. The case studies suggested that (a)
the injured athletes experienced a multitude of private events immediately following injury, throughout their recovery,
and when approaching a full return to sport; (b) the injured athletes typically avoided these private events and engaged
in emotion driven behaviors; (c) an adapted ACT approach for educational purposes could be useful on at least a basic
level to help injured athletes accept private events, commit to rehabilitation behaviors, and have some certainty about
returning to sport; and (d) more could be done to address the needs of injured athletes beyond the structure of our 4-
session educational intervention. We concluded that the ACT-based intervention, to a certain extent, educated injured
athletes about how to meet the challenges of their recoveries and how to commit to their rehabilitations, as well as to
exhibit behaviors that would potentially permit their successful reentries to sport.

A. T. Wolanin and L. A. Schwanhausser, 2010

Psychological Functioning as a Moderator of the MAC Approach to Performance Enhancement, Journal of
Clinical Sport Psychology, 4, 4, 312-322

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the impact of subclinical psychological difficulties, as assessed by
the Multilevel Classification System for Sport Psychology (MCS-SP; Gardner & Moore, 2004b, 2006), on the efficacy of
the Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment (MAC; Gardner & Moore, 2004a, 2007) performance enhancement
intervention. Thirteen collegiate field hockey and volleyball athletes participated in a 7-week MAC protocol, and their
results were compared to those of a control group of 7 same-sport athletes. Nonparametric analysis of the data offers
additional support for MAC as a strategy for enhancing the athletic performance of collegiate athletes and suggests the
importance of the accurate assessment of subclinical psychological difficulties to ensure the successful application of
sport psychology interventions. In essence, these results suggest that the presence or absence of subclinical
psychological difficulties may serve as a moderating factor in performance enhancement efforts.

L. Schwanhausser, 2009
Application of the Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment (MAC) Protocol With an Adolescent Springboard Diver,
Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology , 3, 4, 377-395

This study presents the case of Steve, an adolescent competitive springboard diver. This diver, referred by his coach,
received the Mindfulness-Acceptance- Commitment (MAC) approach for performance enhancement. The MAC
protocol, originally written for an adult population, was used in modified form (under consultation from the authors) to
ensure appropriateness for an adolescent population. Conducted in nine individual sessions, the intervention targeted
abilities in attention and value-driven behavior to enhance focus, poise, and overall diving performance. Self-report
measures of mindfulness and flow, along with objective measures of diving performance were collected pre- and
postintervention. Results indicated increases in mindful awareness, mindful attention, experiential acceptance, flow,
and diving performance from pre- to postintervention. This case supports the applicability of the MAC protocol with an
adolescent athlete population.

Z. E. Moore, 2009
Theoretical and Empirical Developments of the Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment (MAC) Approach to Performance
Enhancement, Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 3, 4, 291-302

As long as athletes strive to attain optimal performance states and consistently reach high performance goals,
psychological interventions will be used to assist in the development of skill and the maintenance of performance. In
the pursuit of these goals, newer evidence-driven models based on mindfulness- and acceptance-based approaches
have been designed to achieve these ends. Based upon questionable efficacy data for traditional psychological skills
training procedures that emphasize reduction or control of internal processes, mindfulness- and acceptance-based
approaches develop skills of nonjudging mindful awareness, mindful attention, and experiential acceptance to aid in
the pursuit of valued goals. The most formalized and researched mindfulness- and acceptance-based approach within
sport psychology is the manualized Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment (MAC) protocol. In the 8 years since the MAC
was first developed and presented, and the 5 years since the first publication on the protocol, the MAC program has
accumulated a continually growing empirical base for both its underlying theory and intervention efficacy as a
performance enhancement intervention. This article reviews the empirical and theoretical foundations of the
mindfulness- and acceptance-based approaches in general, and MAC in particular; reviews the accumulated empirical
findings in support of the MAC approach for performance enhancement; and presents recent MAC developments and
suggested future directions.

K. A. Kaufman, C. R. Glass and D. B. Arnkoff 2009

Evaluation of Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE): A New Approach to Promote Flow in Athletes, Journal
of Clinical Sport Psychology, 3, 4, 334-356

The construct of mindfulness appears to be compatible with theories of flow and peak performance in sport. The
present study assessed how Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE), a new 4-week program, affected flow
states, performance, and psychological characteristics of 11 archers and 21 golfers from the community. Participants
completed trait measures of anxiety, perfectionism, thought disruption, confidence, mindfulness, and flow. They
additionally provided data on their performances and state levels of mindfulness and flow. Analyses revealed that some
significant changes in dimensions of the trait variables occurred during the training. Levels of state flow attained by the
athletes also increased between the first and final sessions. The findings suggest that MSPE is a promising intervention
to enhance flow, mindfulness, and aspects of sport confidence. An expanded workshop to allot more time for
mindfulness practice is recommended for future studies.

A. Gooding and F. L. Gardner, 2009

An Investigation of the Relationship Between Mindfulness, Preshot Routine, and Basketball Free Throw
Percentage, Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 3, 4, 303-319

Seventeen (17) members of three NCAA Division I men's basketball teams completed measures of mindfulness and
sport-related anxiety to examine the relationship between mindfulness, preshot routine, trait arousal, and basketball
free throw shooting percentage. It was hypothesized that (a) mindfulness scores would predict game free throw
shooting percentage, (b) practice free throw percentage (indicative of basic skill) would predict game free throw
percentage, and (c) consistency in the length of prefree throw routine would predict game free throw percentage.
Results indicate that levels of mindfulness significantly predict game free throw percentage and that practice free
throw percentage also predicts game free throw percentage. Length and/or consistency of preshot routine were not
predictive. Although not proposed as a hypothesis, a statistically significant relationship was also found between an
athlete's year in school (which reflects competitive basketball experience) and game free throw percentage. Together,
these results clearly suggest that the combination of mindfulness, skill (practice free throw percentage), and
competitive experience (year in school) all contribute to the prediction of competitive free throw percentage and that
these variables are more central to successful free throw percentage at this level of competition than
length/consistency of one's preshot routine.

L. A. De Petrillo, K. A. Kaufman, C. R. Glass and D. B. Arnkoff, 2009

Mindfulness for Long-Distance Runners: An Open Trial Using Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE), Journal
of Clinical Sport Psychology, 3, 4, 357-376

The present study sought to determine the effects of Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE) on runners.
Participants were 25 recreational long-distance runners openly assigned to either the 4-week intervention or to a
waiting-list control group, which later received the same program. Results indicate that the MSPE group showed
significantly more improvement in organizational demands (an aspect of perfectionism) compared with controls.
Analyses of pre- to postworkshop change found a significant increase in state mindfulness and trait awareness and
decreases in sport-related worries, personal standards perfectionism, and parental criticism. No improvements in
actual running performance were found. Regression analyses revealed that higher ratings of expectations and
credibility of the workshop were associated with lower postworkshop perfectionism, more years running predicted
higher ratings of perfectionism, and more life stressors predicted lower levels of worry. Findings suggest that MSPE may
be a useful mental training intervention for improving mindfulness, sport-anxiety related worry, and aspects of
perfectionism in long-distance runners.
M. Bernier, E. Thienot, R. Codron and J. F. Fournier, 2009
Mindfulness and Acceptance Approaches in Sport Performance, Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 3, 4, 320-333

The two studies included herein discuss mindfulness and acceptance in sport performance. Based on exploratory
interviews with elite swimmers, Study 1 showed that optimal performance, or "flow," states reveal similar
characteristics to mindfulness and acceptance states. In flow experiences, the elite swimmers described that they had
been particularly mindful of their bodily sensations and accepted them. In Study 2, mindfulness and acceptance were
integrated into a psychological skills training program for seven young elite golfers. The program, based on mindfulness
and acceptance, contributed to performance enhancement in competition. Participants improved the efficacy of their
routines by seeking more relevant internal and external information. The results of both studies corroborated those of
previous studies dealing with mindfulness and acceptance in sport. Together, these studies enhance the applicability
and efficacy of these approaches with athletic clientele.