Taking A Long Term Approach To The Development Of.8

Taking A Long-Term
Approach to the
Development of
Weightlifting Ability in
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Young Athletes
Stephanie J. Morris, MSc, CSCS,1 Jon L. Oliver, PhD,1,2 Jason S. Pedley, PhD,1 G. Gregory Haff, PhD, CSCS*D,3,4
and Rhodri S. Lloyd, PhD, CSCS*D1,2,5
1
Youth Physical Development Centre, Cardiff School of Sport and Health Sciences, Cardiff Metropolitan University,
Cardiff, United Kingdom; 2Sport Performance Research Institute, New Zealand (SPRINZ), AUT University, Auckland,
New Zealand; 3School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Western Australia, Australia;
4
Directorate of Psychology and Sport, University of Salford, Salford, United Kingdom; and 5Centre for Sport Science
and Human Performance, Waikato Institute of Technology, Hamilton, New Zealand
ABSTRACT have 3 attempts to lift the maximum force and rate of force development
amount of weight in both lifts; with for weightlifting performance.
Despite previous misconceptions,
athletes placing within their respec-
youth participation in weightlifting is
tive bodyweight class as determined THE TRANSFERENCE OF
now recognized as safe and beneficial WEIGHTLIFTING
by the sum of the highest completed
when delivered, programed, and mon- lift for both movements. Some of the Although the superior power output
itored by a qualified professional. This highest absolute and relative peak of weightlifters may be related to
article explores teaching progressions power outputs reported in the liter- sport-selection factors, it is also
to help coaches periodize weightlifting ature have been achieved in the likely to be the result of long-term
training for young or novice athletes, weightlifting movements, with adaptations to the type of training
with consideration to the theoretical national lifters producing a relative programs that they are exposed to
concepts underpinning long-term ath- peak power output of 55.8 Watts/ (51,53,68). Considering the high
letic development. It is hoped that the kg (6981 W/125 kg) during the strength and power expression dur-
structured and progressive guidelines second pull of the clean (54). Power ing the competitive weightlifting
outputs for athletes of similar body- movements (51,53,70), weightlifting
presented in the current article will
weights have been found to be 2 to 3 training methods are commonly used
help coaches develop the weightlifting
times higher in the weightlifting to develop and improve physical
performance of their young athletes in
movements than in squats and qualities required in many sports
a safe and effective manner.
deadlifts (55). Maximum strength, (59,64,67,71). Such benefits are espe-
identified as squat one repetition cially transferable to explosive move-
INTRODUCTION
maximum (1RM), and peak power ments such as sprinting and jumping
eightlifting is a sport where (21). Furthermore, performance of
W the snatch and the clean

and jerk are contested. In
weightlifting competitions, athletes
output derived from vertical jumping
have been found to strongly corre-
late with weightlifting performance
among national-level male and
KEY WORDS:
snatch; clean and jerk; motor learning;
Address correspondence to Stephanie J. female lifters (21). Such findings
resistance training; novice
Morris, stmoris@cardiffmet.ac.uk. highlight the importance of maximal
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Long-Term Development of Weightlifting
the snatch, clean and jerk, and deriv- training mode-specific (35,36) mod- Replacing half of the training time with
ative lifts (i.e., clean and snatch els, there is little published material weightlifting exercises resulted in similar
shrug, clean and snatch pull from regarding how to approach the long- gains in athletic performance, but also
various positions, power clean and term development of weightlifting enabled the young athletes to acquire
snatch, and push jerk) typically use ability from a young age. highly transferable weightlifting move-
moderate to high external loads, Childhood represents the developmen- ment skills (105). Childhood may be the
with minimal to no deceleration in tal period of life from the end of infancy best time to introduce young athletes to
the propulsion phase of the move- to the beginning of adolescence, refer- weightlifting-based training because
ments (52,68). In contrast to typical ring generally to children up to the age neuroplasticity is high, making it the
resistance training exercises, the bal- of 11 and 13 years in girls and boys, ideal time to learn and refine motor
listic nature of these movements is respectively (83,91). The term adoles- control strategies that may induce adap-
advantageous to strength-speed cence refers to a period of life between tations beneficial to performance and
adaptations, which are beneficial for childhood and adulthood, when sec- later assist in the acquisition of more
all sports hence its popularity as a ondary sex characteristics are devel- complex movement skills (33,57,96).
training method; for example, 95% oped. Although adolescence is a Although weightlifting exercises and
of National Basketball Association more difficult period to define in terms their derivatives have shown to posi-
(118), 88% of National Football of chronological age due to differential tively influence a number of key perfor-
League (38), and 100% of National maturation rates, girls 12–18 years and mance variables (59,64,67,71), some
Hockey League (39) strength and boys 14–18 years are generally consid- coaches are still reluctant to introduce
conditioning coaches reported using ered adolescents (83). The period of novice athletes to weightlifting-based
weightlifting as part of training. In childhood seems to be the optimal training methods, often suggesting that
addition to the development of time to develop coordination and teaching weightlifting movements is
force-generating capacities, the high movement competency because neu- overly time-consuming due to the tech-
skill complexity required for the romuscular adaptation is heightened nical demands of the lifts (65). Contrast-
weightlifting exercises also facilitates due to greater levels of neural plasticity ingly, technique improvements from a
improvements in motor control, in the developing brain (22). Based short-term weightlifting intervention
improving coordination of activation upon previous meta-analytical data, have been found in athletes naive to
of muscle groups and motor units prepubertal and early-pubertal youth weightlifting, after performing 2 training
(45,61). These adaptations have the can achieve approximately 50% greater sessions per week for 4-weeks (64,71).
potential to also aid in the develop- training-induced gains in motor skills Furthermore, many coaches may use
ment of more complex sports in response to resistance training inter-
movements, which is why the inclu- loaded jumps as an alternative to weight-
ventions compared to adolescents (11). lifting exercises due to the comparably
sion of weightlifting in long-term More recently, research has identified
athletic development (LTAD) pro- lower skill demand but similar effective-
that less mature athletes may have an ness for improving explosive perfor-
grams could also benefit coaches in increased sensitivity to adaptations in
other sports who adopt weightlifting mance (104). Importantly, however,
motor control after neuromuscular loaded jump training does not elicit com-
as a training mode for their ath-
training (34). Cumulatively, these find- parable adaptations in an athlete’s eccen-
letes. At the present time, long-
ings indicate that athletes should ide- tric strength and ability to rapidly accept
term approaches to athlete physical
ally be introduced to weightlifting- force, as developed from the catch
development seem especially impor-
based training methods during child- phases of the weightlifting movements
tant, given the declining levels of
hood, before the adolescent growth (27,29). Although the context of each
muscular strength and overall habit-
spurt, learning the weightlifting move- athletic development program is unique
ual physical activity in young indi-
ments while neuroplasticity is at its to the environment and personnel within
viduals (113).
highest. that environment, a common goal of
INTRODUCING WEIGHTLIFTING Performance improvements have been LTAD is to promote habitual improve-
TO YOUNG AND NOVICE found in young athletes, representing ments in athleticism over time to
ATHLETES both children and adolescents (83), after improve performance, reduce injury risk,
Achieving weightlifting expertise short-term weightlifting interventions and enhance health and wellbeing (41).
requires a systematic approach to (23,64,105). Improvements in perfor- Short-term investment in technical
develop both the skills and strength mance were similar when comparing development of weightlifting move-
to complete complex lifts under the effect of resistance training, or a ments, with ongoing technical refine-
heavy loads. Although general mod- combined resistance and weightlifting ment and weightlifting training, will
els of LTAD exist (6,49,87) together programs for young athletes, equally pay dividends later in a young athlete’s
with sport-specific (15,19,86) and matched in training dose (105). career; therefore, qualified practitioners
72 VOLUME 42 | NUMBER 6 | DECEMBER 2020

should be encouraged to integrate rele- evidence to suggest weightlifting may TEACHING WEIGHTLIFTING
vant weightlifting training methods into also elicit positive adaptations in MOVEMENTS: KEY PHASES
their programs. bones, ligaments, and tendons along To develop weightlifting technical com-
with improved movement compe- petency, phases of each lift need to be
When individuals are at an age at
tency and strength that are beneficial identified to make learning these com-
which they can follow coaching
for reducing injury risk (60,86,100). plex, multijoint movements easier.
instructions and handle the attention
However, poor technique during the Breaking the full lifts down into key
demands of a training program (99),
lifts could lead to athletes being phases, referred to as movement “chunk-
weightlifting techniques should be a
exposed to undesirable and potentially ing,” may also help coaches to identify-
focus of early interventions, to acquire
dangerous positions under load, ing movement errors, allowing training
competent technical skill in the early
increasing the risk of injury. Even with prescription to be more specific in tar-
stages of development (2). Lifting max-
low resistance, if the athlete is allowed geting individual deficiencies. Based
imal loads should not be a training goal
to perform weightlifting movements upon the theory of “chunking,” youth
as the athlete develops weightlifting lit-
with poor technique, then the risk of and novice athletes can work on these
eracy. Errors in technique may become
injury will be amplified as resistance is components in isolation, but then string
engrained, making attempts to modify
increased. This notion underlines the the individual exercises together to cre-
technique at later stages more chal-
importance of qualified professionals ate a sequenced movement pattern (60).
lenging, if not impossible; given that
being responsible for the design, im- Breaking the movement down into key
performance may temporarily deterio-
plementation, and coaching of phases can also be beneficial for devis-
rate when the athlete changes tech-
weightlifting movements to young ing fun, competitive games to create an
nique, this correction can be
athletes (82,83,88). enjoyable environment and maintain
frustrating for the athlete and coach,
athlete interest; for example, athletes
with the potential to limit future devel- To ensure proper technique is estab-
could race a partner to drop into the
opment (92). From a training perspec- lished in the early stages of develop-
catch position on a command. Table 1
tive, if an athlete acquires a sound and ment, coaches should follow
identifies the key phases in the clean
robust technique at an early stage, appropriate coaching progressions to
and jerk and snatch.
there will be more opportunities to help implement a structured and sys-
use progressive overload stimuli (e.g., tematic approach that progresses logi-
cally based on technical competency, LONG-TERM DEVELOPMENT OF
heavier loads) to target intended train-
WEIGHTLIFTING PERFORMANCE
ing effects, such as strength-speed to ensure athletes can learn the move-
Given the lack of available literature on
capacity (128). In addition, technique ments in a timely, yet effective, man-
coaching weightlifting movements to
when performing the weightlifting ner. Consideration of training focus,
young athletes, the present review
movements may affect training adapta- exercise selection, and training pre-
introduces a progression scheme that
tions. Movement positioning and tim- scription for LTAD may help coaches
is aimed at promoting a systematic
ing, or “lifting technique,” can influence to periodize training in a more sequen-
long-term approach (Figure 1). The
an athlete’s ability to produce force, tial and progressive manor to facilitate progression scheme offers a compre-
especially relevant in weightlifting, the development of optimal technique hensive approach to the developmen-
given the importance of the magnitude and overall wellness as well as reduc- tal stages for weightlifting training,
and temporal sequencing of force pro- ing injury risk (73). Therefore, the pur- from beginner to advanced, identifying
duction and absorption in successful pose of this article is to present an the training focus and coaching consid-
lifts (40,52,89,101). Poor technique LTAD model for the development of erations at each stage. For optimal skill
therefore has the potential to impair weightlifting ability. The progression acquisition, performance and injury
force production and subsequent scheme in this article presents guide- prevention, training at all stages should
improvements in motor control, coor- lines applicable for all athletes, includ- consider the simultaneous develop-
dination, muscle activation, and motor ing those not yet involved in ment of movement skills (i.e., compe-
unit recruitment (45,61). competitive sport. The model may be tency, autonomy, and refinement) and
Correct technique could also reduce applicable to young athletes participat- physical capacities (i.e., motor control
injury risk, with poor technique often ing in weightlifting as a sport, however, and bodyweight management, basic
referenced as an extrinsic risk factor importantly does not advocate early strength, maximum strength, and
associated with injury (73,76). Despite specialization and would encourage explosive strength); the prescription
previous concerns around the injury young athletes to engage in a variety and exercise selection should then be
risk of weightlifting and misconcep- of sports concurrent to the develop- manipulated accordingly. It is impor-
tions that weightlifting is unsafe, ment of weightlifting competency to tant to note that the progression stages
research has shown weightlifting to the effect that total training load across are specific to each segment, and some
be a low risk sport in both youth all activities should be monitored and athletes will move through the pro-
and adult populations (1,17,100), with training objectives aligned. gressions within the segment at
73
Table 1
Phases of the clean and jerk and snatch
Phase Clean and jerk Snatch

1st pull From lifting the barbell off the floor to a position in From lifting the barbell off the floor to a position in
which the barbell is immediately at the patella which the barbell is immediately at the patella
Transition From a position in which the barbell is immediately at From a position in which the barbell is immediately at
the patella to a position in which the barbell is the patella to a position in which the barbell is
positioned midthigh positioned at the upper thigh
2nd Pull From a position in which the barbell is positioned at From a position in which the barbell is positioned at
the midthigh, the athlete should extend at the the upper thigh, the athlete should extend at the
hips, knees, and ankles moving the bar to a hips, knees, and ankles moving the bar to a
position of maximal barbell height position of maximal barbell height
Catch From a position of maximal barbell height to a From a position of maximal barbell height to a
position in which the bar is caught resting on the position in which the bar is caught above head in
anterior deltoids, in a front-squat position an overhead-squat position
Recovery From a position in which the bar is caught resting on From a position in which the bar is caught above
the anterior deltoids to a standing position with head in an overhead-squat position to a standing
the bar remaining in a front-rack position position with the bar remaining above head.
Dip From standing, with the bar in a front-rack position to

a quarter-squat position with the bar remaining in
a front-rack position
Drive From a quarter-squat position with the bar remaining

in a front-rack position to a position of maximal
barbell height, with the athlete extending at the
hips, knees, and ankles
Catch From a position of maximal barbell height to a

position in which the bar is caught above head in a
split-stance position
Recovery From a position in which the bar is caught above

head in a split-stance position to a standing
position with the bar remaining above head.

The prepubertal stage of maturation is
typically indicative of higher neural
plasticity (87), suggesting a heightened
sensitivity to motor control and coor-
dination training. Therefore, athletes
should ideally be introduced to weight-
lifting development during childhood.
Although stage of maturation should
be considered, more importantly tech-
nical competency should dictate where
on the progression scheme an athlete is
introduced. For an ideal scenario in
which the athlete begins their weight-
lifting development in early childhood,
the outside circle in the progression
scheme is representative of the training
at this stage (Figure 1). Likewise, the
process can be mirrored for older, less
experienced youth athletes. For exam-
ple, in situations where an athlete is
first introduced to weightlifting during
late adolescence, irrespective of matu-
rity status, the athlete should start in
Figure 1. Long-term development of weightlifting performance progression scheme the outside circle of the progression
(BW 5 bodyweight). Novice athletes are introduced at the outside circle of scheme on the weightlifting skill devel-
the model, and training progresses inward in all directions; progressing
opment segment, progressing inward
from the beginner stage, to novice, intermediate, and advanced stages
indicative of a reduced color depth. Progression through each segment on this segment at a rate dependent
should be based on individual ability, with progression rates unlikely to be on their technical competency.
uniform across all segments. Exercise selection and training prescrip-
tion may be dictated by weightlifting
competency; during the early stages of
different rates. Progression through and sport-specific skills (87). Likewise,
LTAD, exercises should be selected pre-
each segment should be based on indi- although this review focuses primarily
dominantly to help the athlete correctly
vidual ability, with progression rates on the importance of physical develop-
unlikely to be uniform across all seg- perform the movement skills. For exam-
ment, the emotional and psychosocial
ments. For example, training for an ath- aspects of LTAD should not be ple, training for the beginner is likely to
lete who has good levels of basic overlooked. include predominantly AMSC, to
strength and movement competency develop a foundation upon which to
Moving from the outer to inner circles,
in the athletic motor skill competencies build more sport-specific skills, with a
the 4 circles indicate the different
(AMSC) (defined as the foundational higher repetition volume but lower
stages of development, progressing
movements that underpin all athletic intensity, repetition velocity, and training
from beginner, to novice, intermediate,
movements (108)), but has had no pre- frequency. Once the athlete has
and advanced. For example, training for
vious weightlifting exposure should achieved competency, exercise selection
prioritize weightlifting technical devel- an athlete with no prior weightlifting or
resistance training experience should and training prescription may be dic-
opment alongside training to improve tated by technical errors but also the
maximal strength. Although the pre- start in alignment with the outside cir-
cle of the progression scheme and pro- training adaptation required to address
sent review offers only an approach
gress inward. As shown, training at all physical deficiencies. Importantly, just
to the long-term development of
stages should consider the develop- because an athlete has progressed
weightlifting abilities, the importance
of a holistic approach to LTAD should ment of movement skill and physical inward on a segment does not mean
not be negated, and additional explor- capacities. For example, training for a that the previous quality will not be
atory play, training, and sports partici- beginner across all segments should included within their training; rather it
pation should be implemented prioritize the development of move- becomes less of a key focus within the
concurrently to develop additional ment competency while synonymously training program. For example, athletes
physical qualities such as speed, agility, improving motor control and body- will still need to maintain maximum
endurance, metabolic conditioning, weight management. strength capacities even when the
75
Figure 2. Clean, jerk, and snatch, and exercise progressions (RDL 5 Romanian deadlift; BHN 5 behind neck; OH 5 overhead; CMJ 5
countermovement jump; BW 5 bodyweight; SG 5 snatch grip). Exercises are ordered by increasing movement com-
plexity and increasing technical specificity from the bottom of the pyramid working upward as indicated by increased
color depth; progressing upward from AMSC, to foundation strength, weightlifting derivatives level 1, weightlifting
derivatives level 2, and full lifts.
priority has shifted to the development overhead squat, and press in the split (88). Hip hinging, squatting, and jump-
of explosive strength. position) should be achieved. Exercises ing are all key movement phases in the
A “top down” approach for teaching the progress upward from AMSC, to foun- weightlifting movements themselves,
weightlifting movements is frequently dation strength exercises that serve as with the hang positions necessitating
recommended in coaching guidelines foundations for the increasingly more a Romanian deadlift (RDL) movement,
(35,36,86). In this approach, the distinct specific weightlifting movements, to the triple extension movement in the
phases in the clean and snatch (Table 1) then weightlifting derivatives level 1, second pull mimicking the explosive
are taught in reverse order to their per- weightlifting derivatives level 2, and full hip and knee joint extension required
formance in the whole movements; first lifts. for a jump, and the squat position being
teaching the catch position, then hang the movement required for the catch
derivatives inclusive of the transition TRAINING FOCUS position in the clean and snatch move-
and second pull, first pull, and then ments. Hence, these AMSC should be
BEGINNER
the whole movement, with the athlete deemed as essential prerequisites to
often learning multiple exercises con- As a prerequisite to training, athletes performance of the clean and snatch
currently at each stage. This approach must demonstrate the ability to follow movements. Likewise, the athlete
is logical and safe, ensuring athletes can coaching instructions and handle the should develop movement compe-
perform the overhead squat, for exam- attention demands of a training pro- tency in lower-body unilateral exer-
ple, before expecting them to perform a gram, which typically occurs around cises such as the split squat, with the
hang snatch in which they have to catch the age of 7 or 8 years (99). Before movement replicating similar positions
the bar in the overhead squat position. learning the weightlifting movements to those required in the split jerk
In addition, the top down approach is in or attempting to perform any of the movement.
alignment with the motor learning con- movements and their associated deriv- The catch phases of the weightlifting
cept known as reverse or backward atives, a young and/or inexperienced movements demand high force
chaining (24), demonstrated to be an athlete must also demonstrate their abil- absorption in a short duration of time
effective method for teaching motor ity to perform simpler, prerequisite (29), requiring high levels of eccentric
skills (37,117). Based on this approach, movements. The focus in the beginner strength. In accordance with plyomet-
Figure 2 presents a progression pyramid stage should therefore be the develop- ric progression models, exercise selec-
to aid in the learning of full snatch and ment of AMSC (87,88), the foundation tion should progress from lower to
clean and jerk movements. To ensure a level of the progression pyramid (Fig- higher eccentric loads (84). Therefore,
time-efficient approach to skill acquisi- ure 2), to establish underpinning quali- in the foundation stages, it is important
tion, the exercises follow the top down ties from which specific weightlifting to develop sufficient strength during
approach but also order exercises by technical competency can be devel- body management tasks such as the
increasing movement complexity, from oped. Such an approach aims to avoid AMSC before progressing into the
the bottom of the pyramid working any motor proficiency barriers manifest- weightlifting movements. The correct
upward. The coach must ensure the ing as the exercise complexity increases. landing mechanics, which will be mim-
athlete is competent in the AMSC first; Bilateral lower-body movements, and icked in the catch position of the
from here, competence in the weightlift- jumping and rebounding movements snatch and clean and jerk, should first
ing catch positions (front squat, are identified categories of AMSC be learned in low eccentric load

conditions, such as a jump to box, to animal shape games before more struc- existing evidence on the benefits and
prioritize the correct positions, pro- tured countermovement jump and safety of youth resistance training and
gressing then onto higher eccentrically drop land exercises to reinforce takeoff weightlifting. Similarly, poster hand-
demanding movements such as a coun- and landing mechanics (85). The outs or information sheets, which
termovement jump and box drop land- importance of fun practices to keep should present evidence on the benefits
ings thereafter (84). From here, the athletes challenged and engaged for and safety of youth resistance training
athlete has learned the rudimentary the long term should not be underesti- in an easily digestible format using
skills to progress onto more weightlift- mated. Therefore, the athlete may also nontechnical language and visuals,
ing specific movements learned at the be exposed to fun-based competitions and open coaching sessions in which
novice stage, such as barbell jump and playground-based games that parents can come and watch the
shrugs or pulls. incorporate the AMSC, such as obsta- coaching sessions, demonstrating
The overhead demands of the catch cles courses or “tag.” These games- coaching transparency are viable
position for both the snatch and jerk based activities may provide an ele- means of education.
ment of social interaction, important
should also be considered during this
in the athlete’s developmental years
stage. Before any vertical pressing NOVICE
(119). In addition, the element of com-
movements, horizontal pressing move- Once the athlete is proficient at per-
petition has the potential to increase
ments (e.g., press up) should first be athlete enjoyment, effort, and perfor- forming the prerequisite movements,
mastered to teach the athlete correct mance (30). Introducing competition they will need to progress into move-
scapulohumeral rhythm and core brac- in this subtle manner early in the ath- ment skills that more closely resemble
ing, while also developing upper-body lete’s development may help to reduce the weightlifting movements. The
strength. These are key physical qual- the prevalence of larger competition early stages of learning weightlifting
ities that are needed when pressing a pressures that occur later in their devel- techniques are likely to present char-
opment eliciting distress and being per- acteristics representative of the cog-
bar overhead, whereas the incorpora-
ceived as threatening (50). The nitive stage of motor learning (47),
tion of pulling movements in the hor-
prepubertal stage of maturation is typ- with a high movement variability
izontal position ensures an agonist-
ically indicative of lower strength and and large, but often inconsistent,
antagonist balance. improvements in performance. Dur-
power expressions but higher mobility
Importantly, these movements need and neural plasticity (87). Ideally, chil- ing this stage, the athlete is trying to
not be regarded as the starting point dren should therefore enter an LTAD process information in an attempt to
for any athlete, with regressions and program at this stage of maturation to cognitively understand the require-
progressions being available for all take advantage of the naturally occur- ments and parameters of the new
the movements (108). Before teaching ring adaptations, with an aim of learn- movement task (47).
the bodyweight squat, for example, the ing and engraining underpinning The degrees of freedom concept in motor
coach may first ensure the athlete is movement skills over a full range of learning suggests that there are multi-
competent at performing an assisted movement, concurrent to adaptations ple ways in which muscles, joints, and
squat, in which the athlete can use in motor control and strength. Despite limb segments may vary in position
external assistance (e.g., resistance compelling evidence advocating resis- and movement to achieve the same
band) to reduce the load and better tance training as safe and effective in goal (12). Expanding on this concept,
find a balanced position throughout youth populations (41,83), many par- Newell’s dynamic systems theory pro-
the movement. Likewise, before teach- ents, sports coaches, and health care poses that movement is produced from
ing the press up, the coach may first professionals may still believe the mis- the interaction of multiple subsystems
ensure the athlete can perform an iso- conception that youth resistance train- within the person, task, and environ-
metric press up hold to build positional ing is unsafe and harmful. As a result, ment, and motor system degrees of
awareness and strength in the end posi- the qualified professional coaching the freedom can reorganize over time in
tion of the movement, progressing to a training program may need to imple- the long-term development of a move-
hands-raised press up, which has a ment strategies to dispel such myths ment skill (102). Dynamic systems the-
lower intensity than the full press up. and adopt a proactive approach to help ory suggests that during this early stage
The athlete may first learn the AMSC parents and professionals understand of learning, the athlete is creating a
through less structured, more explor- the importance of this type of training coordinative structure; the subsystems
atory training using “animal or super- early in life to optimize adaptations. come together and interact in a specific
hero shapes,” before progressing on to Such strategies could include parents’ way to produce the most efficient, task-
more structured versions of these evenings, which will give parents and specific, movement solution that would
movements with increased load. For sports coaches an opportunity to ask not be not obtainable by any of the
example, learning to “jump and land questions about the training and allow subsystems alone. The appropriate rel-
on lily pads as a frog” in exploratory the coach to present and explain ative motions among relevant muscles,
77
joints, and limb segments are assembled snatch from a midthigh or upper- although Figure 2 presents a plethora
to satisfy the task constraints (102). thigh position, respectively, allows of exercises that may be used to pro-
As such, the use of weightlifting deriv- the technique to be simplified while gressively teach the weightlifting
atives or movement “chunking,” rather still taking advantage of the adapta- movements, it is likely the best coach-
than the full lifts that demand whole tions that can be gained from the sec- ing approaches will not include all
body coordination, may be beneficial at ond pull phase (65). Specifically, the these exercises. For example, similari-
this early stage of movement acquisi- barbell jump shrug exercise has been ties in kinetics and kinematics in the
tion to simplify the task and reduce shown to elicit timely training hang clean exercise in comparison to
information load (13). At this stage, improvements in power, encouraging the clean (28) may suggest a close
learning the exercises from the founda- the athlete to achieve full extension in resemblance in perceptual information
tion strength level on the progression the second pull movement by a between the movements, implying in
pyramid should be prioritized (Fig- using familiar jump exercise, while this instance that the deconstructed
ure 2). Teaching the positions relevant teaching a low-complexity weightlift- skill is similar to the full lift. Many of
to the catch phases of the lifts should ing movement (27,121,122). the weightlifting derivatives and varia-
be the priority, learning the front squat Although the jump shrug is a good tions consist of the key phases of the
and the overhead pressing positions developmental exercise, it should be weightlifting movements, with the
relevant to the jerk and snatch catch used with caution because it has the hang clean, for example, comprising
positions. When considering exercise potential to result in an overexagger- the transition, second pull, and catch
selection and intensity, selecting an ated jumping motion, which can phases (Table 1). Importantly, to pre-
exercise with the optimal level of cause issues for the youth athlete vent excessive deconstruction, the
movement challenge and load should when they transition into weightlift- coach must consider whether the exer-
be carefully considered by a coach, as a ing movements that require the ath- cise is a task simplification; in which
difficulty level that is too high or too lete to catch the bar in a fixed position different components of the complex
low could affect athlete motivation, overhead or on the anterior deltoid. coordination patterns are learned in
enjoyment, and performance (20). A viable alternative to using the jump tandem, allowing information and
The coach may prefer to first teach shrug is to use the pull from the mid movements to remain coupled
the overhead movements from a to upper thigh because it requires the throughout (111), or whether learning
behind the neck position, before pro- young athlete to maintain better pos- the new movement may teach perfor-
gressing to in front to reduce potential tural control while working to create mance of abstract movements only
issues related to the barbell being close an effective knee and hip extension, partially relevant to the key phases
to the face of the young athlete who is which leads into a shrugging motion. in the full lift (62). The later move-
learning weightlifting-based move- From a progression perspective, it ments may be used as corrective exer-
ments, promote a better overhead posi- may be useful to first start with the cises to address athletes’ weaknesses;
tion, and reduce anterior-posterior pulling motions and only use the however, they may be less appropriate
postural sway (60). A wooden dowel jump shrug with athletes who are when the primary aim is to ensure
or PVC piping may first be used instead unable demonstrate an appropriate movements transfer to the full lifts.
of a barbell. The lighter load of the triple extension when progressing Therefore, coaches may choose to
PVC pipe will allow the athlete to prac- from the pull into a weightlifting use abstract movement in a training
tice and establish the correct tech- movement that requires the barbell program alongside task simplified
niques, with a lower injury risk if the to be caught overhead or on the ante- movements to develop transferable
athlete was to demonstrate poor tech- rior deltoid. weightlifting movement skills. For
nique. Once technical competency has This approach limits the movement example, jump shrug exercises may
been demonstrated, they may progress solutions available to the athlete, be used in conjunction with cleans
to a light barbell (5–10 kg) and then to removing the contribution from multi- from the knee.
an appropriate weightlifting bar (males ple joint segments, helping them to In an ideal scenario where the athlete
20 kg and females 15 kg). best identify a more optimal move- begins their training during childhood,
Given the high-power outputs and ment solution (12,124). However, de- the athlete is likely to be in the circum-
key contribution of the second pull constructing full movements into pubertal stage of maturation when
phase in the weightlifting move- smaller phases for skill acquisition has they reach the novice stage of the pro-
ments (21,27,51,69,121), but low been suggested to lead to the perfor- gression scheme. The circumpubertal
movement complexity, teaching the mance of abstract movements only stage of maturation is indicative of a
“pulling” element of the movement partially relevant to the end skill (62). period of “adolescent awkwardness”
skill concurrent to the more challeng- The coach should ensure the weight- with potential breakdowns in motor
ing catch positions may be advanta- lifting movements are not decon- coordination as a consequence of
geous (90). Introducing the clean and structed too excessively; therefore, learning to use longer limbs (86).

Research has found that 76% of girls muscle strength required to catch the achieve the desired performance out-
and 90% of boys who experience this bar under high load as required in the come and increase the reliability of
growth spurt show a clear impairment weightlifting movements. The athlete technical execution in the weightlifting
of coordination (66). A decrease in will first be challenged to find and hold movements.
sport-specific performance as a result the correct front squat position, and At this stage, exercises from the
of the growth spurt is found to be more once competent, will be challenged weightlifting derivatives level 1 up to
prevalent in movements that demand to repeat the squat movement under the full lifts on the progression pyra-
higher coordination, with research progressively increasing loads. This mid may be learned (Figure 2). Some
showing a higher performance regres- developmental approach will also help coaching bodies (e.g., UKSCA) may
sion evident in a somersault movement to highlight if the athlete has any weak- advocate specifically teaching and seg-
compared to a headstand (66). Should nesses or muscle imbalances, which mentally practicing the transition
an athlete demonstrate impaired coor- should be appropriately addressed with phase, often referred to as the double
dination at this stage of development, a supplementary corrective exercises. knee bend; however, others have ques-
coach should consider primarily pre- To gain exposure to the tactics rele- tioned whether it is necessary, with
scribing the weightlifting derivatives, vant to the competition of weightlift- research to suggest this may need not
which have a reduced complexity in ing, the athlete may gain competition be specifically taught providing the
comparison to the full movements experience at this stage. Importantly, appropriate teaching progressions are
and typically require a reduction in however, the rush to compete should mastered (56,107). Irrespective of
load. The circumpubertal growth spurt not compromise the athlete’s long- coach preference, ensuring the athlete
may also be accompanied by a reduc- term development of athleticism and can transition effectively and perform
tion in mobility (86). When reinforcing strength. Therefore, for novice athletes the second pull phases are of key
movement technique, practitioners of any age wishing to compete in importance at this stage. The exercises
should therefore ensure athletes con- weightlifting competitions, scoring or may therefore now include lifts per-
tinue to use a full range of movement athlete placing should be focused formed from the hang position, a posi-
and may consider supplementing train- solely on technical competency in the tion representative of the end of the
ing with additional mobility exercises weightlifting movements or learned first pull and start of the transition
to address any limitations. derivatives. Such an approach is sup- (Table 1). Strength in this motion will
To ensure the investment in time con- ported by modified rules for youth have been developed before this
tinues to elicit improvements in perfor- lifters in weightlifting competitions, through the use of RDLs, which may
mance, there is the need for with technical proficiency and not load now be incorporated into movement
integration of skill and physical capac- lifted, being the emphasis until the age sequences, such as an RDL coupled
ity development, rather than consider- of 13 years (78). Similarly, in instances with a shrug (i.e., pull from the knee).
ing the 2 as separate entities. Such an where the athlete is a novice in the The hang shrug movement or pulls
approach also helps to ensure the pre- weightlifting movements, yet older from hang may also be introduced at
requisite movements for more com- than 13 years of age, coaches should this stage, teaching the athlete both the
plex movement tasks are achieved in consider including informal competi- transition and second pull phases of the
tions within the training program, weightlifting movements. Relevant to
an efficient training order and a de-
where athletes are scored on technical the snatch, the drop snatch or snatch
layed training adaptation in weaker,
proficiency. Coaches should insist this balance movements may be taught at
inexperienced athletes is prevented
type of competition is performed this stage, which encourage the athlete
(64). Therefore, concurrent to the
before allowing them to enter compe- to rapidly drop under the barbell to
focus of weightlifting technique devel-
titions in which they are scored by load catch the bar overhead. This ability is
opment during the novice stage, train-
lifted and prematurely demanded to lift important for the snatch lift, given that
ing focus should also be given to the
higher loads. research has shown that skilled lifters
development of basic strength. To con-
tinue progressively developing strength demonstrate a decreased barbell height
qualities, supplementary resistance INTERMEDIATE in the catch position in comparison to
training progressing from bodyweight During this stage of motor learning, lesser skilled lifters (58), indicative of
to movements with external load the athlete works to control or vary dropping under the bar rather than
should be used. For example, to the parameters of the basic coordina- pulling the barbell to a higher height,
develop bilateral strength develop- tive structure, enhancing the flexibility irrespective of barbell load.
ment, initial prescription could involve of their weightlifting movement skills As the athlete progresses and exercises
a bodyweight squat with training (102). The training focus at this stage is increase in movement complexity and
dowel, before advancing to a barbell therefore technical autonomy, which eccentric demand, the catch phases of
front or back squat, with the ultimate aims to promote an enhanced ability the lift may be added to the transition
goal of developing the underpinning to manipulate movement strategies to and second pull phases of the
79
weightlifting movements. As such, the In instances where the athlete started (102). Technique errors are likely to be
hang clean and hang snatch may be their development during childhood, more consistent, not to be mistaken
performed, in which the athlete starts they are likely to be in the postpuber- with high movement variability that is
the movement from a position with tal stage of maturation. The postpu- present during the early stages of motor
the bar above the knee and finishes bertal stage of maturation is learning (7,8). Technical errors pre-
in the catch position. Coaches may associated with altered sex hormone sented in training are likely to be only
prefer to teach the hang power snatch concentrations, leading to natural at the heaviest loads and are less likely
and hang power clean variations of the increases in muscle mass and force- to be a result of limitations in skill mas-
lift first. From here, coaches are likely producing capabilities (49,109). In tery, but rather limitations in force
to progress then onto power clean and accordance with the focus of strength expression and absorption.
front squat or power snatch and over- development, it is suggested that to At this stage, the athlete should be
head squat in sequence, to develop further develop athletic potential in competent at performing the exercises
awareness and strength in the catch adolescents, greater external loads on all tiers of the progression pyramid,
positions. The use of combination lifts (e.g., $ 80% of 1RM) should be intro- inclusive of full lifts (Figure 2). The
such as these have been classically duced to provide a progressively coach may select exercise derivatives,
used as tools for developing the key overloading stimulus and take advan- rather than just performing the full lifts,
tage of the naturally occurring phys- to specifically target errors to improve
movement patterns associated with
iological adaptations. In addition, technical performance. Hence, the pro-
the clean and snatch.
adolescents may be experiencing gression pyramid (Figure 2) should be
Once the athlete is able to perform improved proprioceptive senses at
all the derivative movements with viewed in such a way that the athlete is
this stage (87), allowing them to bet-
not restricted to only exercises listed
correct technique, they can then pro- ter adapt to the increased complexity
for their current stage and may perform
ceed to attempting to perform the of the full movements.
exercises in the tiers below to target
full lifts; the clean, jerk, and snatch.
In the interest of continuing the pro- specific technical errors or address
The increased degrees of freedom in
gression in competition exposure, the physical deficiencies. During the
these exercises are indicative of pro-
athlete may look to gain weightlifting snatch for example, skilled lifters dem-
gression, demanding the athlete to competition experience at this stage. onstrate a decreased barbell height in
reorganize around a new movement Given that the athlete is still refining comparison to lesser skilled lifters (58),
solution (112). After this increased their performance of the weightlifting suggesting the importance of speed
movement complexity, heightened movements, the goal at this stage may when dropping under the barbell into
movement variability may be ex- be to achieve 3 valid attempts for both the catch position. Therefore, the
pected at first, indicative of instability the clean and jerk and snatch, rather snatch balance movement may be used
in the movement behavior (110). Var- than aiming to achieve the highest to increase athletes’ speed under the
iability may increase until a specific weight for each lift. To increase athlete bar and thus minimize the distance
critical point, in which the system enjoyment and training adherence, this from peak bar displacement to the
switches to a new, more stable move- may also provide a good opportunity catch position. Examples of correction
ment pattern. The coach should for the athlete to set some perfor- exercises to target specific technical
therefore not be concerned with the mance goals, with the assistance of errors are presented in Table 2. How-
initially heightened movement vari- the coach, one of which may include ever, it should be noted that limitations
ability, given its importance in motor achieving 3 valid attempts for both the of performance and even poor tech-
learning. clean and jerk and snatch. Such an nique may also reflect physical defi-
By this stage, athletes should be approach prioritizes performance con- ciencies (e.g., strength and power,
competent in the AMSC, and basic sistency under competition con- neuromuscular control) (97). For those
strength should already be estab- straints, rather than load lifted and athletes where improvement of limit-
lished. The AMSC are likely to thus competition placing. ing physical capacities is a necessary
remain in the training program to focus, weightlifting derivatives can also
ensure maintenance of competency; ADVANCED be prescribed to elicit specific physical
however, they are likely to make up This stage is representative of the adaptations. For example, jump shrugs
a smaller percentage of training time. autonomous stage of motor learning, or pulls could be used to improve
The focus at the intermediate stage whereby the weightlifting movements explosive strength, owing to their re-
should shift to maximum strength should require little cognitive involve- ported high force and power output
development, owing to reported high ment from the athlete. The athlete is (27,121,122).
correlations (r 5 0.95) existing becoming adept at exploiting forces Owing to the shift in training focus,
between maximum strength and from the weightlifting movements to explosive strength development
weightlifting performance (72). ensure flexible and efficient movements should be a key training priority at this

Table 2
Exercise selection dependent on technical error correction and/or physical adaptation
Exercise Technical error correction Physical adaptation

Front and Develops catch position stability Lower-limb strength development
overhead squat
Snatch balance Develops catch position speed and stability Lower-limb eccentric strength development
Jump shrug/clean/ Encourages the athlete to achieve hip, knee (and ankle) High power expression and output during
snatch pulls extension position in second pull phase second pull
High hang clean/ Encourages the athlete to achieve hip, knee (and ankle) High power expression and output, isolating
snatch extension position in second pull phase the second pull phase and concentric force
production
Hang clean/snatch Reinforces the correct positioning for end of first High power expression and output during
pull/start of transition, encouraging the athlete to keep second pull
bar path inside the base of support at this position
Encourages athlete to achieve hip, knee (and ankle)
extension position in second pull phase, after a
transition movement
Isometric first pull Encourages set up positional awareness and helps to Lower-limb strength development in first pull
(snatch and ensure correct hip and knee extension during the first position
clean grip) pull
First pull (snatch Encourages set up and first pull positional awareness in Lower-limb strength development at end
and clean grip) isolation ranges
Power clean/ Encourages the athlete to achieve hip, knee (and ankle) High power expression and output during
snatch extension position in second pull phase second pull
stage, especially because the rapid include loads that recruit high thresh- constitute a given set). As the athlete
force expression during the second old motor units ($80% of 1RM), low progresses to more structured exer-
pull of the weightlifting movements volumes (,5 reps) and longer rest cises, a high volume of movement rep-
has been identified as a key determi- intervals between sets ($3 minutes) etitions such as 2–4 sets of 8–12
nant of weightlifting performance (63). to allow for full phosphocreatine repetitions should aid in the develop-
The athlete may also look to further recovery (48,81). Consequently, the ment of movement competency, pro-
increase their weightlifting competi- desired training adaptation should be viding sufficient exposure to develop
tion experience at this stage. With a primary factor in dictating training motor control, while still allowing for
refined performance of the weightlift- prescription variables (i.e., volume, a range of different exercises and
ing movements, athletes are at an intensity, repetition velocity, and train- movement stimuli to be completed
appropriate stage of their development ing frequency). within the same session (86). These
to progress in load lifted, hence scoring higher volumes might also be further
determined by the sum of the highest VOLUME AND INTENSITY broken down into clusters to allow for
completed lift in the snatch and clean regular feedback opportunities and
During the beginner stage, when
and jerk is more appropriate. avoid error recurrence across a num-
training is predominantly incorporat-
ing AMSC, volumes will typically be ber of repetitions (e.g., set of 12 repe-
MANIPULATING VOLUME, higher than those prescribed during titions divided into 3 clusters of 4
INTENSITY, VELOCITY, AND the later stages of development that reps). Intensity at this point will be
FREQUENCY OF TRAINING focus on maximal efforts, to provide low, with the athlete typically per-
To achieve the desired adaptation, more opportunities to improve motor forming bodyweight exercises, and in
training prescription needs to be spe- learning. Given the unstructured some cases, exercises might be differ-
cific to challenge the aspects of motor nature of many of the introductory entiated by using assistance (e.g., from
learning and strength development. AMSC games and isometric holds, bands) or changing body position
For example, if the desired adaptation strict sets and repetitions may not ini- (e.g., incline) to ensure all athletes
is to increase maximal strength in tially be prescribed, instead blocks of can perform movements with correct
advanced athletes, training needs to time (e.g., “seconds of work” might technique.
81
As the weightlifting movements are populations in a weightlifting move- therefore reduce this rest where possible,
introduced at the novice stage, vol- ment, 1 RM power clean testing has while ensuring technique is not com-
umes will likely decrease, with sets of been shown to have a high degree of promised as a result.
;3–5 repetitions recommended as reproducibility in trained adolescent
being effective during the learning of athletes when standardized testing pro-
REPETITION VELOCITY
weightlifting movements (44). For cedures are followed and qualified
Movement precision is likely to
young athletes, competition-based instruction is present (43). The use of
decrease as a result of increased move-
games may still be incorporated into this testing would not be suitable in
ment speed, in agreement with Fitts’s
training drills with no load to enhance inexperienced lifters, given that the
law (46). Therefore, when athletes are
enjoyment and effort, for example, rac- testing should be technique-driven,
first learning the AMSC, they should be
ing a partner to drop into a front squat with testing aborted once movement encouraged to perform the movements
catch position. The athlete should first deviates from the correct exercise tech- in a controlled manner to ensure they
be able to demonstrate technical pro- nique. For inexperienced lifters, the use achieve the correct positions through-
ficiency with a light resistance such as a of an isometric midthigh pull assess- out. The stability of motor performance
wooden dowel or PVC piping, then ment may be a safe and reliable alter- in youth can be greater in tasks that
progress to light barbells (5–10 kg) native to determine the athletes’ force- require maximum effort in comparison
then to appropriate weightlifting bars producing capabilities (94). Once the to those that demand accuracy (13).
(males 20 kg and females 15 kg). Com- athlete has achieved technical mastery, Therefore, coaches should be cognizant
petitive games and challenges can be heavier loads ($80% of 1RM) can be of potentially higher movement vari-
played when the athletes are perform- used to improve strength (31,81). With ability when performing controlled
ing the movements with no external advanced lifters, supramaximal loads movements (e.g., dowel hinge) in com-
load, adding a fun element to training; may also be used when the movement parison to rapid, explosive movements
for example, marbles can be sealed is broken down into key phases, such (e.g., takeoff mechanics in a counter-
inside the PVC pipes so the young ath- as 120% of clean 1RM for pull to the movement jump).
letes can make a noise with them (93) knee. However, exercises with different Rate of force development is a key
and athletes can race to drop into a intensities should still be used, with the determinant of weightlifting perfor-
catch position on command. It should Union of Soviet Socialist Republics mance (120); therefore, ensuring that
be emphasized that at no point in the National Olympic team reportedly per- weightlifting movements involve explo-
developmental journey should inten- forming only 42% of their total lifting siveness should aid training adaptations
sity be increased at the expense of volume above 80% of 1RM during a and overall performance. Likewise, neg-
movement competency (86). During preparatory training year (130). During ative transfer from learning the move-
the circumpubertal stage of matura- postpuberty, this increase in intensity ments under a speed constraint may
tion, the coach should be mindful of aligns with current recommendations, occur if the movements are instead per-
naturally occurring increased move- which suggest that at this stage of mat- formed in a slow and controlled manner
ment variability resulting from adoles- uration, athletic potential is best devel- (114). Therefore, when the athlete
cent awkwardness; rather than adding oped through increases in external load begins to perform the weightlifting
load to inconsistent and possibly inju- (87), often accompanied by a reduction movements and the associated deriva-
rious movement, higher repetition vol- in training volume (106). tives, they should be instructed to per-
umes may be important to provide As the training focus shifts to the devel- form the exercise at maximal velocity.
sufficient exposure to relearn the opment of explosive strength, the coach When athletes are learning the weight-
movement patterns due to a reduced must ensure sufficient rest between sets lifting movements and the associated
kinesthetic awareness. (typically $ 2 minutes), allowing for derivatives, the use of a pause at key
As the athlete’s proficiency and tech- recovery to ensure the intensity and/or positions may be advantageous to
nical competency in performing the speed of movement can remain high in ensure they achieve the correct posi-
weightlifting movements continues to subsequent sets. In accordance with tions at the end of each phase, and mas-
develop, the prescribed exercise inten- these recommendations, research advo- ter proper technique, while still allowing
sity should increase. At the point in cates the use of high intensity (80–89% of for performance at maximal velocity.
which the athlete is able to demon- 1RM) and longer durations of rest (3– This may also help the athlete to
strate the full lifts with correct tech- 4 minutes) for greater strength gains in develop strength in these positions.
nique across repetitions, it may be experienced young athletes (81). For a Examples include pausing at the end
appropriate to determine a 1RM, competing athlete, a coach should of the first pull to ensure the position
which can then be used to more accu- be mindful of the need to develop is correct, before performing an explo-
rately prescribe the exercise intensity. recovery ability for competition due to sive hang clean or snatch, and pausing
Despite concerns regarding the safety the maximum rest of only 2 minutes in the receiving position of a clean to
and reliability of 1RM testing in youth between lift attempts. A coach may ensure the athlete is balanced and the

base of support remains stable, before maximizes power output may lead to relationship for learning weightlifting;
standing up in the recovery phase. superior increases in power output as therefore, current guidelines on training
Research indicates that when maximal compared to other training means frequency are based on inferences from
intended velocity is applied during an (127). Velocity-based training, which is resistance training interventions. During
exercise, significantly greater increases becoming more readily available to the initial stages of learning, it has been
in strength and power are observed over coaches through mobile phone applica- suggested that training should not exceed
training performed with equal loads but tions, may therefore be an advantageous 3 hours a week, especially with young
lower velocities (10). It seems that it is tool for coaches when prescribing train- athletes (86). These hours could be made
ing load. As well as being beneficial for up of three 1-hour sessions, or more fre-
the intent to move fast that is of key
monitoring purposes and accurate esti- quent but shorter 30–40-minute sessions.
importance, with beneficial adaptations
mations of exercise 1RM (5), this tool Such training frequency provides a micro-
occurring even if the athlete is unable to
may also enhance buy-in and stimulate dosed effect, which is arguably more ben-
physically increase the velocity of the
interest in younger populations, provid- eficial for the development of skill reten-
movement. These high contraction
ing regular within-session feedback. tion allowing for more latent, between-
velocities may also maximize the trans-
session and posttraining learning to
fer to specific sports skills (129).
FREQUENCY emerge (95). Training frequency can then
Given the inverse relationship between Research suggests adaptations can be increase as movement competency
load and movement velocity, the coach made in athletes naive to weightlifting improves and the athlete progresses
may consider manipulating the load to from only 2 one-hour sessions a week through the progression scheme, with
maximize power and velocity. Research (64). However, research has not estab- upward of 6 sessions a week being suitable
suggests that training at the load that lished the most effective dose-response for more advanced-level weightlifters.
Table 3
Key performance Indicators for each phase of the weightlifting movements (9,16,18,52,58,63,77,79,129) (base of
support 5 metatarsal-phalangeal joint to ankle, vertical reference line 5 vertical line drawn through the center of the
barbell just before liftoff)
Start position
Bar positioned above metatarsal-phalangeal joint
Athlete’s shoulders positioned above or in front of the bar
First pull
Athlete torso angle remains constant
“Controlled” speed of hip and knee extension, moving to a position with shins perpendicular (or close to perpendicular) to the
floor
Upward or rearward direction of the bar, ensuring the bar path remains inside the base of support (in the sagittal plane)
Transition
Flexion-extension should occur predominantly at the athlete’s knees, with minimal hip joint excursion
Barbell should continue to move upward
Bar path must remain inside base of support (in the sagittal plane)
Second pull
Rapid hip and knee extension and ankle plantar flexion
Bar path must remain inside base of support (in the sagittal plane) with peak bar vertical displacement at the end of the phase
achieved at or behind the vertical reference line
Catch position
From a position of maximum barbell height to the catch position, bar vertical displacement should be minimized; however,
there should be greater vertical displacement of the bar in comparison to horizontal (not forward)
The bar position in the catch must be behind the start position or behind the vertical reference line
Base of support (in the sagittal plane) may remain on the spot or travel backward no greater than ½ its width
83
A higher training frequency, balanced experience increases. The athlete intensity, and to allow time for central
against appropriate rest times, may be needs sufficient recovery to ensure nervous system recovery and adapta-
required to maintain the minimum they can perform subsequent sessions tions to manifest from training-
effective dose as athlete training at the desired training volumes and induced physiological stress. Without
Table 4
Task constraints for common errors in the performance of weightlifting tasks
Error Task constraint Image
Barbell moves away from the athlete, outside the Position an object in front of the athlete as an
athlete’s base of support during the second pull obstruction to any forward bar movement when
phase of the movement. performing derivatives from the hang position.
Athlete does not achieve full hip extension during Position a soft object above the athlete, with the
the second pull phase of the movement. athlete aiming to touch their head on the mat.
Bar moves away from the athlete, outside the Athlete starts a hang variation of the lifts on the
athlete’s base of support and/or athlete’s base of edge of a raised platform or with a marker on the
support travels forward in the catch position. floor. To avoid moving forward, they ensure their
base of support remains on the spot or travels
backward during the catch phase.
Barbell is pressed vertically rather than the athlete Position a dowel above the barbell when it is
dropping under the bar during the snatch positioned on the athlete’s back as an obstruct
balance. and minimize vertical bar movement when
catching.
Athlete is using an undesirable countermovement Position the barbell on blocks, preventing any
to initiate the high hang or hang weightlifting downward movement of the bar and joint flexion.
variations before hip extension.

sufficient recovery, the athlete will coach instruction and safe technique, should first attempt to cue the athlete
show compromises in their weightlift- adopting a somewhat less rigid instruc- to correct the error (42). An athlete’s abil-
ing technique as a result of fatigue. The tional approach encourages the athlete to ity and stage in the skill acquisition pro-
coach should therefore be mindful that search for their own effective coordina- cess should affect the cueing and
48 hours is typically the time required tion solution (32,102). feedback. The level of coach to athlete
for optimal recovery from fatigue Effective task constraints provide the interaction or amount of feedback may
induced by typical weightlifting train- athlete with immediate information on begin high but gradually reduce as the
ing; hence, any training inside of this the quality of the movement, termed athlete becomes more proficient at the
period may involve performance under knowledge of performance, while pro- movements, a process known as “scaf-
fatigue (25). Monitoring tools can be viding an external focus of attention folding.” However, as a result of the non-
advantageous for coaches to determine (115,125). For example, the athlete can linear nature of development and skill
factors important to the recovery pro- gain feedback from contacting an mastery, the coach must be prepared
cess, such as athlete fatigue status, obstruction such as a wooden dowel, for random fluctuations in performance
readiness to train, sleep, and nutrition. if the bar path deviates away from its and thus the need to alter the amount
Monitoring tools may comprise objec- optimal bar path (Table 4). This knowl- of feedback accordingly (74). Athletes
tive monitoring, such as jump perfor- edge of performance can result in better with a higher training age can process
mance variables and heart rate, in motor coordination outcomes and cues and instructions more effectively
addition to subjective monitoring such overall improved athletic performance than a novice (26); therefore, it is impor-
as wellbeing questionnaires (including (115). A constraints-based approach to tant that during the early stages of learn-
information such as nutrition, sleep coaching also allows individuals to find ing the weightlifting movements that the
hours and quality, fatigue, soreness, movement solutions based on coach does not overload the athlete with
mood, stress, and health) and informal unchangeable individual constraints, instruction and feedback, focusing on a
discussions with athletes. such as limb length, rather than trying maximum of 1–3 key points at any given
to mold an athlete to conform to a tech- point in time. For example, in a squat, the
COACHING CONSIDERATION
nical model that is not suitable to their coach may first cue the athlete to drive
A CONSTRAINTS-BASED constraints. Such an approach is likely their heels into the floor and show off
APPROACH FOR WEIGHTLIFTING to be advantageous with young athletes, their T-shirt logo. For novice athletes,
SKILL DEVELOPMENT the coach should consider delaying feed-
who will experience changes in limb
Given the importance of movement lengths resulting from growth and mat- back when possible to avoid creating
technique, the coach must ensure the uration (103). Importantly, the chal- feedback dependency and improve skill
athlete is performing the exercise pro- lenge of performing the tasks under retention (123); however, as a caveat,
gressions with proficient and “correct” different constraints and training variety feedback or some form of intervention
movement technique. Given the task also has the potential to increase athlete should be actioned immediately if there
constraints in the weightlifting move- enjoyment, effort, and performance is clear performance of an injurious move-
ments and strict rules of the events in (24). Table 4 provides coaches with a ment (e.g., immediate feedback should be
competition, it might be assumed that series of task constraints to address given to the athlete if they are unable to
large interindividual variations in the lift- common technical errors that may maintain a neutral spine throughout any
ing technique would not be present. occur during the weightlifting move- of the movements, especially loaded
However, contrary to this intuition, ments. When constructing task con- movements). Once the athlete has
although most lifters use similar technical straints, as long as the coach ensures achieved technical competence, the
styles of lifting, there is often high inter- they are in accordance with the key coach should not neglect the importance
individual variability in the barbell trajec- performance indicators, they are only of cueing the athlete to perform with
tories and kinematic or kinetic limited by their own imagination, with maximal intent to optimize the perfor-
characteristics of weightlifting move- many existing for coaching the power mance and elicited adaptations. For
ments among highly skilled athletes clean alone for example (125). example, using the cues such as “drive
(3,7,8,14). These findings indicate that
away from the floor,” “punch up toward
copying the movement of successful ath-
letes may be a suboptimal approach for INSTRUCTION AND FEEDBACK the ceiling,” and “snap under the bar”
skill acquisition; therefore, teaching tech- Throughout all stages of the progression encourage the athlete to perform with
niques designed to promote ideal optimal scheme, athletes should receive relevant intent to move quickly and optimizes
movement solutions, such as modeling feedback on performance to ensure any neural adaptations, irrespective of training
perfect skills, might be redundant (14). errors are not repeated across a number experience (10).
Instead of adopting stringent technical of repetitions. When the athlete is unable Equally, the cognitive maturity of an
models, an alternative approach is to to find the correct position, hold the cor- athlete can have an influence on their
use key performance indicators (Table 3). rect position, or repeatedly move in and ability to process and implement coach-
Notwithstanding the importance of out of the correct position, the coach ing cues (75,80,98). A coach therefore
85
needs to be mindful of this and may example can be easily implemented in a

Stephanie J.
consider adjusting their cueing and feed- peer-coaching scenario, with both the
Morris is cur-
back strategy according to the athlete’s coach and athlete gaining knowledge of
rently reading for
maturity status. During the prepubertal performance feedback. Research suggests
a PhD in Youth
stage of maturation, children typically the advantages of peer-coaching in com-
Weightlifting and
possess lower levels of vocabulary and parison to solo practice include improve-
is a coach in the
comprehension skills (80). Consequently, ments in skill performance, self-efficacy,
Youth Physical
rather than cueing the athlete to “extend and accuracy of self-assessment of com-
Development
their hips in the second pull phase,” the petence, in both youth (126) and adult
Centre at Cardiff
use of an analogies and metaphors such (116) populations. Likewise, peer motiva-
Metropolitan
as “explode upward like a firework,” tion should be encouraged by the coach
University.
“shoot your guns up (elbows),” and “lean to develop interpersonal skills such as
over the cliff” can be advantageous to communication, listening, teamwork,
ensure understanding. and leadership abilities, as well as creating Jon L. Oliver is a
Children are also more likely to think in a fun and enjoyable training environment, professor of
discrete extremes (e.g., black or white, optimal for fostering long-term enjoyment Applied Paediat-
right or wrong) (80), therefore using dem- in training. ric Exercise Sci-
onstrations to show the gross movement ence and
SUMMARY
errors that the athlete is presenting with cofounder of the
The approach to the long-term develop-
can help them to better understand and Youth Physical
ment of weightlifting performance pre-
correct the error. Limited memory capac- Development
sented within the current article aims to
ity and attention span during this stage Centre at Cardiff
provide coaches with a useful resource
(98) also suggests that immediate feed- Metropolitan
for the development of weightlifting abil-
back may be superior to delayed feedback. University.
ities for young athletes. Central to the
Around the circumpubertal stage of mat- progression scheme is the importance
uration, individuals may start to show an of developing robust weightlifting tech-
increased ability to self-correct (75). As a Jason S.
nique. Training at all stages should con- Pedley is pro-
result, the coach may be able to start to sider the simultaneous development of
delay feedback to promote self-correction gramme director
movement skills and physical capacities, of the Sports
of errors by individuals, ultimately making and the prescription and exercise selec- Conditioning,
the athletes more accountable for their tion should be manipulated accordingly. Rehabilitation
own athletic development. The coach Although technical competency and tar- and Massage
should be mindful that as individuals get adaptations should be the key drivers degree at Cardiff
mature and approach the postpubertal for exercise prescription for young ath- Metropolitan
stage, they may become more concerned letes, to take advantage of naturally University and a
with self-image (4,98). Throughout the occurring physiological adaptations and strength and conditioning coach within
athletes’ long-term development, the to appropriately match coaching cues ac- the Youth Physical Development Centre
coach should promote task-involved goals, cording to cognitive development, the at Cardiff Metropolitan University.
focusing on skill development, effort, and athlete’s stage of maturation should also
self-improvement, as opposed to ego-orien- be considered. Finally, the use of task
tated that embody social comparisons constraints may be beneficial for skill G. Gregory Haff
(119). High performance, as well as effort, acquisition of the weightlifting move- is the professor of
should be acknowledged by praise from ments, allowing athletes to find their Strength and
the coach to improve the athlete’s per- own, individual movement solution. Pro- Conditioning and
ceived competence (4). viding the coach ensures these task con- course coordina-
In addition to coach instruction and feed- straints in accordance with the key tor for the Mas-
back, the use of peer-coaching can also be weightlifting performance indicators, they ters of Exercise
an effective learning tool, whereby more are limited only by their own imagination. Science (Strength
experienced athletes are encouraged to Conflicts of Interest and Source of Funding: and Condition-
give instruction and feedback to their less The authors report no conflicts of interest ing) at Edith
experienced peers. Task constraints for and no source of funding. Cowan University.

10. Behm DG, Sale DG. Intended rather sport-specific performance in young
Rhodri S. Lloyd than actual movement velocity olympic weightlifters. Sports 7: 242–255,
is a reader in determines velocity-specific training 2019.
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Taking A Long-Term

W the snatch and the clean

Copyright Ó National Strength and Conditioning Association 71

72 VOLUME 42 | NUMBER 6 | DECEMBER 2020

Phase Clean and jerk Snatch

Dip From standing, with the bar in a front-rack position to

Drive From a quarter-squat position with the bar remaining

Catch From a position of maximal barbell height to a

Recovery From a position in which the bar is caught above

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Exercise Technical error correction Physical adaptation

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needs to be mindful of this and may example can be easily implemented in a

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