ENTER……

MYSTERIOUS BOROBUDUR

Uday Dokras Phd (Stockholm

University,SWEDEN)

Indo Nordic Author’s Collective

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CHAKRAVARTIN BUDDHA

Dr Uday
Dokras
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 EARLIER BOOK on BOROBUDUR by the
author

CONTENTS PAGE 4
CHAPTER I- The Cosmic Order of Mandalas in S.E. Asia page 4
CHAPTER II-The STRUCTURE of the Borobudur as a large base Stupa page 26
CHAPTER III-Cinnamon Route & the Adi Buddha at Borobudur page 83
CHAPTER IV-THE SECRET OF BOROBUDUR & the Sang Hyang
Kamahayanikan PART I- THE BELIEF SYSTEM OF ESOTERIC BUDDHISM
IS OPEN ONLY TO THOSE WHO FEEL CALLED TO FOLLOW IT & ARE
WILLING TO SUBMIT THEMSELVES TO INSTRUCTION BY A MASTER.
PAGE 115
CHAPTER V-Borobudur as a Temple for the Sanghyang Adi Buddha PART II
page 148
CHAPTER VI-Indo Hellinistic Influences on Borobudur Design?PAGE 161
CHAPTER VII-INDIC ARCHITECTURE AS A LIGHT HOUSE FOR
BOROBUDUR page 180
CHAPTER VIII-The Travels and Trvails of SUDANA on the Borobudur reliefs Pge 193
CHAPTER IX -What does Borobudur have in common with the stupa in Sanchi
and how are they different? Page 209
CHAPTERIX-The Shiva-Buddha Syncretism page 227
CHAPTER XI-The Architecture of the 2 plains of Hindu Buddhist Harmony &The
Legend of Roro Jonggrang  (The Pekalongan harbor that brought Hinduism &
Buddhism to these plains ) page 242
ABOUT THE AUTHOR PAGE 269

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 CHAPTER I

The Cosmic Order of Mandalas in S.E. Asia

Citation- Dr Uday Dokras,The Cosmoc Order of the mandalas in S.E. Asia, Journal of The Indo
Nordic Author’s Collective, 2021

C o n t e n t s
 Cosmic means occurring in, or coming from, the part of space that lies outside Earth
 The categories of Brahman
 The exact nature, process and extent of Indian influence upon the civilisations of the region is
still fiercely debated by contemporary scholars.
 Sea trade from China
 The Maritime Silk Road
 Spread of Buddhism
 Local rulers benefited from the introduction of Hinduism with emphasis on individual effort
and conduct.
 Between the 5th and the 13th century, Buddhism flourished in Southeast Asia.
 Maṇḍala 
 Emphasis on Mandala personal relationships
 Mandala by matrimony
 Another example is that of Princess Pramodhawardhani:
 Kinshipin
 Imperial Mandalas: Angkor and Bagan
 The Nirvana Route stretched across the Silk Road
 Bagan was where the first imperial mandala of Myanmar
 Maritime Mandalas: Srivijaya and Champa
 The Universal Mandala: Borobudur

ABSTRACT

Cosmic means occurring in, or coming from, the part of space that lies outside Earth and

its atmosphere. In the Universe, there is a particular order. This order is known as ‘rta’. Since
its very beginning, the order of a system prevails in the entire universe and cosmos. This cosmic
order is known as ‘Mahan Rta. At the Conference, Heaven on Earth: Temples, Ritual, & Cosmic
Symbolism in the Ancient World, Organizer, Deena Ragavan, March 2-3, 2012- the query was
directed at the cult centers of the ancient world where the prime location and focus was of ritual
activity. Temples and shrines were not constructed in isolation, but existed as part of what may
be termed a ritual landscape, where ritualized movement within individual buildings, temple
complexes, and the city as a whole shaped their function and meaning. Furthermore, both ritual

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practice and temple topography may provide evidence for the conception of the temple as a
reflection, or embodiment, of the cosmos. The interconnections between temple topography and
architecture, ritual practice, and cosmic symbolism was the focal point of the conference.

There is a substantial body of literature devoted to this topic, from archaeological, textual, and
theoretical perspectives in various different ancient cultures, which suggests an excellent
opportunity for interdisciplinary and cross-cultural analysis. Recent work illustrates the
significance of this subject just as it illuminates the value of historical and comparative
perspectives. The importance of this topic is paramount not only to scholars of the ancient world,
but also to the study of religion, particularly the understanding and interpretation of ritual and
sacred architecture.

“The cosmic order and cultural astronomy that framed the cityscapes and sacredscapes
covering a time span of over thousands years, from the sites of the Ramayana period (e.g.
Chitrakut), and later Vedic period (e.g. Gaya) to the cultural capital city of India (Varanasi/
Kashi). All of these sacred sites and pilgrimage places display varying degrees of geometrical
order and planning. By their respective geometries, each of these places establishes an interior
cosmos with order and meaning. Geometries utilizing lines, triangles, rectangles, and circles
were used to couple interior spaces with those of the larger cosmos. The geometric connection
between microcosm and macrocosm that has always been easiest to construct and to interpret is
cardinal orthogonality. Space within the city was designed to mimic the geometry of the larger
cosmos by constructing a grid work of mutually perpendicular lines aligned to true north.”
Cosmic Order and cultural Astronomy Rana P.B. Singh
The temples of Borobudur and the Angkor Wat contain geometries that indicate both cosmic and
local influences, and both have been destination points for pilgrimage. The cosmic and local
dimensions of these sites are not independent and mutually exclusive. For instance, they do not
influence different sections of the structure, but they are intertwined in complex interdependent
relationships with each other. In Borobudur, which has been in existence for perhaps three
millennia, imperial power had no major influence on its design, although there are definite
examples of planning in certain of the pilgrimage circuits. This Stupa ( Borobudur) is rich with
cosmic symbolism and is understood to be a copy of the universe.
The Gaṇḍavyūha Sutra or The Excellent Manifestation Sūtra or Sutra of the Tree's Display is a
Buddhist Mahayana Sutra of Indian origin dating roughly c. 200 to 300 CE. It depicts one of the
world's most celebrated spiritual pilgrimages, and comprises the 39th chapter of the Avatamsaka
Sutra, or Flower Ornament Scripture. In Buddhabhadra's Chinese translation of the Avatamsaka,
this 39th chapter is entitled "Entrance into the Dharma Realm".The Sutra is described as the
"Sudhana's quest for the ultimate truth", as the sutra chronicles the journey of a disciple, Sudhana
("Excellent Riches"), as he encounters various teachings and Bodhisattvas until his journey
reaches full circle and he awakens to teachings of the Buddha.
As a Buddhist text, Gandavyuha was circulated widely around Asia, sometimes as a gift among
rulers. For example, the Chinese emperor received a Sanskrit language text of the book as a gift
from the king of Odisha in the 8th century.

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Gandavyuha gives Borobudur a special meaning as a universal mandala. Its message is to find
enlightenment not only in one place, or in one source. The two religions Hinduism and
Buddhism are said to have implanted more organized and resilient political arrangements onto
Southeast Asia’s loose pre-existing political fabric, turning the region into mandalas. –Meaning
that the mandala (circle) precipitated neither chaos nor absolutism, but a state with loose political
organization, relatively mild coercion, fluid boundaries, and overlapping spheres of political
authority with neighboring mandalas.

The arrival of Hinduism and Buddhism deeply influenced the spiritual and political make up of
Southeast Asian societies. But it did not displace pre-existing indigenous beliefs and worships.
Instead, local traditions and foreign beliefs were fused. To give one example, the “spirit houses”
that one finds in every Thai home to this day combine the worship of ancestors and traditional
deities with Hindu-Buddhist ones. While Hinduism and Buddhism came to Southeast Asia in
peaceful ways, once they arrived, they fed aspirations for universal kingship among Southeast
Asian rulers. This meant emulating King Ashoka of India’s Maurya dynasty, who was regarded
as a chakravartin, or a universal ruler, and a role model in Southeast Asia.

Southeast Asians did not merely copy Indian culture and architecture but gave it a distinct local
flavor. The largest Hindu and Buddhist temples anywhere in the world are both are in Southeast
Asia, in Cambodia (Angkor Wat) and Indonesia (Borobudur), respectively. While they were
constructed on the basis of Hindu and Buddhist cosmology, such as the Mount Meru and the
stupa (Borobudur combined both), neither is purely Indian in its appearance. They reveal a
Southeast Asian “local genius.”

How did this happen? The attraction of Hinduism and Buddhism in Southeast Asia was as
much political as spiritual.The arrival of Hinduism and Buddhism brought an elaborate system of
beliefs and rituals with which Southeast Asian rulers could claim divine legitimacy before their
subjects, for example by identifying with Vishnu, Shiva, or Buddha, and build larger, more
organized polities or even empires. Not surprisingly, both quickly became official religions
throughout Southeast Asia, with Sanskrit often serving as the principal court language.

Since around 500 B.C. Asia's expanding land and maritime trade had led to socio-economic
interaction and cultural stimulation and diffusion of mainly Hindu beliefs into the regional
cosmology of Southeast Asia. Iron Age trade expansion caused
regional geostrategic remodelling. Southeast Asia was now situated in the central area of
convergence of the Indian and the East Asian maritime trade routes, the basis for economic and
cultural growth. The concept of the Indianised kingdoms, a term coined by George Coedès,
describes Southeast Asian principalities that since the early common era as a result of prolonged
interaction had incorporated central aspects of Indian institutions, religion, statecraft,
administration, culture, epigraphy, writing and architecture. Arriving in the archipelago before
the second century AD with traders and missionaries from India, Hindu beliefs were greatly
modified when adapted to Indonesian society. The central concept of ritual purity, maintained
through a division of society into occupational groups, or castes (varna, literally color), was
never rigidly applied in Indonesia.
The categories of Brahman (priests; brahmana in Indonesian), Kshatriya (ruler-warrior; satria
in Indonesian), Vaishya (merchant-farmer; waisya in Indonesian), and Shudra (commoner-

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servant; sudra in Indonesian) do exist in Bali; besides the category of Brahman, however, they
appear to have little influence over occupational choices, or even over social status and marital
opportunities. Two Hindu epics, the Mahabharata (Great Battle of the Descendants of Bharata)
and the Ramayana (The Travels of Rama), have become classics among Indonesians, both Hindu
believers and others, especially in Java, and are rendered in wayang and dance performances.

Shiva statue, Champa (modern Vietnam) Myson

The earliest Hindu kingdoms emerged in Sumatra and Java, followed by mainland polities

such as Funan and Champa. Selective adoption of Indian civilisation elements and individual
suitable adaption stimulated the emergence of centralised states and development of highly
organised societies. Ambitious local leaders realised the benefits of Hindu worship. Rule in
accord with universal moral principles represented in the concept of the devaraja was more
appealing than the Chinese concept of intermediaries.
The exact nature, process and extent of Indian influence upon the civilisations of the region
is still fiercely debated by contemporary scholars. Debated are most claims over whether it
was Indian merchants, Brahmins, nobles or Southeast Asian mariner-merchants who played a
central role in bringing Indian conceptions to Southeast Asia. Debated is the depth of the
influence of traditions for the people. Whereas early 20th-century scholars emphasised the
thorough Indianisation of Southeast Asia, more recent authors argued that this influence was
very limited and affected only a small section of the elite.
Sea trade from China to India passed Champa, Funan at the Mekong Delta, proceeded along
the coast to the Isthmus of Kra, portaged across the narrow and transhipped for distribution in
India. This trading link boosted the development of Funan, its successor Chenla and the Malayan
states of Langkasuka on the eastern and Kedah on the western coast.
Numerous coastal communities in maritime Southeast Asia adopted Hindu and Buddhist cultural
and religious elements from India and developed complex polities ruled by native dynasties.
Early Hindu kingdoms in Indonesia are 4th century Kutai that rose in East

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Kalimantan, Tarumanagara in West Java and Kalingga in Central Java.
Early relations with China

Major trading routes in the pre-colonial Eastern Hemisphere

Earliest attested trading contacts existed between Southeast Asia and the Chinese Shang
dynasty (around 1600 BCE to around 1046 BCE), when cowry shells served as currency.
Various natural products, such as ivory, rhinoceros horn, tortoise shells, pearls and birds’
feathers found their way to Luoyang the capital of the Zhou dynasty, that lasted from 1050 to
771 BCE. Although knowledge about port localities and shipping lanes is very limited, it is
assumed that most of this exchange took place on land routes and only a small percentage was
shipped "on coastal vessels crewed by Malay and Yue traders".
Military conquests during the Han dynasty brought a number of foreign peoples within the
Chinese empire when the Imperial Chinese tributary system began to evolve under Han rule.
This tributary system was based on the Chinese worldview, that had developed under the Shang
dynasty, in which China is deemed the center and apogee of culture and civilization, the Middle
kingdom (Zhōngguó), surrounded by several layers of increasingly barbarous peoples. Contact
with Southeast Asia steadily increased by the end of the Han period.
Between the 2nd-century BCE and 15th-century CE, the Maritime Silk Road flourished,
connecting China, Southeast Asia, the Indian subcontinent, Arabian peninsula, Somalia and all
the way to Egypt and finally Europe.[  Despite its association with China in recent centuries, the
Maritime Silk Road was primarily established and operated by Austronesian sailors in Southeast
Asia, and by Persian and Arab traders in the Arabian Sea.
The Maritime Silk Road developed from the earlier Austronesian spice trade networks
of Islander Southeast Asians with Sri Lanka and Southern India (established 1000 to 600 BCE),
as well as the jade industry trade in lingling-o artifacts from the Philippines in the South China
Sea (c. 500 BCE). For most of its history, Austronesian thalassocracies controlled the flow of the
Maritime Silk Road, especially the polities around the Strait of Malacca and Bangka, the Malay

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peninsula and the Mekong delta; although Chinese records misidentified these kingdoms as
being "Indian" due to the Indianization of these regions. Prior to the 10th century, the route was
primarily used by Southeast Asian traders, although Tamil and Persian traders also sailed them.
The route was influential in the early spread of Hinduism and Buddhism to the east.
China later built its own fleets starting from the Song dynasty in the 10th century, participating
directly in the trade route up until the end of the Colonial Era and the collapse of the Qing
dynasty.
Spread of Buddhism

Shwezigon golden pagoda in Bagan, Myanmar (12th century)/ Borobudur stupa, central Java (9th century)

Local rulers benefited from the introduction of Hinduism during the early common era as it
greatly enhanced the legitimacy of their reign. Historians increasingly argue, that the process of
Hindu religious diffusion must be attributed to the initiative of the local chieftains. Buddhist
teachings, that almost simultaneously arrived in Southeast Asia developed during the subsequent
centuries an exalted distinction and eventually came to be more appealing to the demands of the
general population, a belief system and philosophy that addresses concrete human affairs.
Emperor Ashoka initiated the missionary efforts to send trained monks and missionaries abroad
in order to propagate Buddhism, that includes a sizeable body of literature, oral traditions,
iconography, art and offers guidance as it seeks to solve central existential questions with
emphasis on individual effort and conduct.

Between the 5th and the 13th century, Buddhism flourished in Southeast Asia. By the 8th
century, the Buddhist Srivijaya kingdom emerged as a major trading power in central Maritime
Southeast Asia and around the same period the Shailendra dynasty of Java extensively
promoted Buddhist art that found its strongest expression in the vast Borobudur monument. After
the establishment of a new royal dynasty of provincial origin in the Khmer Empire, the first
Buddhist kings emerged during the 11th century. Mahayana Buddhist ideas from India where
the original Theravada Buddhism had already been replaced centuries ago took hold first in
Southeast Asia. However, a pure form of Theravada Buddhist teachings had been preserved in
Sri Lanka since the 3rd century. Pilgrims and wandering monks from Sri Lanka introduced
Theravada Buddhism in the Pagan Empire of Burma, the Siamese Sukhothai Kingdom in Laos,
the Lower Mekong Basin during Cambodia's dark ages and further into Vietnam and Insular
Southeast Asia
Maṇḍala is a Sanskrit word meaning 'circle'. The mandala is a model for describing the patterns of
diffuse political power distributed among Mueang or Kedatuan (principalities) in early Southeast
Asian history, when local power was more important than the central leadership. The concept of the
mandala balanced modern tendencies to look for unified political power to denote

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traditional Southeast Asian political formations, such as
1.  federations of kingdoms or 
2. vassalized polity under a center of domination
3.  feudal system with linkages in a  suzerain–tributary relationships.
4. It was not rejecting empire- just finding a via-media alternative

In ancient China, the tribute system provided an administrative means to control their interests, as

well as providing exclusive trading priorities to those who paid tribute from foreign regions. It was
an integral part of the Confucian philosophy of  Political marriages that existed between the Chinese
empire and tribute states, such as Songtsen Gampo and Wencheng (Gyasa).

In the 5th century, a status hierarchy was an explicit element of the tributary system in
which Korea and Vietnam were ranked higher than others, including Japan, the Ryukyus, Siam and
others. All diplomatic and trade missions were construed in the context of a tributary relationship
with China, including:

 Brunei
o Borneo
o Poni
 Cambodia
o Kingdom of Funan
o Zhenla
 Japan
o Wa (Japan) (16 tribute missions)
o Japanese missions to Tang China (16 tribute missions)
o Japanese missions to Ming China (20 tribute missions) 
 Korea
o Goguryeo (173 tribute missions) 
o Baekje (45 tribute missions) 
o Silla (19 tribute missions)
o Unified Silla (63 tribute missions in 8th century)
o Goryeo (The envoy missions)
o Joseon (391 envoy missions between 1392 and 1450, 435 special embassy missions
between 1637 and 1881
 Malaysia
o Tanah Merah Kingdom
o Kedah Kingdom
o Kelantan
o Malacca Sultanate
 Nepal
 Philippines
o Sulu

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 Ryūkyū Kingdom (Ryukyuan missions to Imperial China)
o Hokuzan
o Chūzan
 Nanzan
 Siam 
 Tibet
 Vietnam
 Ceylon

The  Portraits of Periodical Offering  of Liang. 6th-century painting in National Museum of China.
Ambassadors from right to
left: Uar  (Hephthalites); Persia; Baekje (Korea); Qiuci; Wo (Japan);  Langkasuka (in present-day
Malaysia); Dengzhi (Qiang)  Ngawa; Zhouguke, Hebatan , Humidan, Baiti of similar Hephthalite
people), who dwell close to Hephthalite; Mo (Qiem

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Mural from the Qianling Mausoleum in Shaanxi, 706. Tributary envoys are being received at court.
The bald man in the middle is from the West and the man to his right is from Korea.

The temples all over India attract us not only for the awe- inspiring sculptures but for the
accuracy maintained in the buildings to such large dimensions as well. The architecture of the
temples have been well studied keeping in mind the impact of religion, culture and tradition. The
art associated with temples has been extensively studied. When we look at the foundations of
some temples which are not squares or rectangles, we cannot help wondering at their knowledge
of geometry. It is interesting to trace how the geometrical pattern was executed so precisely. The
precise alignment of the buildings can be traced from the ruins of Harappa and Mohenjodaro.
The axis orientation of the township is studied in detail and the circular stones obtained there are
identified as calendar stones.
(Astronomical aspects associated with temples, Shylaja B-
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321949369_Astronomical_aspects_associated_with_temples)

Emphasis on Mandala personal relationships

The emphasis on personal relationships was one of the defining characteristics of the mandala
system. The tributary ruler was subordinate to the overlord ruler, rather than to the overlord state in
the abstract. This had many important implications. A strong ruler could attract new tributaries, and
would have strong relationships over his existing tributaries. A weaker ruler would find it harder to

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attract and maintain these relationships. This was put forward as one cause of the sudden rise
of Sukhothai under Ramkhamhaeng, for example, and for its almost equally steep decline after his
death (Wyatt, 45 and 48). The tributary ruler could repudiate the relationship and seek either a
different overlord or complete independence. The system was non-territorial. The overlord was owed
allegiance by the tributary ruler, or at most by the tributary's main town, but not by all the people of a
particular area. The tributary owner in turn had power either over tributary states further down the
scale, or directly over "his" people, wherever they lived. No ruler had authority over unpopulated
areas.
The personal relationship between overlord and subordinate rulers is also defining the dynamic of
relationship within mandala. For instance the relations between Dharmasetu of Srivijaya
and Samaratungga of Sailendra  defining the succession of these dynastic family.
Dharmasetu was the Srivijayan Maharaja overlord, while the house of Sailendra in Java is suggested
to be related and was subscribed to Srivijayan mandala domination. After Samaratungga married
Princess Tara, the daughter of Dharmasetu, Samaratungga become his successor and the house of
Sailendra was promoted to become the dynastic lineage of later Srivijayan kings, and for a century
period the center of Srivijaya was shifted from Sumatra to Java.

An overview of the Bayon, state temple of Jayavarman VII. Photo by Amitav Acharya.

MANDALA BY MATRIMONY
In ancient times, Cleopatra entered into marriages (though challenged as polygamous) with both
Julius Caesar and Mark Antony. But neither of these men was officially royalty, and neither
succeeded in assuring a dynastic claim (that sons would become heirs to absolute power). In this
case, though, Rome already dominated Egypt, so it wouldn’t have created a “new kingdom” in
any case. Though rare it was common for a princess to marry the heir to the throne of another
country. Heir or not, such mergers amalgamated the polity in a pleasant non- violent order..

1. Mary Tudor married Phillip of Spain, an unusual situation, but in this case Mary
primarily ruled England, and Phillip ruled Spain, and the two realms did not merge. This,
however, was an unusual situation.

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 2. Perhaps the most famous example in modern history is that of Ferdinand and Isabella.
Each of them was the reigning monarch of a different part of the Spanish Peninsula.
3. There had not been a united ‘Spain for awhile. The Romans ruled it as a province. Later,
the Muslims conquered it and named it “Andalusia.” But in the centuries leading up to
1492, it had devolved into a group of warring kingdoms. The two largest were ruled by
Ferdinand and Isabella: Castile and Aragon respectively.
4. “Spain” became the name of the kingdom after that, as they united most of the “Spanish
Peninsula.” Therefore, Spain.
5. The United Kingdom of Britain is not a perfect example because it was not produced by
marriage — at least not directly. But because of intermingled dynastic ties, James VI of
Scotland ended up inheriting both the Scottish and English Thrones. Even then, the
“United Kingdom” did not officially exist until a few generations later, after the Stuarts
were out of power. At that point, an Act of Union was required to keep England and
Scotland under a single government… at which point the “United Kingdom” was
officially created.

But you could say that all the intermingling of bloodlines between the Tudors, Stuarts, and other
monarchical lines indirectly produced the United Kingdom.

The Cambodian King Chey Chettha II married the Vietnamese Nguyễn lord Princess Nguyễn

Thị Ngọc Vạn, a daughter of Lord Nguyễn Phúc Nguyên, in 1618. In return, the king granted the
Vietnamese the right to establish settlements in Mô Xoài (now Bà Rịa), in the region of Prey
Nokor—which they colloquially referred to as Sài Gòn, and which later became Ho Chi Minh
City.

The Chakri Dynasty of Thailand has included marriages between royal relatives, but marriages

between dynasties and foreigners, including foreign royals, are rare. This is in part due to Section
11 of 1924 Palace Law of Succession which excludes members of the royal family from the line
of succession if they marry a non-Thai national.
The late king Bhumibol Adulyadej was a first-cousin once removed of his wife, Sirikit, the two
being, respectively, a grandson and a great-granddaughter of Chulalongkorn. Chulalongkorn
married a number of his half-sisters, including Savang Vadhana and Sunandha Kumariratana; all
shared the same father, Mongkut. He also married Dara Rasmi, a princess of a vassal state.
Vietnam
The Lý dynasty which ruled Dai Viet (Vietnam) married its princesses off to regional rivals to
establish alliances with them. One of these marriages was between a Lý empress regnant (Lý
Chiêu Hoàng) and a member of the Chinese-descended Trần (Chen) clan (Trần Thái Tông),
which enabled the Trần to then topple the Lý and established their own Trần dynasty.
A Lý princess also married into the Hồ family, which was also of Chinese origin and later
established the Hồ dynasty which also took power after having a Tran princess marry one of their
members, Hồ Quý Ly.
The beginning of the Khmer race as suggested by their own historians was due to the
marriage of a Hindu Brahmin from the Chola Dynesty with a local princess-Gaudes, R. (1993).

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Kauṇḍinya, Preah Thaong, and the “Nāgī Somā”: Some Aspects of a Cambodian Legend. Asian
Folklore Studies, 52(2), 333–358. https://doi.org/10.2307/1178160

Ledgerwood, J. L. (1995). Khmer Kinship: The Matriliny/Matriarchy Myth. Journal of

Anthropological Research, 51(3), 247–261. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630360states that
matriarchal and matrilineal character of the Khmer society resulted in expanding kingdoms.
The Mataram Kingdom was a Javanese Hindu–Buddhist kingdom that flourished between the
8th and 11th centuries. It was based in Central Java, and later in East Java. Established by
King Sanjaya, the kingdom was ruled by the Sailendra dynasty.During the intervening period of
late 8th century and the mid-9th century, the kingdom saw the blossoming of classical Javanese
art and architecture reflected in the rapid growth of temple construction. Temples dotted the
landscape of its heartland in Mataram. The most notable of the temples constructed in Mataram
are Kalasan, Sewu, Borobudur and Prambanan, all quite close to present-day city of Yogyakarta. 
Later the dynasty divided into two kingdoms identified by religious patronage—
the Buddhist and Shivaist dynasties. Civil war followed. The outcome was that the Mataram
kingdom was divided into two powerful kingdoms; the Shivaist dynasty of Mataram kingdom
in Java led by Rakai Pikatan and the Buddhist dynasty of Srivijaya kingdom in Sumatra led
by Balaputradewa. Hostility between them did not end until 1016 when the Sailendra clan based
in Srivijaya incited a rebellion by Wurawari, a vassal of the Mataram kingdom, and sacked the
capital of Watugaluh in East Java. Srivijaya rose to become the undisputed hegemonic empire in
the region. The Shivaist dynasty survived, reclaimed east Java in 1019, and then established
the Kahuripan kingdom led by Airlangga, son of Udayana of Bali.

In the middle of the 9th century however, the two dynasties were united through the marriage
bonds between a prince of Sanjaya, Rakai Pikatan and Pramodawhardani, a daughter of the
Shailendra dynasty. Nonetheless, the two dynasties appeared to have competed with each other
to build temples. The Sanjaya dynasty constructed Hindu temples, the largest of which was the
Prambanan temple in Yogyakarta. Tthe Shailendra dynasty constructed Buddhist temples, of
which the largest was Borobudur, also known as Kamulan.

Another example is that of Princess Pramodhawardhani: This story is as follows- King

Samaratungga son of King Samaragrawira who ruled from 792 to 835 CE. Following his
father’s example, he chose to focus his effort within his dominion and dedicate his life to the
prosperity of his subjects. He was famous for completing the massive stone mandala, the
Borobudur Temple, during his reign in 825 CE.

King Samaratungga was succeeded by Princess Pramodhawardhani, a Buddhist Mahayana

princess who was married to the Hindu-Shivaist Rakai Pikatan, the son of a landlord in Central
Java. Rakai Pikatan was enthroned as the King of the Medang Kingdom. During the reign of
King Rakai Pikatan, Hinduism and Buddhism co-existed peacefully most of the time, and the
construction of the Sewu Temple complex was finalized. Later, King Rakai Pikatan decided to
abdicate his throne in favor of his youngest son, Dyah Lokapala who rule from 856 to 880s CE.
Rakai Pikatan renounced worldly affairs and became a hermit known as Sang Prabhu Jatiningrat.
The reign of King Rakai Pikatan also marked the decline of Mahayana Buddhist influence in the
Medang Kingdom as it was slowly converted to Hindu-Shivaist.

18
 Kinshipin in  anthropology is the web of social relationships that form an important part of the
lives of all humans in all societies, although its exact meanings even within this discipline are
often debated. Anthropologist Robin Fox states that "the study of kinship is the study of what
man does with these basic facts of life – mating, gestation, parenthood, socialization, siblingship
etc." Human society is unique, he argues, in that we are "working with the same raw material as
exists in the animal world, but [we] can conceptualize and categorize it to serve social ends."
These social ends include the socialization of children and the formation of basic economic,
political and religious groups.
Kinship can refer to the patterns of social relationships themselves, or it can refer to the study of
the patterns of social relationships in one or more human cultures (i.e. kinship studies). Over its
history, anthropology has developed a number of related concepts and terms in the study of
kinship, such as descent, descent group, lineage, affinity/affine, consanguinity/cognate / fictive
kinship. Broadly, kinship patterns may be considered to include people related by both descent
– i.e. social relations during development – and by marriage. Human kinship relations
through marriage are commonly called "affinity" in contrast to the relationships that arise in
one's group of origin, which may be called one's descent group. In some cultures, kinship
relationships may be considered to extend out to people an individual has economic or political
relationships with, or other forms of social connections. Within a culture, some descent groups
may be considered to lead back to gods or animal ancestors (totems). This may be conceived of
on a more or less literal basis. Further, even within these two broad usages of the term, there are
different theoretical approaches.
Kinship can also refer to a principle by which individuals or groups of individuals are organized
into social groups, roles, categories and genealogy by means of kinship
terminologies. Family relations can be represented concretely (mother, brother, grandfather) or
abstractly by degrees of relationship (kinship distance). A relationship may be relative (e.g. a
father in relation to a child) or reflect an absolute (e.g. the difference between a mother and a
childless woman). Degrees of relationship are not identical to heirship or legal succession. Many
codes of ethics consider the bond of kinship as creating obligations between the related persons
stronger than those between strangers, as in Confucian filial piety.
In a more general sense, kinship may refer to a similarity or affinity between entities on the basis
of some or all of their characteristics that are under focus. This may be due to a
shared ontological origin, a shared historical or cultural connection, or some other perceived
shared features that connect the two entities. For example, a person studying the ontological
roots of human languages (etymology) might ask whether there is kinship between the English
word seven and the German word sieben. It can be used in a more diffuse sense as in, for
example, the news headline "Madonna feels kinship with vilified Wallis Simpson", to imply a
felt similarity or empathy between two or more entities.
In biology, "kinship" typically refers to the degree of genetic relatedness or coefficient of
relationship between individual members of a species (e.g. as in kin selection theory). It may also
be used in this specific sense when applied to human relationships, in which case its meaning is
closer to consanguinity or genealogy.
Suryavarman II, for example (died c. 1150), king of the Khmer (Cambodian) empire defeated
rival claimants to the throne and established sole rule over the Khmer empire by 1113, reuniting
the empire after more than 50 years of unrest. Suryavarman was formally crowned in 1113, with

19
his guru, the powerful priest Divakarapandita, presiding. The king was a religious reformer who
blended the mystical cults of Vishnu and Shiva, supreme Hindu deities,
and promulgated Vaishnavism as the official religion, rather than Buddhism, which had briefly
flourished under his predecessors.

Warlike and ambitious, he expanded the limits of the empire to include much of what is
now Thailand; his patronage stretched as far west as the frontiers of the Burmese state of Pagan,
south to the coast of the Gulf of Thailand (including part of the eastern coast of the Malay
Peninsula), and east to the kingdom of Champa.

In her article-Blood and marriage in Cambodia, Mylee Thavat

(https://www.newmandala.org/995/) hints at the ties between the royalty, the army and the senior
administration by marriage as a vehicle to retain and stay in power.

Southeast Asia, vast region of Asia situated east of the Indian subcontinent and south of China.
It consists of two dissimilar portions: a continental projection (commonly called mainland
Southeast Asia) and a string of archipelagoes to the south and east of the mainland (insular
Southeast Asia). Extending some 700 miles (1,100 km) southward from the mainland into insular
Southeast Asia is the Malay Peninsula; this peninsula structurally is part of the mainland, but it
also shares many ecological and cultural affinities with the surrounding islands and thus
functions as a bridge between the two regions.

Mainland Southeast Asia is divided into the countries

of Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Vietnam, and the small city-state
of Singapore at the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula; Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam, which
occupy the eastern portion of the mainland, often are collectively called the Indochinese
Peninsula. Malaysia is both mainland and insular, with a western portion on the Malay Peninsula
and an eastern part on the island of Borneo. Except for the small sultanate of Brunei (also on
Borneo), the remainder of insular Southeast Asia consists of the archipelagic nations
of Indonesia and the Philippines.

Southeast Asia stretches some 4,000 miles at its greatest extent (roughly from northwest to
southeast) and encompasses some 5,000,000 square miles (13,000,000 square km) of land and
sea, of which about 1,736,000 square miles is land. Mount Hkakabo in northern Myanmar on the
border with China, at 19,295 feet (5,881 metres), is the highest peak of mainland Southeast Asia.
Although the modern nations of the region are sometimes thought of as being small, they are—
with the exceptions of Singapore and Brunei—comparatively large. Indonesia, for example, is
more than 3,000 miles from west to east (exceeding the west-east extent of the continental
United States) and more than 1,000 miles from north to south; the area of Laos is only slightly
smaller than that of the United Kingdom; and Myanmar is considerably larger than France.

In contemporary definition, Southeast Asia consists of two geographic regions:

1. Mainland Southeast Asia, also known as the Indochinese Peninsula and historically
as Indochina, comprising Cambodia, Laos, Peninsular Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand,
and Vietnam.

20
 2. Maritime Southeast Asia, also known as the Malay Archipelago and historically
as Nusantara, comprising the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India), Brunei, East
Malaysia, East Timor, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Singapore.

Imperial Mandalas: Angkor and Bagan

The mandalas of mainland Southeast Asia combined compassion with conquest. Their rulers
were both empire-seeking “world conquerors” and nirvana-seeking “world renouncers,” as the
late Harvard scholar Stanley Tambiah put it. Nowhere was this empire-enlightenment link more
striking than in Angkor, which grew to be the largest empire of Southeast Asia around the 12th
century. During that time, it produced two grand monuments: the Hindu Angkor Wat built by
Suryavarman II (1113-1150) and the Buddhist Bayon erected by its greatest ruler, Jayavarman
VII (1181-1201).

These and other Khmer monuments provide one of the most striking examples of how art
follows politics and how politics shapes art. Angkor’s greatest ruler, Jayavarman VII, embraced
Mahayana Buddhism in what had been a staunch Hindu ruling class. The switch might have been
inspired by his disillusionment with Hinduism which was seen as having failed to protect Angkor
from its sacking by the rival Champa kingdom in A.D. 1177. But after his death Hinduism
regained prominence, leading to the mutilation of Buddha images in Bayon, which Jayavarman
VII had erected as his state temple.

Haunting faces of Avalokiteasvra (Boddhisatva) still adorn the Bayon, which stands at the center
of the royal capital of Angkor Thom that was conceived as a Jayagiri, or victory mountain, after
Jayavarman VII’s defeat of the Champa kingdom in A.D. 1190. The Bayon contains numerous
stone reliefs depicting the battle between the Chams and the Khmers. While Angkor Wat is
mainly a religious monument, the Bayon provides an extensive portrayal of society and politics
of the Angkor period.

Bay
on is a Khmer temple in the center of Angkor Thom built in the late 12th or early 13th century
as the official temple of Buddhist King Jayavarman VII. Filled with smiling faces this temple
is the most intriguing and captivates imagination and curiosity.

21
Bayon towers
Bayon currently has 37 stone towers in ruins, when built there were originally 54 towers
which represents the 54 days of the lunar calender and the number of provinces under the
Khmer empire rule. Each tower 13 meters tall adorn stone carved smiling faces with their eyes
closed. Within the temple there are 216 smiling serene faces carved on the towers. Since the
construction of the temple several of the towers have fallen and around 200 faces still
remain. There are several theories relating to the meaning of these faces, one belief is that
these faces belong to the bodhisattva (Buddhist enlightened being) of compassion known as
Avalokiteśvara . 

Stacked sandstone blocks some weighing as much as 2,000 lbs were carved to form the
faces

22
 A stone relief at Bayon depicts a battle between Chams and Khmers.

The Nirvana Route stretched across the Silk Road: Ancient centers of Myanmar were another
major node of the Nirvana route. A popular Myanmar story about the founding of Myanmar’s
most sacred site, the Shwedagon pagoda, attests to this. According to the story, two merchant
brothers from Ukkala (modern Yangon), Tapusa and Bhallika, were traveling in India, when they
met the newly enlightened Buddha. After offering him honey cakes, the brothers became the
Buddha’s first lay disciples. The Buddha gave them eight strands of his hair, which were
enshrined at the Shwedagon. According to Pali records, the brothers were actually from Utkala
(Odisha) and their link with Yangon was a later formulation. Whatever the case, it was not
uncommon for Hindu and Buddhist centers in Southeast Asia to be named after Indian places,
the result of close trade, migration and spiritual links. Odisha also inspired the naming of Ussa,
the ancient name of Pegu (Bago).

Bagan was where the first imperial mandala of Myanmar flourished between the 9th to 13th
centuries. It is still dotted with over 2,000 temples; the original number of temples, small and
large, might have been more. These were constructed with tax breaks and land grants provided
by rulers such as Anawrahta and Kyansittha, to earn merit for a higher rebirth and ultimately
salvation or Nirvana. “The more one donated to the religion – the bigger the temple built, the
larger the land and labor endowments one made – the more legitimate the king and his state
became. The scale increased as others in the society followed the royal example,” writes Michael
Aung-Thwin, one of the foremost historians of Myanmar.

23
Bagan’s scared landscape. Photo by Amitav Acharya.

Buddhism not only became a source of legitimacy in Myanmar but also a source of  rivalry with
its neighbors, triggering conflict between the later Myanmar kingdoms of Hanthawaddy (today’s
Bago) and Ava and the Thai kingdom of Ayutthaya, including wars over the possession of white
elephants, deeply associated with the birth of Buddha.

Maritime Mandalas: Srivijaya and Champa

Srivijaya, centered around Palembang in Sumatra, was at the heart of the maritime Nirvana
Route. It was the commercial crossroads of Southeast Asia from the 7th to the 13th centuries,
and major center of Buddhist learning. The Chinese monk Yijing, who in 7th century traveled to
India to study at the Nalanda monastery and collect Buddhist scripts, spent several years in
Srivijaya to translate them and write his own records of Buddhist exchanges between China and
India. He described the presence of more than 1,000 Buddhist monks in Srivijaya who could
study Buddhism with the same ease and facility as in India. Srivijaya’s territorial footprint and
cultural impact extended across the Malacca straits to west Malaysia and southern Thailand,
where there are a number of Srivijayan style temples, especially War Phra Mahathat in Nakhon
Si Thammarat.

24
Champa merits its own place in the history of the Nirvana Route. A classic mandala, Champa
was a loosely organized polity on the eastern coast of today’s central and south Vietnam.
Champa owed its prosperity to its location on the maritime routes that stretched from China to
India. Before being defeated by the northern Dai Viet state in 1471, Champa was an enterprising
civilization, known for its innovations in architecture, seafaring, and rice cultivation. It was with
the help of Champa’s “hundred-day” rice that southern Song China was able to achieve its
agriculture revolution to feed millions of its people. Champa rulers claimed personal legitimacy
by closely identifying with Hindu god Shiva, although other Hindu deities such as Vishnu and
Brahma were also worshiped. In Champa, Shiva was known not as the destroyer of the world (as
is the norm in India), but as the protector. At times Buddhism found patronage in Champa, as
seen in the relics of the monastery at Dong Duong.

The towered temples of Champa (now called “Cham towers”), combining Indian, Javanese, and
Khmer aspects, are not as grandiose as the temple complexes of Angkor. But they are true
beauties in brick, representing a high point of artistic achievement in the ancient world. The
towers were political-religious shrines, which sometimes served as temple-mausoleums of its
rulers.

25
Temple architecture in southern India followed two main evolutionary trajectories that
spanned roughly 800 years. Temples often feature sculptural panels of deities, myths and legends
on their outer walls. We examine some of the legends, such as the Tripurantaka legend of Shiva,
commonly depicted on temple walls, for astronomical symbolism. Heavenly bodies, such as the
Sun, Moon and planets, are deified in traditions of the Indic religions, and we examine some of
these deities depicted in temple sculptures. We also discuss the Dikpalas—guardians of the
directions—often depicted to safeguard temple precincts. The phenomena of Sun Temples,
1
depictions of eclipses, zodiacal stones and navagraha worship are also dealt with.

The Universal Mandala: Borobudur

Built in the 8th century by the ruling Shailendra dynasty of central Java, Borobudur is a unique
cultural universe combining the features of a mountain, a stupa, and a pyramid of the megalithic
period, showing how Indian themes were grafted onto a pre-existing Javanese genius. Its vast
reliefs depict two major Buddhist narratives: the Lalitavistara, which narrates the life of Buddha,
and Gandavyuha, which portrays the pilgrimage of the youth Sudhana in his search for
knowledge. While the life of Buddha is sketched in many Buddhist monuments around Asia, the
reliefs of Borobudur contain important variations. One example is the “Great Departure” of
Prince Siddhartha from the royal palace as he embarks on his quest for enlightenment. The feet
of his horse are lifted by Hindu gods Indra and Brahma to stop any noise that could wake up the
guards assigned to prevent his departure; a perfect blending of Buddhist and Hindu narratives of
Nirvana.

----------------------------------------------------------------
1.FROM MEGALITHS TO TEMPLES: ASTRONOMY IN THE LITHIC RECORD OF
SOUTH INDIA Srikumar M. Menon School of Humanities, National Institute of Advanced
Studies, Bangalore 560012, India.

26
Relief in Borobudur showing the “Great Departure” (Siddhartha leaving the palace). Photo by Amitav Acharya.

As a Buddhist text, Gandavyuha was circulated widely around Asia, sometimes as a gift among
rulers. For example, the Chinese emperor received a Sanskrit language text of the book as a gift
from the king of Odisha in the 8th century.

Gandavyuha gives Borobudur a special meaning as a universal mandala. Its message, as leading
Borobudur scholar John Miksic notes, is “that one should not expect to find enlightenment only
in one place, or in one source. Sudhana’s Good Friends [spiritual instructors] are women, men
and children from all levels of society, as well as supernatural beings. Anyone is eligible for
enlightenment and there is no suggestion that wisdom is something to be jealously hoarded and
imparted only to the elite.”

Borobudur thus represents the essence of the Nirvana Route. Its Buddhist-Hindu conception of
enlightenment beckoned all people, irrespective of age, sex, wealth, or place of origin. What a far
cry from the European Enlightenment, with its parochial Eurocentric worldview that contributed
much to racism, elitism, and imperialism!

27
 CHAPTER II
The STRUCTURE of the Borobudur as a large base Stupa

The evidence for a belief in Adi-Buddha is also evidenced by the symbolism of Borobudur’s
final stupa. Inside that stupa once was an incomplete and rough Buddha statue which is depicting
the Adi Buddha which is unimaginable by humans. This is seen as proof that theistic Buddhism
was present in Java since at least the 8th century.
Indonesian Buddhayana followers use the greeting Namo Sanghyang Adi Buddhaya. The
complete salutation which is commonly used as a greeting in the books’ preface, letters, or
meetings is:
Namo Sanghyang Adi Buddhaya
Namo Buddhaya, Bodhisatvaya Mahasatvaya

Various unique forms of Buddhist architecture developed in Indonesia and Malaysia the most common of which is the
stone Candi which are built as a symbol of Mount Meru. Others were built in punden berundak (step pyramids) style
— small terraced sanctuaries built on mountains — and pertapaan, (‘places of austerities’ or hermitages) built on
mountain slopes.

Approximately 40 kilometers (25 mi) northwest of Yogyakarta, Borobudur is located in an

elevated area between two twin volcanoes, Sundoro-Sumbing and Merbabu-Merapi, and two
rivers, the Progo and the Elo. According to local myth, the area known as Kedu Plain is a
Javanese 'sacred' place and has been dubbed 'the garden of Java' due to its high agricultural
fertility. Besides Borobudur, there are other Buddhist and Hindu temples in the area, including
the Prambanan temples compound. During the restoration in the early 1900s, it was discovered
that three Buddhist temples in the region, Borobudur, Pawon and Mendut, are lined in one
straight line position. It might be accidental, but the temples' alignment is in conjunction with a

28
native folk tale that a long time ago, there was a brick-paved road from Borobudur to Mendut
with walls on both sides. The three temples (Borobudur–Pawon–Mendut) have similar
architecture and ornamentation derived from the same time period, which suggests that ritual
relationship between the three temples, in order to have formed a sacred unity, must have
existed, although exact ritual process is yet unknown

Suroloyo Peak is the highest summit at the picturesque Menoreh Hills, which share the
neighbourhood with the renowned eco-tourism destination Kulon Progo. This peak is one of the
most popular spots to catch Yogyakarta’s most glorious sunrise that cast rays of light upon the
Borobudur Temple and Java’s big four mountains: Merapi, Merbabu, Sumbing, and Sindoro.
Other than the breathtaking view, this peak also holds some religious artefacts, including ascetic
pavilions and statues.

Unlike other temples, which were built on a flat surface, Borobudur was built on a bedrock hill,
265 m (869 ft) above sea level and 15 m (49 ft) above the floor of the dried-out paleolake. The
lake's existence was the subject of intense discussion among archaeologists in the twentieth
century; Borobudur was thought to have been built on a lake shore or even floated on a lake. In
1931, a Dutch artist and a scholar of Hindu and Buddhist architecture, W.O.J. Nieuwenkamp,
developed a theory that Kedu Plain was once a lake and Borobudur initially represented a lotus
flower floating on the lake. Lotus flowers are found in almost every Buddhist work of art, often
serving as a throne for buddhas and base for stupas. The architecture of Borobudur itself suggests
a lotus depiction, in which Buddha postures in Borobudur symbolize the Lotus Sutra, mostly
found in many Mahayana Buddhism (a school of Buddhism widely spread in the east
Asia region) texts. Three circular platforms on the top are also thought to resent a lotus
leaf. Nieuwenkamp's theory, however, was contested by many archaeologists because the natural
environment surrounding the monument is a dry land.
Geologists, on the other hand, support Nieuwenkamp's view, pointing out clay sediments found
near the site.  A study of stratigraphy, sediment and pollen samples conducted in 2000 supports
the existence of a paleolake environment near Borobudur, which tends to confirm
Nieuwenkamp's theory. The lake area fluctuated with time and the study also proves that
Borobudur was near the lake shore circa thirteenth and fourteenth century. River flows
and volcanic activities shape the surrounding landscape, including the lake. One of the most
active volcanoes in Indonesia, Mount Merapi, is in the direct vicinity of Borobudur and has been

29
very active since the Pleistocene.

The overall structure of Borobudur is made up of a square foundation along with a total of
nine platforms. Of those nine platforms six of them are squared while the remaining three are
circular. The structure can be further divided into three main levels: a base, a body, and the top.
The architecture of Borobudur would also signify a gradual process as it starts off square in the
lower terraces, transitions to elliptical with the first two upper terraces and finally becomes circular
in the third upper terrace.

Stupa, Ratna and Vajra pinnacles

Bell-shaped perforated stupas of Borobudur.

The religions dedicated in the temples of ancient Java can be easily distinguished mainly from its
pinnacles on top of the roof. Bell-shaped stupa can be found on the Buddhist temples' roof, while
ratna, the pinnacle ornaments symbolize gem, mostly founds in Hindu temples.
The typical stupas in Javanese classical temple architecture is best described as those
of Borobudur style; the bell-shaped stupa. The stupa in Borobudur upper round terrace
of Arupadhatu consist of round lotus pedestal (padmasana or "lotus pad"), gently sloped bell-
shaped dome (anda), a rectangular or octagonal shape (harmika) sits on top of the dome serves
as the base of hexagonal rod-like pinnacle (yasti).
Each stupa is pierced by numerous decorative openings, either in the shape of rectangular or

30
rhombus. Statues of the Buddha sit inside the pierced stupa enclosures. Borobudur was first
thought more likely to have served as a stupa, instead of a temple. A stupa is intended as
a shrine for the Buddha. Sometimes stupas were built only as devotional symbols of Buddhism.
A temple, on the other hand, is used as a house of worship.

Prambanan vajra pinnacle.

Ratna pinnacle took form of a curved obtuse pyramidal shape or sometimes cylindrical,
completed with several base structure or pedestals took form as some ornamental seams
(Javanese:pelipit). This form is known as keben pinnacle or the form of Barringtonia
asiatica fruit. It can be found as the pinnacle of both Hindu and Buddhist temples. Nevertheless,
it is most prevalent in Hindu temples. The example of temple with ratna pinnacle
is Sambisari and Ijo temple.
In Prambanan, the stylized vajra replaced ratna as the temple's pinnacles. In ancient Javanese
temple architecture, the vajra pinnacle is probably served as the Hindu counterparts of Buddhist
stupa pinnacle. This practice is preserved in Balinese Hindu temples of later period where the
multi-tiered meru towers are crowned with vajra pinnacles. Nevertheless, vajra is actually a
familiar symbols in both dharmic faiths. In later periods of Eastern Java temple architecture, the
false lingga-yoni, or cube can be found in Hindu temple's roof, while cylindrical dagoba on top
of Buddhist counterparts.
By virtue of their spatial connection to the terrain and the necessity for secure foundations, works
of architecture differ from objects that can be inverted or carried away. The bottom edge, where
a building rests on the ground, requires a different treatment than all other edges and surfaces (>
tectonics). The base reveals the relationship between a building and the ground: it pushes into the
earth, rests on the ground, or is detached from it. Whether a building makes the impression of
standing upright, reclining or floating depends upon whether it has a base, and if so on its
formation. The connection between the building and the ground also determines the way in
which the building relates to the terrain of the exterior space and how the two join together to
form a spatial unity.

31
 Depending upon its design, the base shows us how a building rests upon the ground. Solidity
and robustness produce a tectonic expression of load-bearing capacity. Particularly in historic
buildings, these qualities are achieved by means of rough rusticated masonry or the use of natural
stone in the pedestal zone, or by squat proportions and apertures smaller than those in upper
storeys. Bases also ensure that individual architectural elements, such as > columns and pillars,
neither sink into the earth optically nor seem detached from it. Although the base belongs to the
building, and not to the earth, it fulfils the task of creating a connection to the terrain, broadening
out by means of transitions, steps, pedestals or terraces. In ways comparable to the shoes we
wear on our feet, materials also convey distinctions between the fineness of the interior and the
coarseness of the exterior.

Along with the building, the base also brings its occupants down to earth, shaping direct contact
with the passersby and vehicles that move around the building. Through its palpable presence
and tactile qualities, the base constitutes the first zone of contact for approaching a building
within its immediate surroundings, and is its first distinctive identifying symbol. Essentially, it is
reminiscent of the role of the pedestal, which provided stability to ancient temples as the first
islands of civilization within inaccessible terrain. Under certain circumstances, the task of the
base, namely to provide stability and an optical foundation, may be extended by its use as a

32
basement storey. With reduced apertures, the rooms contained in the base are partially inserted
into the ground. The unfortunately widespread bad habit, however, of digging out the base in
order to provide living space with improved illumination deprives a building of stable grounding.
The mental state of the inhabitant of a massive basement storey that serves a building as a base,
on the other hand, is shaped by a sense of the apartment’s anchoring into the ground.
Right from the 2 nd Century onwards, Kushans in order to house relics of the Buddha, which
may have been sourced from earlier monuments, and originally buried at the site around 78 CE.
Buddhist texts mention that frankincense was used during religious services at Dharmarajika,
while the complex was paved with colourful glass tiles. Though not Buddhists,he Kushans in
general were great patrons of Buddhism, and, starting with Emperor Kanishka, they also
employed elements of Zoroastrianism in their pantheon. They played an important role in the
spread of Buddhism to Central Asia and China.These have a Large square or circular plinth and
several diminishing terraces as mentioned before.

“Prambanan,” explains archeologist Manggar Sarl Ayuati, “is one of the largest Hindu temple
complexes in Asia with an enclosed area 390 meters on a side. It was built in 856 by King Rakai
Pikatan of the Sanjaya dynasty, which ruled the Mataram Kingdom, and was expanded by later
kings. It is dedicated to Siva.”

Prambanan has three concentric courtyards. The innermost contains 16 temples, including the
156-foot-high main temple to Siva and 108-foot temples to Vishnu and Brahma. Each is faced by
a smaller temple for the God’s vahana (mount): Nandi the bull for Siva, Hamsa the swan for
Brahma and Garuda the eagle (Indonesia’s national symbol) for Vishnu. Scenes from
the Ramayana and the life of Krishna are carved on the outer walls of the temples. The Siva
temple has multiple chambers - Siva in the center, Durga in the north, Rishi Agastya in the south
and Ganesha in the west.

The second courtyard originally contained 240 small temples; only 129 have undergone any
degree of restoration. The rest are just piles of rocks. No structures remain in the third courtyard,
and the historical use of that area is unknown. The complex also contains four Buddhist temples,
built by a Hindu king for his Buddhist wife.

Prambanan was abandoned in the 10th century, likely when the Mataram kingdom moved to East
Java following a huge eruption of nearby Mount Merapi that covered the entire area in volcanic
ash. A major earthquake in the 16th century collapsed the upper parts of the main structures. The
temple sustained additional damage in the 6.5-magnitude earthquake of 2006. Repairs were still
underway during our 2014 visit.
I was saddened to hear this spectacular place referred to as a dead monument and to see it
reduced to a picnic spot for tourists. Puja is performed here only once a year, but that brings
thousands of people from all over Indonesia to worship Siva, Brahma and Vishnu. With some
difficulty, puja can be arranged at other times of the year. Our guide, Pak Dewa Suratnaya, a
journalist with Media Hindu magazine, said strongly that these great temples should be brought
to life again through regular worship. I agreed with him wholeheartedly.

33
Diagram of the main Siva temple; repairs underway shortly after the 2006 earthquake; (inset)
the partially collapsed central Siva temple around 1895, after its rediscovery by the British.

34
taxila an illustrated account of archaeological excavations,By Marshall John, google books

One prime example of the large base and conical top design id the Dharmarajika Stupa also
referred to as the Great Stupa of Taxila which is a Buddhist stupa near Taxila, Pakistan.
It dates from as early as the 2nd century CE, and was built by the Kushans to house small bone
fragments of the Buddha. It has been claimed that that Dharmarajika Stupa was built over the
remains of an even older stupa that had been built by the Mauryan emperor King Ashoka in the
3rd century BCE,  though other archeologists alternatively suggest that this is unlikely. Indo-
Greek coins found at the site date from the 2nd century BCE, suggesting earliest possible
establishment of a religious monument at the site.

The stupa, along with the large monastic complex that later developed around it, forms part of
the Ruins of Taxila - which were inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980.

The Kushans were most probably one of five branches of the Yuezhi confederation, an Indo-

European nomadic people of possible Tocharian origin, who migrated from northwestern China
(Xinjiang and Gansu) and settled in ancient Bactria. The founder of the dynasty, Kujula
Kadphises, followed Greek religious ideas and iconography after the Greco-Bactrian tradition,
and also followed traditions of Hinduism, being a devotee of the Hindu God Shiva.  Small stupas
that predate the main stupa are found throughout the Dharmarajika site, and surrounded an
earlier core stupa in an irregular layout. It is known that the earlier core stupa contained a
pathway for circumambulation that was made of plaster, and decorated with shell bangles in
geometric patterns. The earlier stupa likely had four gates in axial directions.

35
The site came under control of Persian Sassanid rule, and suffered a period of stagnation. Large-
scale developments took place during the late Kushan and Kidarite era which added numerous
monasteries and stupas to the site.

Plan of the Dharmarajika Stupa.

36
The site was devastated by the White Huns in the 5th century CE, and then abandoned.
The location of the stupa and its monastic community about 1 kilometre outside of Sirkap aligns
with ancient Gandharan beliefs that the Buddha recommended monasteries should be neither
"too far" nor "too close" to adjacent towns. Three distinctive types of masonry in the buildings
around the main stupa suggest the contributions of different periods to the building activity.

37
Core stupa

The passageway between the main stupa and several smaller stupas was used for the practice of pradakshina.

Dharmarajika Stupa is the largest of all stupas in the Taxila region, Surrounding the main
mound is a passageway for pradakshina — the ancient practice of walking around a holy site.
The stupa's large anda, or hemispherical mound, is damaged − though the plinth of the mound,
known as the medhi, is still largely intact. The anda mound was made of ashlar stone. The
stupa's harmika, or fence like structure built atop the anda mound, has been lost.
The stupa's southern gateway was initially considered the most important, though the
construction of four smaller stupas (termed G7, G8, S7, Q1) to the west of the stupa indicate that
this then likely became the preferred entrance for those performing circambulation. Later
constructions around the "Eastern Avenue" then shifted the preferred route for circambulation to
the eastern side of the stupa.

Before entering the main sacred areas, visitors to the shrine from Sirkap would pass through a
large building, now termed building H, that would openly display relics.  Visitors likely
venerated the relics at building H before entering the main stupa area.

It is both a temple and a complete exposition of doctrine, designed as a whole, and completed
as it was designed, with only one major afterthought. It seems to have provided a pattern for
Hindu temple mountains at Angkor and in its own day it must have been one of the wonders of
the Asian world.

Built about 800, it probably fell into neglect by c. 1000 and was overgrown. It was excavated and
restored by the Dutch between 1907 and 1911. It now appears as a large square plinth (the
processional path) upon which stand five terraces gradually diminishing in size. The plans of the
squares are stepped out twice to a central projection. Above the fifth terrace stands a series of
three diminishing circular terraces carrying small stupas, crowned at the centre of the summit by
a large circular bell-shaped stupa. Running up the centre of each face is a long staircase; all four
are given equal importance.

SOLID STRUCTURE

There are no internal cell shrines, and the terraces are solid. Borobudur is thus a Buddhist
stupa in the Indian sense. Each of the square terraces is enclosed in a high wall with pavilions
and niches along the whole perimeter, which prevents the visitor on one level from seeing into
any of the other levels. All of these terraces are lined with relief sculptures, and the niches

38
contain Buddha figures. The top three circular terraces are open and unwalled, and the 72 lesser
bell-shaped stupas they support are of open stone latticework; inside each was a huge stone
Buddha figure. The convex contour of the whole monument is steepest near the ground,
flattening as it reaches the summit. The bottom plinth, the processional path, was the major
afterthought. It consists of a massive heap of stone pressed up against the original bottom story
of the designed structure so that it obscures an entire series of reliefs—a few of which have been
uncovered in modern times. It was probably added to hold together the bottom story, which
began to spread under the pressure of the immense weight of earth and stone accumulated above.

The Borobodur complex is an open monument; there are no chambers ; it has no roof and no
vaults, (like Candi Sewu). The complex is built in the form of a giant pyramid shaped mandala
with 10 ascending layers: the 10 Buddhist worlds represented by the 10 layers. Ascending from
the base, there are six square terraces and a courtyard and then, at the top 3 round terraces and at
the top, a central main stupa measuring 35 meters from the base or 42 meters tall.

A complex of stupas – a gigantic Buddhist monument – at 42 meters or 100 feet tall and a total
of 504 stupas in its 123 square meter grounds, it is the largest Buddhist monument in the world.
The hundreds of stupas are not just a mass of stones ( laval andesite rocks ) but carved and built (
and all laid without mortar ) on top of a natural hillock, where using the terraces of the natural
hills, the builders stacked stones to make these monumental stupas in perfect symmetry and total
harmony.

39
A map of India in the 2nd century AD showing the extent of the Kushan Empire (in yellow) during the reign of
Kanishka. Most historians consider the empire to have variously extended as far east as the middle Ganges plain,
to Varanasi on the confluence of the Ganges and the Jumna, or probably even Pataliputra.

The mandala is a diagram representing a spiritual practice of attainment in the Tibetan school of
Vajrayana and also in the Sri Vijayan school as well. What type of mandala is Borobodur ? This
is difficult to say. There are as many as 3,500 types of mandalas and we cannot precisely fix
Borobodur as a particular type of mandala.

Each side of the Borobodur complex is 120 feet long and decreases as it goes up. If we were to
circumambulate each level, it would encompass a total of 5 km.The entrance to Borobodur is
at the east and the Buddhas face east.

Borobodur took about 70 years to be built by the architect Gunadharma .There is a small hill
directly facing Borobodur and folklore says that this hill is said to represent the sleeping body
profile of Gunadvara.

There are a total of 504 stupas in the entire complex, each stupa enclosing a life size stone
Buddha. However, many are now empty due to pillage. Remarkably, no Buddha image is the
same, each Buddha image faces all various directions and with various hand mudras with all the
6 types of mudras all represented. The 3 upper terraces have 72 Buddhas; the lower terraces have
432 with total of 504. All the numbers add up to the number 9 ( the largest single digit indiger ).
All the stupas have the stocky bulbous Central Java shape. Each stupa consists of the top or
harmuca which holds holy relics relic holding top and the main body or anda sitting on a lotus
base. But, not all stupas in Borobodur look the same. The stupas in the upper and lower terraces
are differentiated by the harmuca and the anda. The stupas of the lower terraces have octogonal
shaped harmuca and the anda enclosing the Buddha have many tiny square shaped openings or
holes. However, the stupas of the upper terraces have a square shaped harmuca and diamond
shaped openings in the anda.

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 PERFECT SYMMETRY

The base of each stupa equals the height of the stupa. Absolutely perfect symmetry! In fact, all
measurements from every corner and the height of all stupas of Borobodur are governed by this
perfect symmetry.

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The main central stupa at the top which measures 42 meters is still in the process of restoration –
the top has not yet been restored – and is missing the 3 layers of the parasol or ‘chatra’ as can be
seen at the Sarnath temple in India.Mahayana bas relief panels cover each of the 10 layers of
terraced carvings. Each gallery is a masterpieces of Sri Vijayan or Gandaran art. No one panel is
the same, each gallery in each layer representing different Jataka stories and as one goes further

42
up the galleries, the Jataka stories brought to life by the panels get from the ordinary to the more
conceptual.and.spiritual. As the Borobodur complex was being built from 830 CE to 938CE, it
was archaeologists discovered that it could have been revised by as much as three times from
the original plan. In any event, there were no blueprints then and restorers can only surmise by
taking apart the stones and putting them back again. It was abandoned in 938 CE. No one quite
knows why except that, the champions of Buddhism, the Shailendra dynasty were chased out of
Java in 825 CE and this meant that for the next 30 to 40 years thereafter, the royal patronage for
Buddhist temples in java was lost. After the Shailendras were removed, the Sanjayan family
which was a Hindu princely family still continued to support Buddhism but it began to wane.

The whole building symbolizes a Buddhist transition from the lowest manifestations of reality at
the base, through a series of regions representing psychological states, toward the ultimate
condition of spiritual enlightenment at the summit. The unity of the monument effectively
proclaims the unity of the cosmos permeated by the light of truth. The visitor was meant to be
transformed while climbing through the levels of Borobudur, encountering illustrations of
progressively more profound doctrines nearer to the summit. The topmost terrace, whose main
stupa contained an unfinished image of Buddha that was hidden from the spectator’s view,
symbolized the indefinable ultimate spiritual state. The 72 openwork stupas on the circular
terraces, with their barely visible internal Buddhas, symbolize incomplete states of
enlightenment on the borders of manifestation. The usual way for a pilgrim to pay reverence to a
Buddhist stupa is to walk around it, keeping it on his right hand. The vast series of reliefs about
three feet (one metre) high on the exterior walls of the terraces would thus be read by the visitor
in series from right to left. Between the reliefs are decorative scroll panels, and a hundred
monster-head waterspouts carry off the tropical rainwater. The gates on the stairways between
terraces are of the standard Indonesian type, with the face of the Kala monster at the apex
spouting his scrolls.

IMPACT OF THE TRADITIONAL INDONESIAN STEP PYRAMID

DESIGN
Punden terraces or terraces are a building layout structure in the form of multiple terraces or
traps that lead to one point with each terrace getting higher in position. This structure is often
found on archaeological sites in the archipelago , so it is considered one of the characteristics of
the original culture of the archipelago.

Ceto Temple, a Hindu-style temple with a staircase punden structure.

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The basic structure of the terraced punden is found in archaeological sites from the pre-Hindu-
Buddhist Megalithic - Neolithic culture of the Austronesian people , although it was also used in
buildings from the later period, even until the Islamic period entered the archipelago. Its
distribution is recorded in the archipelago to Polynesia , [1] although in the Polynesian region it
is not always in the form of steps, in a structure known as marae by the Maori. The entry of
religions from outside could fade manufacturing practices punden at several places in the
archipelago, but there is a hint of the adoption of the original elements of this in the buildings of
the next period of history, as seen in Borobudur , Candi Ceto , and Complex Funeral Kings
Mataram in Imogiri .

The word "pundèn" (or pundian ) comes from the Javanese language . Said pepund è n which

means "cult objects" similar understanding with the concept kabuyutan the Sundanese people. In
punden terraces, the basic concept held is that the ancestors or those who are worshiped are in
high places (usually mountain peaks ). The term punden terraces emphasizes the function of
worshiping/respecting ancestors, not just the basic structure of the spatial layout.

Prasat Thom of Koh Ker temple site Cambodia

The archaeological site of Koh Ker in northern Cambodia contains a seven-tiered pyramid
called Prang which was probably the state temple of Jayavarman IV. Construction of the
sanctuary was started in 928 AD. At ground level one, side of the square building measures 62 m
(203 ft). The height is 36 m (118 ft). Originally on the top platform stood a huge lingam probably
more than 4 m (13 ft) high and having a weight of several tons. Inscriptions say that it was the
tallest and most beautiful Shiva-ling-am. The ling-am probably stood in a shrine which some
researchers say could have been about 15 m (49 ft) high. On the north side of the pyramid is a
steep staircase leading to the top. Concerning the seventh tier some scientists say, this was the
platform of the shrine because on its sides beautiful reliefs of Garudas were made.

The main pyramid of Sukuh temple

As well as menhirs, stone tables, and stone statues Austronesian megalithic culture
in Indonesia also featured earth and stone step pyramid structure, referred to as punden

44
berundak as discovered in Pangguyangan site near Cisolok [n and in Cipari near Kuningan. The
construction of stone pyramids is based on the native beliefs that mountains and high places are
the abode for the spirit of the ancestors.
The step pyramid is the basic design of 8th century Borobudur Buddhist monument
in Central Java. However the later temples built in Java were influenced by Indian Hindu
architecture, as displayed by the towering spires of Prambanan temple. In the 15th century Java
during the late Majapahit period saw the revival of Austronesian indigenous elements as
displayed by Sukuh temple that somewhat resembles a Mesoamerican pyramid, and also stepped
pyramids of Mount Penanggungan.Borobudur carries with it elements of both the Pundan
terraces and Te Gupta architecture of the sanchi Type.

Post-Borobudur candis

Impact on Post-Borobudur candis illustrate the Buddhist doctrine in different ways. Kalasan,

for example, built in the second half of the 8th century, was a large square shrine on a plinth,
with projecting porticoes at the centre of each face. The roof was surmounted by a high circular
stupa mounted on an octagonal drum, the faces of which bear reliefs of divinities. Topping each
portico was a group of five small stupas, and another large stupa stood at each disengaged corner
of the main shrine. The moldings were restrained and elegantly profiled. Each section of the
exterior wall contains a niche meant for a figure sculpture. The decorative scroll carving is
especially fine.

Another shrine from this period, Candi Sewu, consisted of a large cruciform shrine
surrounded by smaller temples, only one of which has been restored. All of the temples seem to
have had roofs in the form of tiered stupas, compressing the overall Borobudur scheme into the
scope of a storied shrine tower. From Candi Plaosan came many beautiful sculptures, donor
figures, and iconic images of bodhisattvasPerhaps the most interesting of the post-

45
Borobudur Buddhist shrines of the 9th century is Candi Sari. It is an outstanding architectural
invention. From the outside it appears as a large rectangular three-storied block, with the main
entrance piercing the centre of one of the longer sides. The third story stands above a substantial
architrave with horizontal moldings and antefixes. Two windows on each short side, three on
each long, open into each story, though at the rear they are blind. The windows are crowned by
large antefix-like cartouches of ornamental carving based on curvilinear pavilions hung with
strings of gems. The uppermost windows are hooded with the Kala-monster motif. The roof
bears rows of small stupas, and perhaps there was once a large central stupa. Inside, Candi Sari
contains a processional corridor around three interior shrines that were possibly intended for
images of the garbha-dhatu deities, as at Candi Mendut.

The Sewu temple complex is the largest Buddhist compound in the Prambanan area, with
rectangular grounds that measure 185 meters north-south and 165 meters east-west. There is an
entrance on all four cardinal points, but the main entrance is located on the east side. Each of the
entrances is guarded by twin Dvarapala statues. These large guardian statues have been better
preserved, and replicas can be found at Jogja Kraton. There are 249 buildings in the complex are
arranged in a Mandala pattern around the main central hall. This configuration expresses the
Mahayana Buddhist view of the universe. There are 240 smaller temples,
called Perwara (guardian) temples, with similar designs that are arranged in four rectangular
concentric rows. Two outer rows are arranged closer and consist of 168 smaller temples, while
two inner rows, arranged at certain intervals, consist of 72 temples. The 249 temples located in
the second precinct were all made with a square frame but varied by different statues and
orientations. Many of the statues are now gone, and the arrangements on the current site are not
in the original orientations. The statues are comparable to the statues of Borobudur and were
likely made of bronze.

Candi Sewu Layout

46
Along the north-south and east-west central axis at a distance of about 200 meters, between the
second and third rows of the smaller temple are located the apit (flank) temples, a couple on each
cardinal point facing each other. The apit temples are the second largest temples after the main
temple, however only eastern twin apit and a northern one still remain today. These smaller
temples encompass a larger sanctuary that has been heavily looted. Behind the fourth row of
smaller temples lies the stone paved courtyard where the main temple stood on the center.
The nearby temples, Gana temple in the east and Bubrah temple in the south, are suggested as
the part of greater Manjusrigrha vajradhatu mandala complex. Both temples are located around
300 metres from the Sewu main temple. There are northern and western ruins discovered around
the same distance from the main temple, however the stones was too scarce for reconstruction.
These temples suggested that indeed the Sewu temple compound was completed with four
additional temples, located 300 metres from the main temple, which is corresponds with the
mandala and the guardians of the directions concept.

The main temple measures 29 meters in diameter and soars up to 30 meters high. The ground
plan of the main temple is a cross-shaped 20-sided polygon. On each of the four cardinal points
of the main temple, there are four structures projected outward, each with its own stairs,
entrances and rooms, crowned with stupas, which form a cross-like layout. All of the structures
are made from andesite stones.
The main temple has five rooms, one large garbhagriha in the center and four smaller rooms in
each cardinal direction. These four rooms are all connected with outer corner galleries with
balustrades bordered by rows of small stupas. From the findings during the reconstruction
process, it was suggested that the original design of central sanctuary only consisted of a central
roomed temple surrounded by four additional structures with open portals. Doorways were added
later. The portals were narrowed to create door frames on which to attach wooden doors. Some
of the holes to attach doors are still visible. The doorways join the temples together into one

47
main building with five rooms.
The central chamber can be reached from the eastern room. The central chamber is larger than
other rooms with a higher ceiling and a taller roof. Now all the five rooms are empty. However
the lotus carved stone pedestal in the central chamber suggests that the temple once contained a
large bronze Buddhist statue (possible the bronze statue of Manjusri), probably reaching a height
of four meters. The statue is missing, probably looted for scrap metal over the centuries.
However another theory suggested that the main statue was probably constructed from several
stone blocks coated with vajralepa plaster.

Sewu
Layout
According to literary tradition, Nalanda, 10 kilometres north of Rajgir and a suburb of the
ancient city, was visited by Buddha and Mahavira. Ashoka is said to have worshipped at the
chaitya-niches of Sariputra, Buddha's disciple, and erected a temple. By the time of Harsha  A.D.
606-648, Nalanda had become the principal centre of Mahayana learning and a famed University
town with numerous shrines and monasteries which attracted scholars from far and near. The
Chinese Pilgrims Huien Tsang and Fa-hien studied at Nalanda and have left account of the
settlement and its life.
Temple 3 was more than 31 m. high and consisted of seven successive accumulations of which
the two latest belonged to the 11th and 12th centuries and the fifth one, dating from circa 6th
century, was notable for its sculptural wealth. The monasteries were imposing rectangular
buildings, each with an open courtyard, enclosed by a covered verandah which leads into cells,
arranged on the four sides. The cell facing the entrance served as a shrine. Nalanda was an

48
important centre of Pala sculptures and bronzes and has also yielded seals and sealings of great
historical significance.

Nalanda University; Conjectural Reconstruction from Excavated Remains of Temple no. 3 or 5th
Stupa (Sariputra Stupa), c. 6th century CE

Temple no. 3 (also termed Sariputta Stupa) is the most iconic of Nalanda's structures with its
multiple flights of stairs that lead all the way to the top. The temple was originally a small
structure which was built upon and enlarged by later constructions. Archaeological evidence
shows that the final structure was a result of at least seven successive such accumulations of
construction. The fifth of these layered temples is the most interesting and the best preserved
with four corner towers of which three have been exposed. The towers as well as the sides of the
stairs are decorated with exquisite panels of Gupta-era art depicting a variety of stucco figures
including Buddha and the Bodhisattvas, scenes from the Jataka tales. The temple is surrounded
by numerous votive stupas some of which have been built with bricks inscribed with passages
from sacred Buddhist texts. The apex of Temple no. 3 features a shrine chamber which now only
contains the pedestal upon which an immense statue of Buddha must have once rested.
According to Win Maung, the stupa was influenced by Gupta architecture, which itself had
Kushana era influences. In a shrine near the bottom of the staircase, a large image of
Avalotiteshvar was found which was eventually moved to the Museum.

49
Map of Nalanda by Alexander Cunningham, 1861-62

When a building is tapered, the exterior surface area where the wind load is applied is
reduced at higher levels, and increased at lower levels. The convex contour of the whole
monument is steepest near the ground, flattening as it reaches the summit. The bottom plinth, the
processional path, was the major afterthought. It consists of a massive heap of stone pressed up
against the original bottom story of the designed structure so that it obscures an entire series of
reliefs—a few of which have been uncovered in modern times. It was probably added to hold
together the bottom story, which began to spread under the pressure of the immense weight of
earth and stone accumulated above.

50
The stupa complex at Borobudur in Java, Indonesia.
Robert Harding Picture Li

51
 Sanchi Stupa

52
Kalasan  also known as Candi Kalibening, is an 8th-century Buddhist temple
in Java, Indonesia. It is located 13 kilometers (8.1 mi) east of Yogyakarta on the way
to Prambanan temple, on the south side of the main road Jalan Solo between Yogyakarta
and Surakarta. Administratively, it is located in the Kalasan District (kapanewon) of Sleman
Regency.

According to the Kalasan inscription dated 778 AD, written in Sanskrit using Pranagari script,

the temple was erected by the will of Guru Sang Raja Sailendravamçatilaka (the Jewel
of Sailendra family) who succeeded in persuading Maharaja Tejapurnapana Panangkaran (in
another part of the inscription also called Kariyana Panangkaran) to construct Tarabhavanam, a
holy building for the goddess (boddhisattvadevi) Tara.
In addition, a vihara (monastery) was built for buddhist monks from the Sailendra family's realm.
Panangkaran awarded the Kalaça village to sangha (buddhist monastic community). According
to the date of this inscription, Kalasan temple is the oldest of the temples built in the Prambanan
Plain.

Despite being renovated and partially rebuilt during the Dutch colonial era, the temple currently
is in poor condition. Compared to other temples nearby such as Prambanan, Sewu,
and Sambisari the temple is not well maintained.
The temple stands on a square 14.20 meters sub-basement. The temple plan is cross-shaped, and
designed as a twelve-cornered polygon. Each of four cardinal points has stairs and gates adorned
with Kala-Makara and rooms measuring 3,5 square meters. No statue is to be found in the
smaller rooms facing north, west, and south; but the lotus pedestals suggest that the rooms once
contains statues of Bodhisattvas. The temple is richly decorated with buddhist figures such as the
Bodhisattva and gana. The Kala Face above the southern door has been photographed and used
by a number of foreign academics in their books to give an idea of the artistry in stone by Central
Javanese artists of a millennia ago. Niches where the statues would have been placed are found
inside and outside the temple. The niches adorned an outer wall intricately carved with Kala,
gods and divinities in scenes depicting the svargaloka, the celestial palace of the gods, apsaras,
and gandharvas.

53
 One of the niches on the wall of Kalasan temple
The giant Kala's head on the southern door/
adorned with carvings of Kala giant and scene of deities in svargaloka

The roof of the temple is designed in three sections. The lower one are still according to the
polygonal shape of the body and contains small niches with statues of boddhisatvas seated on
lotus. Each of this niches is crowned with stupas. The middle part of the roof is
in octagonal (eight-sided) shape. Each of this eight sides adorned with niches contains statue of
a Dhyani Buddha flanked by two standing boddhisatvas. The top part of the roof is almost
circular and also have 8 niches crowned with single large dagoba. The octagonal aspect of the
structure has led to speculation of non-buddhist elements in the temple, similar to some
interpretations of the early Borobudur structure.

The temple is facing east, with the eastern room also served as access to main central room. In
the larger main room there is lotus pedestal and throne carved with makara, lion, and elephant
figure, similar to the Buddha Vairocana throne founds in Mendut temple. According to the
Kalasan inscription, the temple once houses the large (probably reaching 4 meters tall) statue of
the Boddhisattvadevi Tara. By the design of the throne, most probably the statue of the goddess
was in seated position and made from bronze.  Now the statue is missing, probably the same fate
as bronze Buddha statue in Sewu temple, being looted for scrap metal over centuries.
On the outer wall of the temple found the traces of plaster called vajralepa (lit: diamond plaster).
The same substance also founds in nearby Sari temple. The white-yellowish plaster was applied
to protect the temple wall, but now the plaster has worn off.

The temple is located on archaeologically rich Prambanan plain. Just a few hundred meters north
east from Kalasan temple is located Sari temple. Candi Sari most probably was the monastery
mentioned in Kalasan inscription. Further east lies the Prambanan complex, Sewu temple,
and Plaosan temple.

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Jordaan, R. E. (1998). The Tārā temple of Kalasan in Central Java. Bulletin de l’École Française
d’Extrême-Orient, 85, 163–183. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43733871

3 pre-Angkorean architectural styles :

1. Sambor Prei Kuk style (610–650): were built in rounded, plain colonettes with capitals that
include a bulb.
2. Prei Khmeng style (635–700): Colonettes are larger than those of previous styles. Buildings
were more heavily decorated but had general decline in standards.
3. Kompong Preah style (700–800): Having decorative rings on colonettes which remain
cylindrical. Brick constructions were being continued.
The following periods and styles may be distinguished
1. Kulen style (825–875): Tower is mainly square and relatively high as well as
brick with laterite walls and stone door surrounds but square and octagonal
colonettes begin to appear.
2. Preah Ko style (877–886): small brick towers and for the great beauty and
delicacy of their lintels.
3. Bakheng Style (889–923): Bakheng was the first temple mountain constructed in
the area of Angkor proper north of Siem Reap.
4. Koh Ker Style (921–944): Scale of buildings diminishes toward center. Brick still
main material but sandstone also used.
5. Pre Rup Style (944–968): Under King Rajendravarman, the Angkorian Khmer
built the temples of Pre Rup, East Mebon and Phimeanakas. Their common style
is named after the state temple mountain of Pre Rup.
6. Banteay Srei Style (967–1000): Banteay Srei is the only major Angkorian temple
constructed not by a monarch, but by a courtier. It is known for its small scale and
the extreme refinement of its decorative carvings, including several famous
narrative bas-reliefs dealing with scenes from Indian mythology.

55
 7. Khleang Style (968–1010): First to use galleries. Cruciform gopuras. Octagonal
colonettes. Restrained decorative carving. A few temples that were built in this
style are Ta Keo, Phimeanakas.
8. Baphuon Style (1050–1080): Baphuon, the massive temple mountain of
King Udayadityavarman II 
9. Classical or Angkor Wat Style (1080–1175: come to be known as the classical
style of Angkorian architecture. Other temples in this style are Banteay
Samre and Thommanon in the area of Angkor, and Phimai in modern Thailand.
10. Bayon Style (1181–1243) exhibit a hurriedness of construction that contrasts
with the perfection of Angkor Wat.
11. Post Bayon Style (1243–1431): Following the period of frantic construction under
Jayavarman VII, Angkorian architecture entered the period of its decline.

1. In the past, the ancestors of the Indonesian people learned that carving techniques
indeed originated from India. This can be compared to the results of the two places that
show similarities, although on the other hand in Indonesia there has been a Megalithic
era which is closely related to stone processing and an older era namely Neolithic that is
closely related to metal processing.

2. Without the knowledge of metal processing, it is certain that it will be difficult to create
metal chisels to process hard stones like andesite.

3. Indonesia has a different technique from South India, especially in forming roof cavities,
with the technique of stacking rooms, while in India a flat ceiling was used as a
consequence of the post-and-lintel technique.
4. It was only in the 10th century that new cavity stacking techniques were used in South
India, which is identical to Java.

5. In Java itself this technique had already been known since the early 7th century or even
before that, in the Old Classical era. This technique then developed rapidly in the Middle
Classical era and reached its peak when Prambanan was built. Prambanan is the first
tallest building in Southeast Asia.

6. In addition, in the era of the Prambanan and Borobudur Temples, the construction
technique of the connection between the stone and certain keys that support the building
to be made larger and taller was known.

7. In South India there were no large and tall temples in this particular era, as it was not
until the 10th century that high buildings were recognized in the remains of the Chola.

8. By looking at the phenomena above it can be estimated that the architecture of large
temples in India cannot be ruled out to have been influenced by Javanese tradition,
especially starting in the 10th century considering that on the island of Java many large
temple buildings had been built at the end of the 8th-9th century.

9. This can indicate the existence of backflow from Indonesia to India. On the other hand,
relations with India were actually quite close, as demonstrated in the 9th century by
Balaputradewa, King of Sriwijaya in the Ancient Mataram Era.

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A Reinterpretation of the Relationship between the Architecture of Ancient Mataram Era Temples in Indonesia and of
7th-10th century Temples in South India,Rahadhian Prajudi Herwindo',Basuki Dwisusanto,Indri A-International
Journal of Engineering Research and Technology. ISSN 0974-3154, Volume 13, Number 2 (2020), p

The Borobudur temple: the Buddhist architecture in Indonesia ,the author Katarzyna Kowal
presents the genesis of the temple, the facts concerning its rediscovery after centuries of oblivion,
and Buddhist cosmology embodied in the form of a three-dimensional mandala on which the
architectural form of Borobudur is based. The author studies Buddhist symbolism of the
architectural form, reliefs and sculptures created on the basis of regional patterns and local
Javanese culture of everyday life. This temple is one of the most perfect examples of translation
of Buddhist cosmology and symbolism into an architectural form. Being the oldest temple in
Indonesia, Borobudur Temple has survived over 1200 years of volcanic eruptions, terrorist
bombs and earthquakes. The Borobudur Temple has a base of 1200 square metre terrace topped
with 6 tiers and has the majority of this monument walls adorned with numerous Buddha statues.
Its’ foundation hints to hold more indigenous Javanese traits than Hindu or Buddhist.
The monument is large and given if one were to place the galleries end to end, it spans at least 5
kilometres. The monument also took the form of a step pyramid and followed a mandala plan. 
In 1885, a  group of buddha reliefs was found hidden at the back of the line stones at the base.
Words inscribed in ancient Javanese script were also found there describing how the earthly
world is dominated and led by greed. The real base is hidden by an encasement base which till
today no one knows why. 

However, a theory stands to say that it was built because the original footing goes against the
Indian ancient book about architecture and town planning. 

Buddhist Cosmology
After much research on the Borobudur Temple, there is no found evidence as to the purpose of
the construction of the temple. However, given a theory, it states that the monument represents
Buddhist cosmology and symbolises some sort of Buddhist mandala. Borobudur Temple pushes
to represent the 3 realms of Buddhist cosmology. The base represents the world of desire
followed by the world of form and lastly the world of formlessness which is the highest level of
enlightenment and located at the top of the temple.
The experience walking through the gallery and entering the world of form shows engraved
people that seem to be trying to achieve excellence over worldly desires. There is evidence of
women trying to seduce buddha where he is seen to be meditating and ignoring the seduction of
the women. 
COMPOSITION
Borobudur Temple is made with andesite stones taken from neighbouring stone quarries. The
stones were all cut to size and then brought over and stacked onto one another. Instead of using
mortar, knobs, indentations and dovetails were used to join the stones. As for the roof of stupas,
niches and arched gateways, they were all built with the corbelling method. 
The reliefs of the monument are all done on-site. The drainage system was also in mind when the
monument was built. Borobudur temple catered to its region’s high stormwater run-off by
installing 100 spouts each with a unique carved gargoyle that looks like a Makara. The spouts are
all installed at the corners of the monument.

57
As for the Borobudur Temple foundation, it was built on a natural hill and due to its pyramid
shape, it was first thought to be a stupa that was intended as a Buddha shrine, not a temple.
Stupas are typically constructed as a sign of devotion towards Buddhism whereas a temple is
made to be a place of worship towards a religion. After much study and excavation, Borobudur is
settled to be a temple due to its meticulous details and structure.

Interestingly, in the past, they did not use the metric or imperial system. Instead, they used tala, a
basic unit of measurement used during that time. Tala is the length of a human face, starting
from the forehead’s hairline to the tip of the chin or the length of the tip of the thumb to the tip of
the middle finger when the hand is fully stretched out. Tala is relative from one individual to
another. 

Furthermore, the Borobudur Temple also holds a 4:6:9 ratio around the monument. Gunadharma,

58
the architect, used the 4:6:9 ratio to layout the accurate and precise dimensions of the fractal and
self-similar geometry that the Borobudur Temple holds. This same ratio can also be found in
neighbouring Buddhist temples. 

To add on, the ratio also possesses calendrical, astronomical and cosmological significance
which seems appropriate in the design of the Borobudur Temple.
All in all, the Borobudur Temple has attracted many tourists alike to visit and further indulge in
this 9th century-built temple. As much as research goes, the true meaning as to why it was built
is unknown, but this structure still stands to fascinate and allow anyone who visits to feel calm
and captivated by this form of architecture. 

Reference
Borobudur: Golden Tales of Buddhas by John N. Miksic and Marcello Tranchini. 

59
60
61
62
Buddhist Stupa Monograph

63
64
 Architecture

Borobudur ground plan took form of a Mandala

Borobudur is built as a single large stupa, and when viewed from above takes the form of a
giant tantric Buddhist mandala, simultaneously representing the Buddhist cosmology and the
nature of mind. The foundation is a square, approximately 118 meters (387 ft) on each side. It
has nine platforms, of which the lower six are square and the upper three are circular. The upper
platform features seventy-two small stupas surrounding one large central stupa. Each stupa is
bell-shaped and pierced by numerous decorative openings. Statues of the Buddha sit inside the
pierced enclosures.

Approximately 55,000 cubic metres (72,000 cu yd) of stones were taken from neighbouring

rivers to build the monument. The stone was cut to size, transported to the site and laid
without mortar. Knobs, indentations and dovetails were used to form joints between
stones. Reliefs were created in-situ after the building had been completed. The monument is
equipped with a good drainage system to cater for the area's high stormwater run-off. To avoid
inundation, 100 spouts are provided at each corner with a unique carved gargoyles in the shape
of giants or makaras.

Half cross-section with 4:6:9 height ratio for foot, body and head, respectively.
Borobudur differs markedly with the general design of other structures built for this purpose.
Instead of building on a flat surface, Borobudur is built on a natural hill. The building technique
is, however, similar to other temples in Java. With no inner space as in other temples and its
general design similar to the shape of pyramid, Borobudur was first thought more likely to have
served as a stupa, instead of a temple. A stupa is intended as a shrine for the Lord Buddha.
Sometimes stupas were built only as devotional symbols of Buddhism. A temple, on the other
hand, is used as a house of deity and has inner spaces for worship. The complexity of the
monument's meticulous design suggests Borobudur is in fact a temple. Congregational worship
in Borobudur is performed by means of pilgrimage. Pilgrims were guided by the system of
staircases and corridors ascending to the top platform. Each platform represents one stage
of enlightenment. The path that guides pilgrims was designed with the symbolism of sacred
knowledge according to the Buddhist cosmology.

65
A narrow corridor with reliefs on the wall.

Lion gate guardian.

Little is known about the architect Gunadharma. His name is actually recounted from Javanese
legendary folk tales rather than written in old inscriptions. The basic unit measurement he used
during the construction was called tala, defined as the length of a human face from the forehead's
hairline to the tip of the chin or the distance from the tip of the thumb to the tip of the middle
finger when both fingers are stretched at their maximum distance.] The unit metrics is then
obviously relative between persons, but the monument has exact measurements. A survey
conducted in 1977 revealed frequent findings of a ratio of 4:6:9 around the monument. The
architect had used the formula to lay out the precise dimensions of Borobudur. The identical ratio
formula was further found in the nearby Buddhist temples of Pawon and Mendhut. Archeologists
conjectured the purpose of the ratio formula and the tala dimension has calendrical, astronomical
and cosmological themes, as of the case in other Hindu and Buddhist temple of Angkor
Wat in Cambodia.

A carved gargoyle-shaped water spout for water drainage.

The main vertical structure can be divided into three groups: base (or foot), body, and top, which
resembles the three major division of a human body. The base is a 123x123 m (403.5x403.5 ft)
square in size and 4 meters (13 ft) high of walls. The body is composed of five square platforms
each with diminishing heights. The first terrace is set back 7 meters (23 ft) from the edge of the
base. The other terraces are set back by 2 meters (7 ft), leaving a narrow corridor at each stage.
The top consists of 3 circular platforms, with each stage supporting a row of perforated stupas,
arranged in concentric circles. There is one main dome at the center; the top of which is the
highest point of the monument (35 meters (115 ft) above ground level). Access to the upper part
is through stairways at the centre of each 4 sides with a number of arched gates, watched by a
total of 32 lion statues. The gates is adorned with Kala's head carved on top center of each
portals with Makaras projecting from each sides. This Kala-Makara style is commonly found in
Javanese temples portal. The main entrance is at the eastern side, the location of the first

66
narrative reliefs. On the slopes of the hill, there are also stairways linking the monument to the
low-lying plain.

The monument's three divisions symbolize three stages of mental preparation towards the
ultimate goal according to the Buddhist cosmology, namely Kāmadhātu (the world of
desires), Rupadhatu (the world of forms), and finally Arupadhatu (the formless
world).] Kāmadhātu is represented by the base, Rupadhatu by the five square platforms (the
body), and Arupadhatu by the three circular platforms and the large topmost stupa. The
architectural features between three stages have metaphorical differences. For instance, square
and detailed decorations in the Rupadhatu disappear into plain circular platforms in
the Arupadhatu to represent how the world of forms – where men are still attached with forms
and names – changes into the world of the formless.

In 1885, a hidden structure under the base

was accidentally discovered. The "hidden
foot" contains reliefs, 160 of which are
narrative describing the real Kāmadhātu. Narrative Panels Distribution
The remaining reliefs are panels with short
inscriptions that apparently describe section location story #panels
instruction for the sculptors, illustrating the
scene to be carved. The real base is hidden hidden foot wall Karmavibhangga 160
by an encasement base, the purpose of Lalitavistara 120
which remains a mystery. It was first main wall
Jataka/Avadana 120
thought that the real base had to be covered first gallery
to prevent a disastrous subsidence of the Jataka/Avadana 372
balustrade
monument through the hill. There is Jataka/Avadana 128
another theory that the encasement base balustrade Jataka/Avadana 100
was added because the original hidden foot second
gallery main wall Gandavyuha 128
was incorrectly designed, according
to Vastu Shastra, the Indian ancient book main wall Gandavyuha 88
about architecture and town third gallery
balustrade Gandavyuha 88
planning. Regardless of its intention, the
encasement base was built with detailed fourth gallery main wall Gandavyuha 84
and meticulous design with aesthetics and balustrade Gandavyuha 72
religious compensation.Reliefs Total 1,460
Borobudur contains approximately 2,670
individual bas reliefs (1,460 narrative and
1,212 decorative panels), which cover the façades and balustrades. The total relief surface is
2,500 square meters (26,909.8 sq ft) and they are distributed at the hidden foot (Kāmadhātu) and
the five square platforms (Rupadhatu).
The narrative panels, which tell the story of Sudhana and Manohara. are grouped into 11 series
encircled the monument with the total length of 3,000 meters (9,843 ft). The hidden foot contains
the first series with 160 narrative panels and the remaining 10 series are distributed throughout
walls and balustrades in four galleries starting from the eastern entrance stairway to the left.
Narrative panels on the wall read from right to left, while on the balustrade read from left to
right. This conforms with pradaksina, the ritual of circumambulation performed by pilgrims who

67
move in a clockwise direction while keeping the sanctuary to their right.

The hidden foot depicts the workings of karmic law. The walls of the first gallery have two
superimposed series of reliefs; each consists of 120 panels. The upper part depicts the biography
of the Buddha, while the lower part of the wall and also balustrades in the first and the second
galleries tell the story of the Buddha's former lives. The remaining panels are devoted to
Sudhana's further wandering about his search, terminated by his attainment of the Perfect
Wisdom.

The law of karma (Karmavibhangga)

The 160 hidden panels do not form a continuous story, but each panel provides one complete
illustration of cause and effect. There are depictions of blameworthy activities, from gossip to
murder, with their corresponding punishments. There are also praiseworthy activities, that
include charity and pilgrimage to sanctuaries, and their subsequent rewards. The pains of hell
and the pleasure of heaven are also illustrated. There are scenes of daily life, complete with the
full panorama of samsara (the endless cycle of birth and death).
The birth of Buddha (Lalitavistara)

Queen Maya riding horse carriage retreating to Lumbini to give birth to Prince Siddhartha Gautama.

The story starts from the glorious descent of the Lord Buddha from the Tushita heaven, and ends
with his first sermon in the Deer Park near Benares.[48] The relief shows the birth of the Buddha
as Prince Siddhartha, son of King Suddhodana and Queen Maya of Kapilavastu (in present-
day Nepal).

The story is preceded by 27 panels showing various preparations, in heavens and on earth, to
welcome the final incarnation of the Bodhisattva.[48] Before descending from Tushita heaven,
the Bodhisattva entrusted his crown to his successor, the future Buddha Maitreya. He descended
on earth in the shape of white elephants with six tusks, penetrated to Queen Maya's right womb.
Queen Maya had a dream of this event, which was interpreted that his son would become either a
sovereign or a Buddha.
While Queen Maya felt that it was the time to give birth, she went to the Lumbini park outside
the Kapilavastu city. She stood under a plaksa tree, holding one branch with her right hand and
she gave birth to a son, Prince Siddhartha. The story on the panels continues until the prince
becomes the Buddha.

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Prince Siddhartha Gautama become an ascetic hermit.

Prince Siddhartha story (Jataka) and other legendary persons (Avadana)

Jatakas are stories about the Buddha before he was born as Prince Siddhartha. Avadanas are
similar to jatakas, but the main figure is not the Bodhisattva himself. The saintly deeds in
avadanas are attributed to other legendary persons. Jatakas and avadanas are treated in one and
the same series in the reliefs of Borobudur.
The first 20 lower panels in the first gallery on the wall depict the Sudhanakumaravadana or the
saintly deeds of Sudhana. The first 135 upper panels in the same gallery on the balustrades are
devoted to the 34 legends of the Jatakamala.[50] The remaining 237 panels depict stories from
other sources, as do for the lower series and panels in the second gallery. Some jatakas stories
are depicted twice, for example the story of King Sibhi (Rama's forefather).

Sudhana's search for the Ultimate Truth (Gandavyuha)

Gandavyuha is the story told in the final chapter of the Avatamsaka Sutra about Sudhana's
tireless wandering in search of the Highest Perfect Wisdom. It covers two galleries (third and
fourth) and also half of the second gallery; comprising in total of 460 panels. The principal figure
of the story, the youth Sudhana, son of an extremely rich merchant, appears on the 16th panel.
The preceding 15 panels form a prologue to the story of the miracles during Buddha's samadhi in
the Garden of Jeta at Sravasti.

During his search, Sudhana visited no less than 30 teachers but none of them had satisfied him
completely. He was then instructed by Manjusri to meet the monk Megasri, where he was given
the first doctrine. As his journey continues, Sudhana meets (in the following order) Supratisthita,
the physician Megha (Spirit of Knowledge), the banker Muktaka, the monk Saradhvaja,
the upasika Asa (Spirit of Supreme Enlightenment), Bhismottaranirghosa,

the Brahmin Jayosmayatna, Princess Maitrayani, the monk Sudarsana, a boy called Indriyesvara,

the upasika Prabhuta, the banker Ratnachuda, King Anala, the god Siva Mahadeva, Queen
Maya, Bodhisattva Maitreya and then back to Manjusri. Each meeting has given Sudhana a
specific doctrine, knowledge and wisdom. These meetings are shown in the third gallery.

After the last meeting with Manjusri, Sudhana went to the residence of
Bodhisattva Samantabhadra; depicted in the fourth gallery. The entire series of the fourth gallery
is devoted to the teaching of Samantabhadra. The narrative panels finally end with Sudhana's
achievement of the Supreme Knowledge and the Ultimate Truth.

69
Buddha statues

A headless Buddha statue inside a stupa./ A Buddha statue with the hand position of dharmachakra
mudra (turning the Wheels of the Law).

Apart from the story of Buddhist cosmology carved in stone, Borobudur has many statues of
various Buddhas. The cross-legged statues are seated in a lotus position and distributed on the
five square platforms (the Rupadhatu level) as well as on the top platform
(the Arupadhatu level).

The Buddha statues are in niches at the Rupadhatu level, arranged in rows on the outer sides of
the balustrades, the number of statues decreasing as platforms progressively diminish to the
upper level. The first balustrades have 104 niches, the second 104, the third 88, the fourth 72 and
the fifth 64. In total, there are 432 Buddha statues at the Rupadhatu level. At
the Arupadhatu level (or the three circular platforms), Buddha statues are placed inside
perforated stupas. The first circular platform has 32 stupas, the second 24 and the third 16, that
add up to 72 stupas. Of the original 504 Buddha statues, over 300 are damaged (mostly headless)
and 43 are missing (since the monument's discovery, heads have been stolen as collector's items,
mostly by Western museums).

At glance, all the Buddha statues appear similar, but there is a subtle difference between them in
the mudras or the position of the hands. There are five groups of mudra: North, East, South,
West and Zenith, which represent the five cardinal compass points according to Mahayana. The
first four balustrades have the first four mudras: North, East, South and West, of which the
Buddha statues that face one compass direction have the corresponding mudra. Buddha statues at
the fifth balustrades and inside the 72 stupas on the top platform have the same mudra: Zenith.
Each mudra represents one of the Five Dhyani Buddhas; each has its own symbolism. They
are Abhaya mudra for Amoghasiddhi (north), Vara mudra for Ratnasambhava (south), Dhyana
mudra for Amitabha (west), Bhumisparsa mudra for Aksobhya (east) and Dharmachakra
mudra for Vairochana (zenith).

70
 BIOMIMICRY as a Inspiration for the Borobudur

Architects and painters of Borobudur before starting that new project, must have had an have an
empty canvas in front of them. The cleanness of the canvas or white parchment opened infinite
possibilities of design ideas for a future project.

But how should an architect start his/her projects? How do architects get inspired? Some
architects find inspiration by the historical context of the site, others prefer to retake materials’
qualities, and finally, some architects prefer to observe their surroundings and the environmental
typologies.

The latter design approach is what characterizes some projects that are the result of forms
inspired by nature. Architects have long been inspired by nature. ... New technologies are now
helping architects recreate complex structures found in the nature by using modern construction
methods and materials. Biomimetic architecture draws its influence from the Earth.

Nature has been one of the most evident influences in architecture and in various forms over the
years. The humbleness and the beauty of nature have been one of the most inspirational idea for
the humans. Small dwellings and the pattern of their arrangement have been inspired by nature.

What is architecture inspired by nature called?

Organic architecture uses nature-inspired geometrical forms in design and seeks to reconnect the
human with his or her surroundings. These strategies, which are introduced in this paper as
'nature-inspired design strategies', provide pathways and principles aimed at developing designs
that are in natural balance with their environment. Common principles include the use of
materials in closed loops and using solar driven energy systems.

Why is nature important in design?

Nature has an endless palette to call on for inspiration, a library of textures, patterns, and
motifs. Nature informs the moods of interior spaces; their qualities of light, their warmth, their
tactility and their familiarity to human hands
Why are we inspired by nature?

Nature has a way of removing distractions, of commanding our deepest attention. ...
Following this kind of thinking, nature is full of lessons we can draw from, lessons which can
inform and inspire our daily lives.

71
Ancient as well as modern buildings have been inspired by nature. So, why not the Borobudur? It
is quiet possible that apart from the many design influences upon it due to Buddhism and/or its
predecessors in Stupa building, nature too may have had an effect.

72
73
Gaudí | Info-graphic - Design by nature | Basílica i Temple Expiatori de la Sagrada Família:

Detail of the roof in the nave. Gaudí designed the columns to mirror trees and branches.
SBA73 from Sabadell, Catalunya - Tot conflueix / All's conected
La Sagrada Família per fí té un interior acabat: és una meravella, el fruit del geni únic d'Antoni
Gaudí. Falten les paraules per descriure- This is the crossing and dome of the Sagrada Família
basilica, Barcelona, Catalonia. The catalan basilica of La Sagrada Família (The Holy Family) is a
major icon of Barcelona. After more than a century of construction, in 2011 the interior was
finished and consecrated by the pope Benedict XVI. Work began in 1882 and is scheduled to be
completed in 2026. 

74
 TITOBOWL is a vessel
specially designed for tasting different varieties and dressings olives with pit, although it
has been adapted for tasting pitted olives and other snacks because turning the top cap of
the container, it becomes a toothpick holder

75
BOROBUDUR resembles the structural concept and entity of Petronas Twin Towers

Petronas Twin Towers, pair of skyscraper office buildings in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, that are
among the world’s tallest buildings. What type of structure are the Petronas Towers?

The plan for each tower is identical: an eight-lobed circular structure that contains 88 stories of
occupiable space and a pyramid-shaped pinnacle surmounted by a slender steel spire. Both rise
to a height of 1,483 feet (451.9 metres), which includes 242 feet (73.6 metres) for pinnacle and
spire – much like the borobudur.It is the The 7th Tallest Building In The World Today. When it
was built in 1998, the 88-storey Petronas Towers held the top record for the tallest building in the
world at a staggering height of 1,483 feet! ... As such, the Petronas Towers still stands today as
the tallest twin towers in the world.Just like the Borobudur, the Petronas twin towers built to
represent Malaysia's increasing wealth and the nation's desire to feature more prominently on the
international stage, it was decided to build a pair of landmark 88-storey towers to house the
offices of the national oil and gas company, Petronas.

The Twin Towers, built to house the headquarters of Petronas, the national petroleum company
of Malaysia, were designed by the Argentine-born American architect Cesar Pelli; they were
completed in 1998. The plan for each tower is identical: an eight-lobed circular structure that
contains 88 stories of occupiable space and a pyramid-shaped pinnacle surmounted by a slender
steel spire. Both rise to a height of 1,483 feet (451.9 metres), which includes 242 feet (73.6
metres) for pinnacle and spire. Each building is supported by 16 large columns around its
perimeter, which, along with the rest of the frame, are made of high-strength, steel-reinforced

76
concrete rather than of structural steel; the exterior sheathing consists of stainless steel and glass.
A skybridge two stories tall links the two towers between the 41st and 42nd stories.1

In 1996, after the spires had been attached to the buildings (and each had thus reached its full
height), the Petronas Twin Towers were declared the world’s tallest buildings, eclipsing the
former record holder, the 110-story Sears (now Willis) Tower in Chicago. The roof of the Sears
Tower was actually more than 200 feet (60 metres) higher than those of the Twin Towers, but the
spires on the towers’ pinnacles were regarded as integral parts of the overall architectural
structure. The Twin Towers, in turn, lost their preeminent status in 2003 after a spire was put in
place atop the Taipei 101 (Taipei Financial Center) building, in Taipei, Taiwan, and that
structure reached a height of 1,667 feet (508 metres).

77
Development of the Petronas Towers Tower 1 level 43 floor plan from a Rub el Hizb symbol.

78
The cross section of the Petronas Towers is based on a Rub el Hizb, albeit with circular sectors
similar to the bottom part of the Qutub Minar.

Base of the Christ steeple under construction (2009)Etan J. Tal - Own work-Rebars of Sagrada
Familia roof in construction Note rust and corrosion of rebar and different materials used for the
rebar in different areas

Petronas Twin Towers, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, designed by Cesar Pelli & Associates.
J. Apicella/Cesar Pelli & Associates

Seashell Architectures,Kamon Jirapong,Robert J.

Krawczykhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/239537510_Seashell_Architectures/stats

79
 The Borobudur as a seashell
A seashell or sea shell, also known simply as a shell, is a hard, protective outer layer usually
created by an animal that lives in the sea. The shell is part of the body of the animal. Empty
seashells are often found washed up on beaches by beachcombers. The shells are empty because
the animal has died and the soft parts have been eaten by another animal or have decomposed.
Why is a building like a seashell?

shell structure, in building construction, a thin, curved plate structure shaped to transmit applied
forces by compressive, tensile, and shear stresses that act in the plane of the surface. They are
usually constructed of concrete reinforced with steel mesh. Seashells are the exoskeletons of
mollusks such as snails, clams, oysters and many others. Such shells have three distinct layers
and are composed mostly of calcium carbonate with only a small quantity of protein--no more
than 2 percent. These shells, unlike typical animal structures, are not made up of cells. Shell
Structures are defined as structures that are capable of maintaining their shape and the support
loads without any help of the frame or the solid mass materials. The term shell is generally used
to describe structures that possess high strength and rigidity due to their thin form. Shells
are structures enclosing buildings with smooth continuous surfaces (such as vaults and domes).
There are shallow and deep shells. Typically, upper parts develop compression and the lower
parts develop tension.

The wholeness of natural form indicates that the form and forces are always in some sense of
equilibrium. In most of natural forms, the quality of equilibrium may be difficult to recognize.
However, seashells are one of the natural forms whose functions are simple enough to be
approximated by measurable mathematical relationships. The focus of this study was to
understand the seashell form as applicable to human architectures. Digital methods are the
language to analyze, create, and simulate seashell forms, as well as, suggest a variety of possible
architectural forms.

80
 The structures in nature are great lessons for human study. Having been in development for
several billion years, only the most successful structural forms have survived. The
resourcefulness of material use, the underlying structural systems and the profound capacity to
respond to a variety of climatic and environmental forces make natural form tremendous
exemplars to human architectures.

Difference between solid frame and shell structures?

A frame structure is a very sturdy structure, often quite tall, which is typically made up of beams,
columns and slabs. ... Shell structures are typically curved, light-weight structures. Examples of
natural shell structures include coconut shells, tortoise shells, sea shells and nut shells.

Notable projects

 The world's first membrane roof and lattice steel shell in the Shukhov Rotunda, Nizhny
Novgorod, All-Russia exhibition, 1895.
 Geodesic shell of Nagoya Dome by Takenaka Corporation, Nagoya, Japan, 1997.
 Shell of Kresge Auditorium by Eero Saarinen, MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1953.
ADVANTAGE OF THE SHELL IS THAT ITS CONCAVE SOFFIT REFELECTS AND
HELPS TO DISPERSE LIGHT OVER AREA BELOW. DISADVANTAGE IS THAT TOP
LIGHT MAY CAUSE OVER HEATING AND GLARE. ROOF COVERING: SHELLS MAY
BE COVERED WITH NON-FERROUS SHEET METAL, ASPHALT, BITUMEN FELT, A
PLASTIC MEMBRANE OR A LIQUID RUBBER BASE COATING.

Shell structure in technology?

81
A shell structure is one in which the strength reloads into the outer surface. They are usually
lighter than frame structures. For example, A turtle, an egg, an airplane, a boat, a lobster or a car
has a shell structure. The resistance of the structure depends on its form. A good example is an
egg.

Shell design and construction technologies have been developing over time

from stone masonry domes to brick, concrete, steel and then timber.
Shells are structures enclosing buildings with smooth continuous surfaces (such
as vaults and domes). There are shallow and deep shells. Typically, upper parts
develop compression and the lower parts develop tension.
Shells are usually built with increasing thickness from the crown towards the base. This is due to
the thrust force that becomes larger towards the base. However, there are internal stresses that
are created due to this increase in thickness.

Shell structures have a direct link to masonary. Borobudur is built from nearly two million stone
blocks ( others say 1.6 milliion)of andesite, a bluish-gray volcanic stone, Borobudur is shaped
like a stepped pyramid, the base of which is 402 feet long from north to south and 383 feet long
from east to west; the height is now 95 feet above ground level. It was built in three tiers: a
pyramidal base with five concentric square terraces, the trunk of a cone with three circular
platforms and, at the top, a monumental stupa. These rocks were cut and joined in a method that

82
did not employ any mortar. Borobudur is made up of three different monuments: the main temple
at Borobudur and two smaller temples located to the east of the main temple. The two smaller
temples are the Pawon Temple and the Mendut Temple, the latter of which contains a
large sculpture of Buddha surrounded by two Bodhisattvas. Collectively, Borobudur, Pawon, and
Mendut symbolize the path the individual takes in attaining Nirvana. All three temples lie in a
straight line as well. Another Buddhist temple - Ngawen, which dates from the 8th century CE, is
located just 10 km (6 miles) from the main temple at Borobudur. A ruined Hindu temple, the
Banon Temple, lies just several meters north of Pawon.

The main temple structure at Borobudur is constructed on three levels with a pyramid-
shaped base replete with five square terraces, the trunk of a cone with three circular shaped
platforms, and on the upper level, a grand monumental stupa. Fine reliefs form part of the walls
of the temples and cover an area of approximately 2,520 m2 (27,125 square feet). 72 stupas each
with a statue of the Buddha inside are found around Borobudur's circular platforms. This
allocation and delineation of space conforms to the Buddhist conception of the universe. In
Buddhist cosmology, the universe is divided into three spheres known as arupadhatu, rupadhatu,
and kamadhatu. Arupadhatu is here represented by the three platforms and large stupa,
the rupadhatu is represented by the five terraces, and the kamadhatu is represented by the
temple's base.

The period in which the Javanese constructed Borobudur is shrouded in legend and
mystery. No records pertaining to its construction or purpose exist, and dating the temple is
based on artistic comparisons of reliefs and inscriptions found in Indonesia and elsewhere
throughout Southeast Asia. Strong cultural and religious influenced arrived in what is now
present-day Indonesia from the Indian subcontinent beginning around the 1st century CE. This
influence grew rapidly from c. 400 CE onwards. Hindu and Buddhist merchants and traders
settled in the region, intermarried with the local population, and facilitated long-distance trading
relations between the indigenous Javanese and ancient India. Over the centuries, the Javanese
blended the culture and religions of ancient India with their own. The name "Borobudur" itself is
the subject of intense scholarly debate and is a lingering mystery. Some scholars contend that the
name stems from the Sanskrit Vihara Buddha Uhr or the "Buddhist Monastery on a Hill," while
others, in turn, argue that Budur is nothing more than a Javanese place name. A stone tablet
dating from 842 CE makes mention of Bhumisambharabhudara or the "Mountain of Virtues of
Ten Stages of the Boddhisattva." It is probable that the name "Borobudur" could be related to
"Bharabhudara."

Modern historians have all disagreed amongst each other as to the political and cultural
events that led to Borobudur's construction as well. It is possible that the Hindu Sanjaya
dynasty initially began construction of a Shivaite temple on the spot where Borobudur now sits
around c. 775 CE and that they were unable to complete their temple as they were driven out of
the area by the Sailendra dynasty. (It should be noted, however, that other Javanese historians see
the Sailendra and Sanjaya dynasties as one and the same family and that religious patronage
simply changed as a result of personal belief. The general consensus is that there were two rival
dynasties supporting different faiths.)

The principal components of masonry are elements and mortar embedment iincluding naturally

83
available stones, dressed stones from quarries, made-up bricks of sun dried clay and
burnt bricks in kilns. Mortar in masonry has developed from primitive mud, natural bitumen to a
mixture of lime and sand and cement mortar.

Different structural and architectural forms have been developed from these simple building

materials. The combinations were used to bring about a variety of geometric forms and patterns.
From a structural point of view masonry is a homogenous material. The strength of
the masonry is limited by its weakest joints. Its load-carrying capacity largely depends on
the mortar strength. The allowed stresses in masonry are categorised into compressive axial,
compressive flexural, tensile flexural and shear.

Modern thin concrete shells derive from the ancestry such as Roman vaults. Concrete has

some advantages compared to masonry shells. Concrete is a manufactured material that acts well
in large scale works. It can bear compressive and shear forces many times greater
than brick and stone masonry. Concrete finds applications in thinner and larger structures. The
smoothness and homogeneity of concrete make it a monolithic material. Concrete can
carry tension, compression, shear, bending, and torsion as compared to brick or stone masonry.
The development of cement, aggregate and reinforced concrete has made possible
the construction of thin shells.

Barrel shells
Barrel shells are one-way arched 'slabs' spanning between two parallel longitudinal supports.
There are long barrels and short barrels. Long barrels behave like a beam, while for short
barrel shells the top surfaces act like a series of adjacent arches.

Conoidal shells
Conoidal refers to a geometric shell formed by rotating a parabola, ellipse or hyperbola about
one axis. Conoids consist of two directrix and two straight line generatrices.

Cantilevered shells
These are shells that project outward from key points of support. Cantilevered thin shell
structures create a sense of an illusion of floating. Just like a cantilevered beam, a cross-
section of thin cantilevered shell displays zones with compression and tensile stresses which are
transferred to supports by reinforcements and concrete masses.

84
 Three huge sea shell sculptures add
whimsical delight to a north Jeddah roundabout intersection.

85
Santiago Calatrava -Landmark Pavilion in Dubai(Above)
The soaring, bird-like confection for the United Arab Emirates offers stand-out flair for the Expo
2020 Host Nation pavilion
______________________________________________________________________________________________________

Esan rahmani + mukul damle: bamboo pavilion-

solar access is the central focus of the communal living area. it is maximized by a radial funnel shaped
opening in the structure.

86
Dalian Shell Museum / The Design Institute of Civil Engineering & Architecture of DUT

Architects: The Design Institute of Civil Engineering & Architecture of DUT Location: Dalian, China Project

Area: 18,000 sqm Project Year: 2009 Photographs: Courtesy of Dalian Shell Museum

THERE ARE MANY POSSIBILITIES AND MUCH MYSTERY OVER THE

DESIGN.However, we must noyt forget that the site was built 1000 years ago
without any design or mechanical/civil engineering engagements.
That is the Miracle

87
88
89
90
91
 CHAPTER III
Cinnamon Route & the Adi Buddha at Borobudur

In 1982, a 21-year-old Englishman named Phillip Beale (former British Royal Navy) was in
Indonesia to study traditional ships and marine traditions. When he climbed the Borobudur
Temple he found ten panels depicting sea vessels, indicating that the ships of the Borobudur
may have been a part of a famous shipping route that linked Indonesia to Africa many
centuries ago.

This was the Cinnamon-shipping route which took vessels carrying spices from Indonesian
waters across the Indian Ocean, past the Seychelles, Madagascar and South Africa to Ghana.
Borobudur is still used for pilgrimage; once a year, Buddhists in Indonesia celebrate “Vesak”
(the birth, enlightenment and passing away of Buddha) at the monument.

Restoration
Evidence suggests Borobudur was constructed in the 9th century and abandoned following
the 14th-century due to the decline of Hindu kingdoms in Java and the Javanese conversion
to Islam.

There is another theory stating that Borobudur was left to the ravages of nature in between
the 12th to 14th centuries when the power of Java shifted to the east of the island. The reason
for this shift is unknown but it is often speculated that there was a volcanic eruption and the
people moved away. There are manuscripts that relate stories of Javanese revisiting the site
in the 18th century. But it was the rediscovery by the British Sir Thomas Stanford Raffles
(the then British ruler of Java who was advised of its location by native Indonesians) in 1814
that led to greater recognition and also preservation efforts.

In 1815 Raffles commissioned an initial clean up where 200 labourers spent 45 days felling
trees and moving earth from the remains. Documentation and interpretation of the reliefs
revealed some Sanskrit instructions left for the carvers. Borobudur has since been preserved
through several restorations. The Indonesian Government and UNESCO undertook this
largest restoration project between 1975 and 1982. Following which, the monument was
listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The evidence for a belief in Adi-Buddha is also evidenced by the symbolism of Borobudur’s
final stupa. Inside that stupa once was an incomplete and rough Buddha statue which is depicting
the Adi Buddha which is unimaginable by humans. This is seen as proof that theistic Buddhism
was present in Java since at least the 8th century.

92
Indonesian Buddhayana followers use the greeting Namo Sanghyang Adi Buddhaya. The
complete salutation which is commonly used as a greeting in the books’ preface, letters, or
meetings is:
Namo Sanghyang Adi Buddhaya
Namo Buddhaya, Bodhisatvaya Mahasatvaya

Various unique forms of Buddhist architecture developed in Indonesia and

Malaysia the most common of which is the stone Candi which are built as a symbol
of Mount Meru. Others were built in punden berundak (step pyramids) style —
small terraced sanctuaries built on mountains — and pertapaan, (‘places of
austerities’ or hermitages) built on mountain slopes.

93
Buddha in an open stupa and the main stupa of Borobudur in the background.
A candi is a Hindu or Buddhist temple in Indonesia, mostly built during the Zaman Hindu-
Buddha or "Hindu-Buddhist period" between circa the 4th and 15th centuries. The Great
Dictionary of the Indonesian Language of the Language Center defines a candi as an ancient
stone building used for worship, or for storing the ashes of cremated Hindu or Buddhist kings
and priests. Indonesian archaeologists describe candis as sacred structures of Hindu and
Buddhist heritage, used for religious rituals and ceremonies in Indonesia. However, ancient
secular structures such as gates, urban ruins, pools and bathing places are often called candi too,
while a shrine that specifically serves as a tomb is called a cungkup. In Hindu Balinese
architecture, the term candi refers to a stone or brick structure of single-celled shrine with
portico, entrance and stairs, topped with pyramidal roof and located within a pura. It is often
modeled after East Javanese temples, and functions as a shrine to a certain deity. To
the Balinese, a candi is not necessarily ancient, since candis continue to be (re-)built within these
puras, such as the reconstructed temple in Alas Purwo, Banyuwangi.
In contemporary Indonesian Buddhist perspective, candi also refers to a shrine, either ancient or
new. Several contemporary viharas in Indonesia for example, contain the actual-size replica or
reconstruction of famous Buddhist temples, such as the replica
of Pawon and Plaosan's perwara (small) temples. In Buddhism, the role of a candi as a shrine is
sometimes interchangeable with a stupa, a domed structure to store Buddhist relics or the ashes
of cremated Buddhist priests, patrons or benefactors. Borobudur, Muara Takus and Batujaya for
example are actually elaborate stupas.
In modern Indonesian language, the term candi can be translated as "temple" or similar structure,
especially of Hindu and Buddhist faiths. Thus temples of Cambodia (such as the Angkor
Wat), Champa (Central and Southern Vietnam), Thailand, Laos, Myanmar and India are also
called candi in Indonesian.
Terminology

Prambanan temple compound. The towering candi prasada (temple towers)[6] are believed to represent the

cosmic Mount Meru, the abode of gods.
Candi refers to a structure based on the Indian type of single-celled shrine, with a pyramidal
tower above it, and a portico. The term Candi is given as a prefix to the many temple-mountains
in Indonesia, built as a representation of the Cosmic Mount Meru, an epitome of the universe.
However, the term also applied to many non-religious structures dated from the same period,
such as gapura (gates), petirtaan (pools) and some of habitation complexes. Examples of non-
temple candis are the Bajang Ratu and Wringin Lawang gates of Majapahit. The "Candi Tikus

94
bathing pool" in Trowulan and Jalatunda in Mount Penanggungan slopes, as well as the remnants
of non-religious habitation and urban structures such as Ratu Boko and some of Trowulan city
ruins, are also considered candi.

Prāsāda
In ancient Java, a temple was probably originally called prāsāda (Sanskrit: प्रासाद), as
evidence in the Manjusrigrha inscription (dated from 792 CE), that mentioned "Prasada
Vajrasana Manjusrigrha" to refer to the Sewu temple. This term is in par with Cambodian and
Thai term prasat which refer to the towering structure of a temple.But in Sanskrit it means
offering to the Gods. Therefore one can say that a Temple was looked upon as a offering
From Hindu perspective, the term candi itself is believed was derived from Candika, one of the
manifestations of the goddess Durga as the goddess of death. This suggests that in
ancient Indonesia the candi had mortuary functions as well as connections with the afterlife. The
association of the name candi, candika or durga with Hindu-Buddhist temples is unknown
in India and other parts of Southeast Asia outside of Indonesia, such as Cambodia, Thailand,
or Burma.
Another theory from Buddhist perspective, suggested that the term candi might be a localized
form of the Pali word cedi (Sanskrit: caitya) — which related to Thai word chedi which refer to
a stupa, or it might be related to the Bodhisattva Candī (also known as Cundī or Candā).
Historians suggest that the temples of ancient Java were also used to store the ashes of cremated
deceased kings or royalty. This is in line with Buddhist concept of stupas as structures to store
Buddhist relics, including the ashes and remains of holy Buddhist priests or the Buddhist king,
patrons of Buddhism. The statue of god stored inside the garbhagriha (main chamber) of the
temple is often modeled after the deceased king and considered to be the deified person of the
king portrayed as Vishnu or Shiva according to the concept of devaraja. The example is the
statue of king Airlangga from Belahan temple in Pasuruan portrayed as Vishnu riding Garuda.

95
The Mysterious Stepped Pyramid Temple Known As Satmahal Prasada Found In The
Quadrangle At Polonnaruwa Sri Lanka

Temples in SriLanka are also called Prasada.Some parts of temples are called after prasada such
as the prasada mandapam

Prasada Mandapa & Gudha Mandapa, view from the south-east. Sun temple, Modhera, Gujarat, India.

M A N D A L A A R C H I T E C T U R E

Borobudur ground plan taking the form of a Mandala. The candi architecture follows the
typical Hindu architecture traditions based on Vastu Shastra. The temple layout, especially
in Central Java period, incorporated mandala temple plan arrangements and also the typical

96
high towering spires of Hindu temples. The candi was designed to mimic Meru, the holy
mountain the abode of gods. The whole temple is a model of Hindu universe according to Hindu
cosmology and the layers of Loka.

Structure elements

The Shiva temple Candi Prambanan consist of three ascending realms, temple's base (Bhurloka),

body (Bhurvaloka) and roof (Svarloka).
The candi structure and layout recognize the hierarchy of the zones, spanned from the less holy
to the holiest realms. The Indic tradition of Hindu-Buddhist architecture recognize the concept of
arranging elements in three parts or three elements. Subsequently, the design, plan and layout of
the temple follows the rule of space allocation within three elements; commonly identified as
foot (base), body (center), and head (roof). The three zones is arranged according to a sacred
hierarchy. Each Hindu and Buddhist concepts has their own terms, but the concept's essentials is
identical. Either the compound site plan (horizontally) or the temple structure (vertically)
consists of three zones.

 Bhurloka (in Buddhism: Kāmadhātu), the lowest realm of common mortals; humans,

animals also demons. Where humans still bound by their lust, desire and unholy way of life.
The outer courtyard and the foot (base) part of each temples is symbolized the realm
of bhurloka.
 Bhuvarloka (in Buddhism: Rupadhatu), the middle realm of holy people, rishis, ascetics,
and lesser gods. People here began to see the light of truth. The middle courtyard and the
body of each temples is symbolized the realm of bhuvarloka.
 Svarloka (in Buddhism: Arupadhatu), the highest and holiest realm of gods, also known
as svargaloka. The inner courtyard and the roof of each temples is symbolized the realm
of svarloka. The roof of Hindu structure usually crowned with ratna (sanskrit: jewel)
or vajra, or in eastern Java period, crowned by cube structure. While stupa or dagoba
cylindrical structure served as the pinnacle of Buddhist ones.

The Borobudur Temple Compounds consists of three monuments: namely the Borobudur
Temple and  two smaller temples situatued to the east on a straight axis to Borobudur. The two
temples are Mendut Temple, whose depiction of Buddha is represented by a formidable monolith
accompanied by two Bodhisattvas, and Pawon Temple, a smaller temple whose inner space does
not reveal which deity might have been the object of worship. Those three monuments represent
phases in the attainment of Nirvana.

The temple was used as a Buddhist temple from its construction until sometime between the 10th
and 15th centuries when it was abandoned. Since its re-discovery in the 19th century and
restoration in the 20th century, it has been brought back into a Buddhist archaeological site.
Borobudur Temple Compounds is an outstanding example of Indonesia’s art and architecture
from between the early 8th and late 9th centuries that exerted considerable influence on an
architectural revival between the mid-13th and early 16th centuries.

Borobudur Temple Compounds with its stepped, unroofed pyramid consisting of ten
superimposing terraces, crowned by a large bell-shaped dome is a harmonious marriage of

97
stupas, temple and mountain that is a masterpiece of Buddhist architecture and monumental arts.
.
Laid out in the form of a lotus, the sacred flower of Buddha, Borobudur Temple Compounds is
an exceptional reflection of a blending of the very central idea of indigenous ancestor worship
and the Buddhist concept of attaining Nirvana. The ten mounting terraces of the entire structure
correspond to the successive stages that the Bodhisattva has to achieve before attaining to
Buddhahood.
The main temple is a stupa built in three tiers around a hill which was a natural centre: a
pyramidal base with five concentric square terraces, the trunk of a cone with three circular
platforms and, at the top, a monumental stupa. The walls and balustrades are decorated with fine
low reliefs, covering a total surface area of 2,520 m2. Around the circular platforms are 72
openwork stupas, each containing a statue of the Buddha.The walls and balustrades are decorated
with fine low reliefs, covering a total surface area of 2,500 m2.
Around the circular platforms are 72 openwork stupas, each containing a statue of the
Buddha. The vertical division of Borobudur Temple into base, body, and superstructure
perfectly accords with the conception of the Universe in Buddhist cosmology.

Mallikarjuna Temple , also called Sri Trailokeswara Maha Saila Prasada , was built around 740 A.D. by
Queen Trailokyamahadevi of Chalukya dynasty

The Unfinished Buddha is so-called because of its incomplete nature; the hands of the statue
are not fully carved, the right arm is longer than the left and one of the shoulders is bigger than
the other.

From Hindu perspective, the term "candi" itself is believed was derived from Candika, one of the
manifestations of the goddess Durga as the goddess of death. This suggests that in ancient
Indonesia the "candi" had mortuary functions as well as connections with the afterlife. The
association of the name "candi", candika or durga with Hindu-Buddhist temples is unknown
in India and other parts of Southeast Asia outside of Indonesia, such as Cambodia, Thailand,
or Burma.

98
Another theory from Buddhist perspective, suggested that the term "candi" might be a localized
form of the Pali word cedi (Sanskrit: caitya) — which related to Thai word chedi which refer to
a stupa, or it might be related to the bodhisattva Candī (also known as Cundī or Candā).[12]
Historians suggest that the temples of ancient Java were also used to store the ashes of cremated
deceased kings or royalty. This is in line with Buddhist concept of stupas as structures to store
Buddhist relics, including the ashes and remains of holy Buddhist priests or the Buddhist king,
patrons of Buddhism. The statue of god stored inside the garbhagriha (main chamber) of the
temple is often modeled after the deceased king and considered to be the deified person of the
king portrayed as Vishnu or Shiva according to the concept of devaraja. The example is the
statue of king Airlangga from Belahan temple portrayed as Vishnu riding Garuda.
Style
Soekmono, an Indonesian archaeologist, has classified the candi styles into two main groups:
a central Java style, which predominantly date from before 1,000 CE, and an eastern Java style,
which date from after 1,000 CE. He groups the temples of Sumatra and Bali into the eastern
Java style.

Central Java style-Bubrah temple (RIGHT) Eastern Java style-Bajang Ratu gate

Bubrah temple near Prambanan, an example of Central Javanese style, while Bajang Ratu gate
in Trowulan is an example of Eastern Javanese style.

Parts
of the Central Java
Eastern Java Style
templ Style
e

Shape of
Tends to be slender and
the Tends to be bulky
tall
structure

99
Parts
of the Central Java
Eastern Java Style
templ Style
e

The multiple parts of

Clearly shows stepped
stepped sections formed
Roof roof sections, usually
a combined roof
consist of 3 parts
structure smoothly

Cube (mostly Hindu

Stupa (Buddhist temples), sometimes
Pinnacle temples), Ratna or Dagoba cylindrical
Vajra (Hindu temples) structures (Buddhist
temples)

Kala-Makara style;
Kala head without
Portal Only Kala head sneering
lower jaw opening its
and with the mouth complete
mouth located on top
niches with lower jaw located
of the portal,
adornmen on top of the portal,
connected with double
t Makara is absent
Makara on each side
of the portal

Projected rather flat

Projected rather high
from the background,
from the background,
Relief the images was done in
the images was done
stylized style similar to
in naturalistic style
Balinese wayang image

Layout Concentric mandala, Linear, asymmetric,

and symmetric, formal; followed topography of
location with main temple the site; with main
of the located in the center of temple located in the
main the complex back or furthermost
temple surrounded by from the entrance, often
smaller perwara templ located in the highest
es in regular rows ground of the

100
 Parts
of the Central Java
Eastern Java Style
templ Style
e

complex, perwara templ
es is located in front of
the main temple

Direction Mostly faced east Mostly faced west

Materials Mostly andesite stone Mostly red brick

Bima temple, one of Dieng temples. It was one of the earliest temples in Java.
There are material, form, and location exceptions to these general design traits. While
the Penataran, Jawi, Jago, Kidal and Singhasari temples, for example, belong to the eastern Java
group, they use andesite stone similar to the Central Java temple material. Temple ruins
in Trowulan, such as Brahu, Jabung and Pari temples use red brick. Also the Prambanan temple
is tall and slender similar to the east Java style, yet the roof design is Central Javan in style. The
location also do not always correlate with the temple styles, for example Candi Badut is located
in Malang, East Java, yet the period and style belongs to older 8th century central Javanese style.
The earlier northern central Java complexes, such as the Dieng temples, are smaller and contain
only several temples which exhibit simpler carving, whereas the later southern complexes, such
as Sewu temple, are grander, with a richer elaboration of carving, and concentric layout of the
temple complex.
The Majapahit period saw the revival of Austronesian megalithic design elements, such stepped
pyramids (punden berundak). These design cues are seen in the Sukuh and Cetho temples
in Mount Lawu in eastern Central Java, and in stepped sanctuary structures on the Mount

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Penanggungan slopes that are similar to meso-American stepped pyramids.

Interlocking andesite stone blocks forming a corbeling arch in Borobudur.

M A T E R I A L S
Most of well-preserved candi in Indonesia are made from andesite stone. This is mainly owed to
the stone's durability, compared to bricks, against tropical weathers and torrential rains.
Nevertheless, certain periods, especially the Majapahit era, saw the extensive use of red brick as
temple and building materials. The materials commonly used in temple construction in Indonesia
are:
I. Andesite  is an extrusive volcanic rock of intermediate composition. In a general sense, it is
the intermediate type between basalt and rhyolite. It is fine-grained (aphanitic) to porphyritic in
texture, and is composed predominantly of sodium-rich plagioclase plus pyroxene or hornblende.
It is the extrusive equivalent of plutonic diorite. Characteristic of subduction zones, andesite
represents the dominant rock type in island arcs. The average composition of the continental
crust is andesitic. Along with basalts, they are a major component of the Martian crust.
The name andesite is derived from the Andes mountain range, where this rock type is found in
abundance.
Andesite is an aphanitic (fine-grained) igneous rock that is intermediate in its content
of silica and low in alkali metals. It has less than 20% quartz and 10% feldspathoid by volume,
with at least 65% of the feldspar in the rock consisting of plagioclase. This places andesite in
the basalt/andesite field of the QAPF diagram. Andesite is further distinguished from basalt by
its silica content of over 52%.However, it is often not possible to determine the mineral
composition of volcanic rocks, due to their very fine grain size, and andesite is then defined
chemically as volcanic rock with a content of 57% to 63% silica and not more than about 6%
alkali metal oxides. This places andesite in the O2 field of the TAS classification. Basaltic
andesite, with a content of 52% to 57% silica, is represented by the O1 field of the TAS
classification but is not a recognized type in the QAPF classification.

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QAPF diagram with basalt/andesite field highlighted in yellow. Andesite is distinguished from
basalt by SiO2 > 52%.

Andesite is field O2 in the TAS classification.

Photomicrograph of andesite in thin section (between crossed polars)

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Andesite is usually light to dark gray in colour, due to its content
of hornblende or pyroxene minerals. but can exhibit a wide range of shading. Darker andesite
can be difficult to distinguish from basalt, but a common rule of thumb, used away from the
laboratory, is that andesite has a color index less than 35.
The plagioclase in andesite varies widely in sodium content, from anorthite to oligoclase, but is
typically andesine. The pyroxene minerals that may be present include augite, pigeonite,
or orthopyroxene. Magnetite, zircon, apatite, ilmenite, biotite, and garnet are common accessory
minerals.[13] Alkali feldspar may be present in minor amounts. Classification of andesites may be
refined according to the most abundant phenocryst. Example: hornblende-phyric andesite, if
hornblende is the principal accessory mineral.
Andesite is usually porphyritic, containing larger crystals (phenocrysts) of plagioclase formed
prior to the extrusion that brought the magma to the surface, embedded in a finer-grained matrix.
Phenocrysts of pyroxene or hornblende are also common. These minerals have the highest
melting temperatures of the typical minerals that can crystallize from the melt and are therefore
the first to form solid crystals.
Andesite is typically formed at convergent plate margins but may also occur in other tectonic
settings. Magmatism in island arc regions comes from the interplay of the subducting plate and
the mantle wedge, the wedge-shaped region between the subducting and overriding plates.
During subduction, the subducted oceanic crust is subjected to increasing pressure and
temperature, leading to metamorphism. Hydrous minerals such
as amphibole, zeolites, chlorite etc. (which are present in the oceanic lithosphere) dehydrate as
they change to more stable, anhydrous forms, releasing water and soluble elements into the
overlying wedge of mantle. Fluxing water into the wedge lowers the solidus of
the mantle material and causes partial melting. Due to the lower density of the partially molten
material, it rises through the wedge until it reaches the lower boundary of the overriding plate.
Melts generated in the mantle wedge are of basaltic composition, but they have a distinctive
enrichment of soluble elements (e.g. potassium (K), barium (Ba), and lead (Pb)) which are
contributed from sediment that lies at the top of the subducting plate. Although there is evidence
to suggest that the subducting oceanic crust may also melt during this process, the relative
contribution of the three components (crust, sediment, and wedge) to the generated basalts is still

104
a matter of debate
Basalt thus formed can contribute to the formation of andesite through fractional crystallization,
partial melting of crust, or magma mixing, all of which are discussed next.
II.GENESIS;
Intermediate volcanic rocks are created via several processes:

1. Fractional crystallization of a mafic parent magma.

2. Partial melting of crustal material.
3. Magma mixing between felsic rhyolitic and mafic basaltic magmas in a magma reservoir
4. Partial melting of metasomatized mantle

Andesite is especially abundant in the volcanic island of Java, mined from a certain cliffs or
stone quarry with andesite deposit formed from compressed ancient magma chamber or cooled
down lava spill. Each andesite stone is custom made into blocks with interlocking technique, to
construct temple walls, floors and building. Andesite stones are easily formed and carved with
iron chisel, making it a suitable material for temple walls and decorations carved as bas-reliefs.
The walls of andesite was then carved with exquisite narrative bas-reliefs, which can be observed
in many temples, especially in Borobudur and Prambanan. Andesite rocks are also used as the
material for carved statues: the images of deities and Buddha.

Red brick Jabung temple, dated from Majapahit period.

Brick is also used to construct temples. The oldest brick temple structure is the Batujaya temple
compound in Karawang, West Java, dated from 2nd to 12th century CE. Although brick had
been used in the candi of Indonesia's classical age, it was Majapahit architects of the 14th and

105
15th centuries who mastered it.[15] Making use of a vine sap and palm sugar mortar, their temples
had a strong geometric quality. The example of Majapahit temples are Brahu temple
in Trowulan, Pari in Sidoarjo, Jabung in Probolinggo. Temples of Sumatra, such as Bahal
temple, Muaro Jambi, and Muara Takus are made from bricks. However, compared to lava
andesite stone, clay red bricks are less durable, especially if exposed to hot and humid tropical
elements and torrential monsoon rain. As a result, many red brick structures were crumbling
down over centuries, and reconstruction efforts require recasting and replacing the damaged
structure with new bricks.
III.Tuff is a type of rock made of volcanic ash ejected from a vent during a volcanic eruption.
Following ejection and deposition, the ash is lithified into a solid rock. Rock that contains greater
than 75% ash is considered tuff, while rock containing 25% to 75% ash is described
as tuffaceous (for example, tuffaceous sandstone). Tuff is a relatively soft rock, so it has been
used for construction since ancient times. Because it is common in Italy, the Romans used it
often for construction. The Rapa Nui people used it to make most of the moai statues on Easter
Island. Tuff can be classified as either igneous or sedimentary rock. It is usually studied in the
context of igneous petrology, although it is sometimes described using sedimentological terms.

Tuff  is quite abundant near Javanese volcanoes or limestone formations. In Indonesian and
Javanese languages, tuff is called batu putih (white stone), which corresponds to its light color.
The chalky characteristic of this stone, however, has made it unsuitable to be carved into bas-
reliefs of building ornaments. Compared to andesite, tuff is considered as an inferior quality
building material. In Javanese temples, tuff usually are used as stone fillings — forming the
inner structure of the temple — while the outer layer employed andesite that is more suitable to
be carved. The tuff quarries can be found in Sewu limestone ranges near Ratu Boko hill. The tuff
fillings in the temple can be examined in Ratu Boko crematorium temple. Tuff was used as
building material of outer walls of temple compound, such as te walls found buried around Sewu
and Sambisari temple.
IV.Stucco is materials similar to modern concrete, made from the mixture of sand, stone, water,
and sometimes ground clamshell. Stucco or render is a construction material made
of aggregates, a binder, and water. Stucco is applied wet and hardens to a very dense solid. It is
used as a decorative coating for walls and ceilings, exterior walls, and as a sculptural and artistic
material in architecture. Stucco can be applied on construction materials such as metal, expanded
metal lath, concrete, cinder block, or clay brick and adobe for decorative and structural purposes.
In English, "stucco" sometimes refers to a coating for the outside of a building and "plaster" to a
coating for interiors; as described below, however the materials themselves often have little to no
differences. Other European languages, notably including Italian, do not have the same
distinction; stucco means plaster in Italian and serves for both
Stucco has also been used as a sculptural and artistic material. Stucco relief was used in the
architectural decoration schemes of many ancient cultures. Examples of Egyptian, Minoan,
and Etruscan stucco reliefs remain extant. In the art of Mesopotamia and ancient Persian art there
was a widespread tradition of figurative and ornamental internal stucco reliefs, which continued
into Islamic art, for example in Abbasid Samarra, now using geometrical and plant-based
ornament. As the arabesque reached its full maturity, carved stucco remained a very common
medium for decoration and calligraphic inscriptions. Indian architecture used stucco as a material
for sculpture in an architectural context. It is rare in the countryside.

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In Roman art of the late Republic and early Empire, stucco was used extensively for the
decoration of vaults. Though marble was the preferred sculptural medium in most regards, stucco
was better for use in vaults because it was lighter and better suited to adapt to the curvature of
the ceiling. Baroque and Rococo architecture makes heavy use of stucco. Examples can be found
in churches and palaces, where stucco is mostly used to provide a smooth, decorative transition
from walls to ceiling, decorating and giving measure to ceiling surfaces. Stucco is an integral
part of the art of belcomposto, the Baroque concept that integrates the three classic
arts, architecture, sculpture, and painting.
The Greco-Buddhist art of modern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan made extensive use in
monasteries and temples of stucco for three-dimensional monumental sculpture as well as reliefs.
These were usually carved from a rough modelling over a framework and then painted. Similar
techniques are used for the life-size statues decorating the gopurams of Hindu temples in
modern South Asia.

The stucco as temple building material is observable in the Batujaya temple compound in West

Java.

Traces of worn off vajralepa plaster on Sari's relief. Statue of seated Buddha; c. 300s; overall:

36.9 cm; from Hadda (Afghanistan); Cleveland Museum of Art (Cleveland, Ohio, USA)

V.Plaster called vajralepa (Sanskrit: diamond plaster) is used to coat the temple walls. The

white-yellowish plaster is made from the mixture of ground limestone, tuff or white earth
(kaolin), with plant substances such as gums or resins as binder. The varjalepa white plaster was
applied upon the andesite walls, and then painted with bright colors, serving perhaps as a beacon
of Buddhist teaching. The traces of worn-off vajralepa plaster can be observed in
Borobudur, Sari, Kalasan and Sewu temple walls.

VI.Wood is believed to be used in some of candi construction or at least as parts of temple

building material. Sari and Plaosan temples, for example, are known to have traces of stone
indentions to support wooden beams and floors in its second floor, as well as traces of wooden
stairs. Ratu Boko compound has building bases and stone umpak column base, which suggests
that the wooden capitals once stood there to support wooden roof structure made of organic
materials. Traces of holes to install wooden window railings and wooden doors are observable in
many of the perwara (complementary smaller) temples. Of course, wooden materials are easily
decayed in a humid tropical climate, leaving no traces after centuries.

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 Motif and decoration
Kala-Makara

Kala-makara on the portal of Borobudur gates, Kala's head on top of the portal and makaras
flanking either sides.
The candis of ancient Java are notable with the application of kala-makara as both decorative and
symbolic elements of the temple architecture. Kala is the giant symbolizing time, by making
kala's head as temple portals element, it symbolizes that time consumes everything. Kala is also a
protective figure, with fierce giant face it scares away malevolent spirits. Makara is a mythical
sea monster, the vahana of sea-god Varuna. It has been depicted typically as half mammal and
half fish. In many temples the depiction is in the form of half fish or seal with the head of
an elephant. It is also shown with head and jaws of a crocodile, an elephant trunk, the tusks and
ears of a wild boar, the darting eyes of a monkey, the scales and the flexible body of a fish, and
the swirling tailing feathers of a peacock. Both kala and makara are applied as the protective
figures of the temple's entrance.
Kala is the giant head, often takes place on top of the entrance with makaras projected on either
sides of kala's head, flanking the portal or projecting on the top corner as antefixes. The kala-
makara theme also can be found on stair railings on either sides. On the upper part of stairs, the
mouth of kala's head projecting makara downward. The intricate stone carving of twin makaras
flanking the lower level of stairs, with its curved bodies forming the stair's railings. Other than
makaras, kala's head might also project its tongue as stair's railings. These types of stair-
decorations can be observed in Borobudur and Prambanan. Makara's trunks are often describes
as handling gold ornaments or spouting jewels, while in its mouth often projected Gana dwarf
figures or animals such as lions or parrots.

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Deities- Kalpataru and Kinnaras

Kinnara (male), Kinnari (female), Apsara, and Devata guarding Kalpataru, the divine tree of life. 8th

century Pawon temple, Java, Indonesia.

The images of coupled Kinnara and Kinnari can be found in Borobudur, Mendut, Pawon, Sewu,

Sari, and Prambanan temples. Usually, they are depicted as birds with human heads, or humans
with lower limbs of birds. The pair of Kinnara and Kinnari usually is depicted
guarding Kalpataru (Kalpavriksha), the tree of life, and sometimes guarding a jar of treasure.
There are bas-relief in Borobudur depicting the story of the famous kinnari, Manohara.
The lower outer wall of Prambanan temples were adorned with row of small niche containing
image of simha (lion) flanked by two panels depicting bountiful kalpataru (kalpavriksha) tree.
These wish-fulfilling sacred trees according to Hindu-Buddhist beliefs, is flanked on either side
by kinnaras or animals, such as pairs of birds, deer, sheep, monkeys, horses, elephants etc. The
pattern of lion in niche flanked by kalpataru trees is typical in Prambanan temple compound, thus
it is called as "Prambanan panel".
Boddhisattva and Tara

A Bodhisattva flanked by two Taras in Sewu temple.

In Buddhist temples, the panels of bas-reliefs usually adorned with exquisite images of male
figure of Bodhisattvas and female figure of Taras, along with Gandarvas heavenly musicians,
and sometimes the flock of Gana dwarfs. These are the deities and divinities in Buddhist beliefs,
which resides in the Tushita heaven in Buddhism cosmology.
Bodhisattvas are usually depicted as handsome man with peaceful and serene facial expression,
adorned with luxurious jewelry akin to a king or a deity. While the Taras are his female
counterparts, figures of beautiful celestial maidens. Both figures are depicted gracefully, usually
holding various kinds of lotus (red padma, blue utpala, or white kumuda), monk staff
(khakkhara) or fly whisk (chamara), and standing in tribhanga pose. The notable images
of boddhisattvas could be found adorning the outer walls of Plaosan, Sari, Kalasan, Sewu,
Pawon and of course Borobudur temple.

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Devata and Apsara[edit]

A Devata flanked by two apsaras in Prambanan temple.

In Hindu temples, the celestial couple; male Devatas and female Apsaras are usually found
adorns the panels of temple's walls. They are the Hindu counterpart of Buddhist Bodhisattva-
Tara celestial beings. On the other side of narrative panels in Prambanan, the temple wall along
the gallery were adorned with the statues and reliefs of devatas and brahmin sages. The figure
of lokapalas, the celestial guardians of directions can be found in Shiva temple. The Brahmin
sage editors of veda were carved on Brahma temple wall, while in Vishnu temple the figures of a
male deities devatas flanked by two apsaras. The depiction of celestial beings of lesser gods and
goddesses — devatas and apsaras, describes the Hindu concept of sacred realm of Svargaloka.
This is corresponds to the concept of the towering Hindu temple as the epitome of Mount
Meru in Hindu cosmology.
Guardians-Dvarapala

One of dvarapala statues guarding Sewu temple.

Most of larger temple compound in ancient Java were guarded by a pair of dvarapala statues, as
gate guardians. The twin giants usually placed flanked the entrance in front of the temple, or in
four cardinal points. Dvarapala took form of two fierce giants or demons that ward off evil and
malevolent spirits from entering the sacred temple compounds. In Central Javanese art, dvarapala
is mostly portrayed as a stout and rather chubby giant, with fierce face of glaring round goggle
eyes, protruding fangs, curly hairs and moustaches, with fat and round belly. The giant usually
depicted as holding gada and sometimes knives as weapon.
In East Javanese art and Balinese version however, the dvarapala usually depicted rather well-
built and muscular, with a fine example taken from Adan-adan site near Kediri.[19] The exception

110
is a gigantic dvarapala of Singhasari near Malang, East Java that measures 3.7 metres tall. The
most notable dvarapala statues are those of candi Sewu, each pair guarding four cardinal points
of the grand temple complex, making them a total eight large dvarapala statues in perfect
condition. The dvarapalas of Sewu temple has become the prototype of Gupolo guardian in later
Javanese art, copied as guardians in Javanese keratons of Yogyakarta and Surakarta. Another
fine example is two pairs of dvarapala guarding the twin temples of Plaosan.
Lion

Lion guardian of Borobudur.

The statues of a pair of lions (Sanskrit: Siṁha, Indonesian and Javanese: Singa) flanking the
portal, are often placed as the guardians of candi entrance. Lions were never native to Southeast
Asia in recorded history. As the result, the depiction of lions in ancient Southeast Asian art,
especially in ancient Java and Cambodia, is far from the naturalistic style as depicted in Greek or
Persian art counterparts, since the depictions were all based on perception and imagination. The
cultural depictions and the reverence of lions as the noble and powerful beasts in Southeast Asia
was influenced by Indian culture especially through Buddhist symbolism.
Statues of a pair of lions often founds in temples in Southeast Asia as the gate guardians.
In Borobudur Buddhist monument Central Java, Indonesia, andesite stone statues of lions guard
four main entrances of Borobudur. The thrones of Buddha and Boddhisattva found
in Kalasan and Mendut Buddhist temples of ancient Java depicted elephants, lions, and makara.
The statue of winged lion also found in Penataran temple East Java.
Stupa, Ratna and Vajra pinnacles

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Bell-shaped perforated stupas of Borobudur.
The religions dedicated in the temples of ancient Java can be easily distinguished mainly from its
pinnacles on top of the roof. Bell-shaped stupa can be found on the Buddhist temples' roof, while
ratna, the pinnacle ornaments symbolize gem, mostly founds in Hindu temples.
The typical stupas in Javanese classical temple architecture is best described as those
of Borobudur style; the bell-shaped stupa. The stupa in Borobudur upper round terrace
of Arupadhatu consist of round lotus pedestal (padmasana or "lotus pad"), gently sloped bell-
shaped dome (anda), a rectangular or octagonal shape (harmika) sits on top of the dome serves
as the base of hexagonal rod-like pinnacle (yasti).
Each stupa is pierced by numerous decorative openings, either in the shape of rectangular or
rhombus. Statues of the Buddha sit inside the pierced stupa enclosures. Borobudur was first
thought more likely to have served as a stupa, instead of a temple. A stupa is intended as
a shrine for the Buddha. Sometimes stupas were built only as devotional symbols of Buddhism.
A temple, on the other hand, is used as a house of worship.

Prambanan vajra pinnacle.

Ratna pinnacle took form of a curved obtuse pyramidal shape or sometimes cylindrical,
completed with several base structure or pedestals took form as some ornamental seams
(Javanese:pelipit). This form is known as keben pinnacle or the form of Barringtonia
asiatica fruit.  It can be found as the pinnacle of both Hindu and Buddhist temples. Nevertheless,
it is most prevalent in Hindu temples. The example of temple with ratna pinnacle
is Sambisari and Ijo temple.
In Prambanan, the stylized vajra replaced ratna as the temple's pinnacles. In ancient Javanese
temple architecture, the vajra pinnacle is probably served as the Hindu counterparts of Buddhist
stupa pinnacle. This practice is preserved in Balinese Hindu temples of later period where the
multi-tiered meru towers are crowned with vajra pinnacles. Nevertheless, vajra is actually a
familiar symbols in both dharmic faiths. In later periods of Eastern Java temple architecture, the
false lingga-yoni, or cube can be found in Hindu temple's roof, while cylindrical dagoba on top
of Buddhist counterparts.

112
Map showing the location of the main sites of the so-called "Indonesian classical period" or
Hindu-Buddhist period. Black dots represent Hindu sites and red dots Buddhist sites.
The high concentration of candi can be found especially dense in Sleman
Regency in Yogyakarta, also Magelang and Klaten in Central Java; which corresponds to the
historical region of Kedu Plain (Progo River valley, Temanggung-Magelang-Muntilan area)
and Kewu Plain (Opak River valley, around Prambanan), the cradle of Javanese civilization.
Other important sites with notable temple compounds
includes Malang, Blitar and Trowulan areas in East Java. West Java also contains a small
number of temples such as Batujaya and Cangkuang. Outside of Java, the candi type of temple
can be found in Bali, Sumatra, and Southern Kalimantan, although they are quite scarce. In
Sumatra, two exceptional sites are notable for its temple density; the Muaro Jambi Temple
Compounds in Jambi and Padang Lawas or Bahal complex in North Sumatra.
The candis might be built on plain or uneven terrain. Prambanan and Sewu temples for example,
are built on even flat low-lying terrain, while the temples of Gedong Songo and Ijo are built on
hill terraces on higher grounds or mountain slopes. Borobudur on the other hand is built upon a
bedrock hill. The position, orientation and spatial organization of the temples within the
landscape, and also their architectural designs, were determined by socio-cultural, religious and
economic factors of the people, polity or the civilization that built and support them.
Borobudur and Kedu Plain

113
Borobudur
The Kedu Plain lies to the north west of Yogyakarta and west of Gunung Merapi and south west
of Magelang, in Central Java.

 Borobudur. 9th-century Buddhist monument, reportedly the world's largest. Seven

terraces to the top represent the steps from the earthly realm to Nirvana. Reliefs of the birth,
enlightenment and death of the Buddha. A UNESCO World Heritage Site.
 Pawon. 8th-century Buddhist temple.
 Mendut. 8th-century Mahayana Buddhist temple.
 Ngawen. Five aligned sanctuaries, one decorated with finely sculpted lions. 8th-century
Buddhist temple located east from Mendut temple. The name linked to Venuvana, "the
temple of bamboo forest".
 Banon. 8th-century Hindu temple located north from Pawon temple. The few remains
make it impossible to reconstruct the temple. The Hindu god statue from this temple is now
located at the National Museum in Jakarta.
 Umbul, a 9th-century bathing complex in Grabag, Magelang
 Gunung Sari. Ruins of three secondary temples and the foot of the main temple remain.
 Gunung Wukir. One of the oldest inscriptions on Java, written in 732 CE, found here.
Only the bases remain of the main sanctuary and three secondary temples.
Slopes of Merapi

 Sengi complex. Three temples, Candi Asu, Candi Pendem and Candi Lumbung, Sengi,

on the side of Mount Merapi. 8th and 9th century. The base of the temple has a climbing
plant motif.
 Gebang
 Morangan
 Pustakasala
 Lawang

Structure of Borobudur
The monument is shaped like a mandala, forming a series of platforms — five square platforms
below, four circular platforms above — riddled with a pathway that takes pilgrims through three
levels of Buddhist cosmology.Visitors climb steep stairs to each level; the walkways are

114
decorated with 2,672 relief panels that tell stories from the Buddha's life and parables from
Buddhist texts.

To view the reliefs in their proper order, you should start from the east gate, circulating
clockwise then climbing one level up as you complete a circuit.

The monument guides pilgrims through an extensive system of stairways and corridors with
narrative relief panels on the walls and the balustrades. Borobudur has the largest and most
complete ensemble of Buddhist reliefs in the world. The monument consists of nine stacked
platforms, six square and three circulars, topped by a central dome. The temple is decorated
with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues. 72 Buddha statues, each seated inside a
perforated Stupa surround the central dome.
From a bird’s eye view, the temple is in the shape of a traditional Buddhist Mandala. Central
to a great deal of Buddhist and Hindu art, the basic form of Mandala is a square with four
entry points and a circular centre point.Levels of Borobudur
The lowest level of Borobudur represent Kamadhatu (the world of desire), and is decorated
with 160 reliefs showing ugly scenes of human desire and their karmic consequences. The
illustrations are supposed to motivate the pilgrim to escape their earthly shackles for Nirvana.
The lowest platform actually shows only a fraction of the reliefs; much of the lowest part of
Borobudur was buttressed with additional stonework, covering some of the reliefs. Our guide
hinted that some of the more salacious reliefs were covered up, but there's no evidence to support
this.

As the visitor ascends towards Rupadhatu (the world of forms, comprising the next five levels
up), the reliefs begin to tell the miraculous story of the Buddha's conception and birth. The
reliefs also show heroic deeds and parables taken from Buddhist folklore.
Ascending towards Arupadhatu (the world of formlessness, the four top levels of Borobudur),
the visitor sees perforated stupas enclosing Buddha statues within. Where the first four platforms
are bordered on both sides with stone, the upper four levels are open, revealing expansive views
of the Magelang regency and Merapi volcano in the distance.
At the very top, a central stupa crowns Borobudur. Average visitors are not permitted to enter the
stupa, not that there's anything to see - the stupa is empty, as it symbolizes the escape to Nirvana
or nothingness that is the ultimate goal of Buddhism.

Buddha Statues at Borobudur and Six Mudras

Besides decorated with beautiful reliefs, Borobudur Temple also has 504 statues of Buddha
sitting all of which are carved on a round stone sabongkah. All the statues illustrating the
Dhyani Buddha or meditating Buddhist are spread to different levels, from the lower to the
top, rupadhatu and arupadhatu.

The Buddha Dhyani is different from the Buddha in history. They are not enlightened
earthly beings, but they are transcendental savers who sit on their lotuses in eternal
reverence, peace, and meditation with half-closed eyes.

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 The most striking feature of this Buddha is his simplicity. He is illustrated with a Buddha
dressed in a monk’s suit in a suit with folds that fall down or almost tightly covering the
body like “wet clothes”. His cloak showed only his wrists, neck, and ankles. Another
physical feature is a point on his forehead, right between his eyebrows. This simplicity in
Buddhist portrayal is a combination of loyalty and tenderness that produces the beauty of
this statue.

The Buddha statues on the lower four levels of Borobudur are positioned in several "attitudes"
or mudra, each referencing an event in the Buddha's life.
Bhumi Sparsa Mudra: the "seal of touching the earth", posed by the Buddha statues on the east
side - left hands laid open on their laps, right hand on right knee with fingers pointed downward.
This references the Buddha's fight against the demon Mara, where he calls upon Dewi Bumi the
earth goddess to witness his tribulations.
 Vara Mudra: representing "charity", posed by the Buddha statues on the south side -
right hand held palm up with fingers on right knee, left hand laid open on lap.
 Dhyana Mudra: representing "meditation", posed by the Buddha statues on the west
side - both hands placed on lap, right hand on top of left, both palms facing up, two thumbs
meeting.
 Abhaya Mudra: representing reassurance and the elimination of fear, posed by the
Buddha statues on the north side - left hand laid open on lap, right hand slightly raised above
knee with palm facing front.
 Vitarka Mudra: representing "preaching", posed by Buddhas on the balustrade of the
top square terrace - right hand held up, thumb and forefinger touching, signifying preaching.
The Buddha statues on the higher levels are enclosed in perforated stupas; one is purposely left
incomplete to reveal the Buddha inside. Another is supposed to give good luck if you can touch
its hand; it's harder than it looks, as once you stick your arm in, you have no way of seeing the
statue inside!
Waisak at Borobudur
Many Buddhists visit Borobudur during Waisak (the Buddhist day of enlightenment). On
Waisak, hundreds of Buddhist monks from Indonesia and further afield begin at 2am to make a
procession from nearby Candi Mendut, walking the 1.5 miles to Borobudur.
The procession goes slowly, with much chanting and praying, until they reach Borobudur at
about 4:00am. The monks will then circle the temple, ascending the levels in their proper order,
and await the appearance of the moon on the horizon (this marks the birth of the Buddha), which
they will greet with a song. The ceremonies end after sunrise.

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A Buddha statue with the hand position of dharmachakra mudra

Apart from the story of the Buddhist cosmology carved in stone, Borobudur has many statues of
various Buddhas. The cross-legged statues are seated in a lotus position and distributed on the
five square platforms (the Rupadhatu level), as well as on the top platform
(the Arupadhatu level).

The Buddha statues are in niches at the Rupadhatu level, arranged in rows on the outer sides of
the balustrades, the number of statues decreasing as platforms progressively diminish to the
upper level. The first balustrades have 104 niches, the second 104, the third 88, the fourth 72 and
the fifth 64. In total, there are 432 Buddha statues at the Rupadhatu level.[4] At
the Arupadhatu level (or the three circular platforms), Buddha statues are placed inside
perforated stupas. The first circular platform has 32 stupas, the second 24 and the third 16, which
adds up to 72 stupas. Of the original 504 Buddha statues, over 300 are damaged (mostly
headless), and 43 are missing. Since the monument's discovery, heads have been acquired as
collector's items, mostly by Western museums. Some of these Buddha heads are now displayed
in numbers of museums, such as the Tropenmuseum in Amsterdam, Musée Guimet in Paris,
and The British Museum in London. Germany has in 2014 returned its collection and funded
their reattachment and further conservation of the site.

1. Head from a Borobudur Buddha statue in Tropenmuseum, Amsterdam.

2. Headless Buddha statue in Borobudur. Since its discovery, numbers of heads have been
stolen and installed in museums abroad.
3. Lion gate guardian

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At first glance, all the Buddha statues appear similar, but there is a subtle difference between
them in the mudras, or the position of the hands. There are five groups of mudra: North, East,
South, West and Zenith, which represent the five cardinal compass points according
to Mahayana. The first four balustrades have the first four mudras: North, East, South and West,
of which the Buddha statues that face one compass direction have the corresponding mudra.
Buddha statues at the fifth balustrades and inside the 72 stupas on the top platform have the
same mudra: Zenith. Each mudra represents one of the Five Dhyani Buddhas; each has its own
symbolism

Following the order of Pradakshina (clockwise circumumbulation) starting from the East,

the mudras of the Borobudur buddha statues are:

Dhya Car
Symbolic ni dinal
Statue Mudra Location of the Statue
meaning Budd Poin
ha t

Calling the
Bhumispar Rupadhatu niches on the first four
Earth to Aksobhya East
sa mudra eastern balustrades
witness

Vara Benevolence, Ratnasam Rupadhatu niches on the first four

South
mudra alms giving bhava southern balustrades

Concentratio
Dhyana Rupadhatu niches on the first four
n and Amitabha West
mudra western balustrades
meditation
Abhaya Courage, Amoghas Rupadhatu niches on the first four
North
mudra fearlessness iddhi northern balustrades
Vitarka Reasoning Vairocha Rupadhatu niches in all directions on
Zenith
mudra and virtue na the fifth (uppermost) balustrade

Turning the
Dharmach Arupadhatu in 72 perforated stupas
Wheel Vairocha
akra Zenith on three rounded platforms
of dharma (la na
mudra
w)

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Although there are similarities between them, each statue has its own personality. And in
addition to his obvious personality, each statue reveals the same thing.
Sculptures at the box level are placed in a niche equipped with various ornaments. The
statue is arranged in the line at the top of the outer side of the ledge. Because the higher the
level has the smaller the size, the first ledge has space for 104 niches, the second is also
104 niches, the third 88 niches, the fourth 72 niches, and the fifth 64 niches. So there are
432 niches in the rupadhatu section.

Statues that are in the level of a circle placed in a hollow stupa arranged in three levels of
concentric circles. The first level of the circle has 32 stupas, the second has 24 stupas, and
the third has 16 stupas. Thus, there are 72 stupas which correspond to the Javanese
tradition which says “72 guarded principles in a cage” in Borobudur.
Research shows significant position differences at the hands of Buddha statues in
Borobudur. The left hand of the Buddha statue is generally placed in the lap with the palm
facing upward, while the right-hand shows a certain gesture (mudra) associated with certain
historical events of the Buddha’s life.

The Buddhas of the first 4 balustrades have different mudras, each of which has distinctive
features on each side of Borobudur. The east-facing sculpture has the same mudra, and so
is the patent facing west, north, and south. The Buddha at the very top, or the fifth
balustrade, has the same mudra regardless of which direction they are facing. It is also the
same as 72 Buddhas at the level of the circle, they all show the same hand position but are
different from the mudra at the lower levels.

There are six mudras in the statue in Borobudur. The six mudras include
Bhumisparcamudra (calling the earth to witness), Abhayamudra (frightening the fear),
Varamudra (charity), Vitarkamudra (gesture of judgment), and Dharmacakramudra (law
wheel movement).

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 CHAPTER IV

THE SECRET OF BOROBUDUR & the Sang Hyang Kamahayanikan

PART I
THE BELIEF SYSTEM OF ESOTERIC BUDDHISM IS OPEN ONLY TO
THOSE WHO FEEL CALLED TO FOLLOW IT & ARE WILLING TO
SUBMIT THEMSELVES TO INSTRUCTION BY A MASTER.

The history of Buddhism in Indonesia is closely related to the history of Hinduism, as a number
of empires influenced by Indian culture were established around the same period. The arrival of
Buddhism in the Indonesian archipelago began with trading activity, from the early 1st century,
by way of the maritime Silk Road between Indonesia and India. Although the majority of
Indonesian Buddhists are of the Chinese Mahayana school, more often than not the
representative of Buddhism as selected by the Government would happen to be a Theravada
monk. The Buddha died in the early 5th century B.C. His teachings, called the dharma, spread
over Asia and developed into three basic traditions: Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana.
Buddhists call them "vehicles," meaning they are ways to carry pilgrims from suffering to
enlightenment.
That being said, very rarely one reads about the Sang Hyang Kamahayanikan when
discussing the architecture of the incredible Borobudur stupa monument. Borobudur's popular
terms of Kamadhatu, Rupadhatu, Arupadhatu are also contained in Sanghyang Kamahayanikan.
In other words the design frescos of the Borubudur are directly influenced by the contents of the
Sang Hyang Kamahayanikan.

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This document is part of the prose literature of Javanese people. This Tantric Buddhist treatise
describes Javanese Buddhism, architecture and iconography.  The back side of this literature
contain a name of Javanese king, i.e. Mpu Sindok, who ruled East Java from 929 to 947 CE. The
structure of Borobudur actually shows the developmental stages of a yogi’s experiences to
achieve Buddhahood where feelings and thoughts stop. Borobudur's popular term
of Kamadhatu, Rupadhatu, Arupadhatu are also contained in Sanghyang Kamahayanikan.

It was written about 929-947 CE by Mpu Shri Sambhara Surya Warama from East Java, the
successor of the Mataram Kingdom which was shifted to East Java. However the development of
Esoteric Buddhism has a long history connected to the original birthplace of Buddha and the
trails and tribulations of the dogma of that time
Containing  Mahayana (especially Vajrayana) Buddhism teachings, mostly about the list of
deities in found Mahayana Buddhism- which is often matched with the placement of
the Buddhist kings in the Borobudur temple. The literature also contains the procedures
in meditation.It teaches how one can attain Buddhahood, i.e. a student must first
practice Pāramitā, then described Paramaguhya and Mahaguhya. As an addition, it also
explained the philosophy of Adwaya that overcoming the dualism "existence" and "non-
existence”.
The text is restricted for the teachings in the Mahayana school, with focus on the tantric path
of the Yogacara School using Mantranaya or the Mantra method. The text has been divided into
two parts, each of which can be read independently.
1. The first section entitled Sang Hyang Kamahayanan Mantranaya, consists of 42 Sanskrit
verses, each with a related commentary in elaborate old Javanese and regrouped under 11
subtopics and a conclusion.
2. The second section consists of instructions in 86 verses, written mainly in old Javanese,
with a few middle level Sanskrit references. Both texts belong to the same school and are
connected. The text is in a question and answer form.
The Sang Hyang Kamahāyānikan consists of two parts, each of which forms a separate track.
The fi rst part consists of a connected series of Sanskrit strophes with a more or less elaborate
Old-Javanese commentary attached; at the end, the Sang Hyang Kamahāyānan Mantranaya is
given as the title. It bears the same meaning as what is called mantracaryānaya in the verses and
generally known as the Mantrayāna.

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The second part is a doctrine written in Old-Javanese, punctuated with a few Sanskrit quotations
of less high form, belonging to the same school as the first part, as per the examination of the
content. The practical teachings in the Sang Hyang Kamahāyānikan are set out in four steps. The
first, Mahāmārga (the great path); second, Paramabodhimārga or Paramamārga (the supreme
path) has already been dealt with in the Sang Hyang Kamahāyānan Mantranaya and at the
beginning of the Sang Hyang Kamahāyānan Advaya Sadhana.
3. Third, Mahāguhya (the great secret) and fourth,
4. Paramaguhya (the supreme secret) is the subject of this part of the text. The above
practices are entry level meditations for tantric practices.
Sanghyang Kamahayanikan teaches how one can attain Buddhahood, i.e. a student must first
practice Pāramitā, then the described Paramaguhya and Mahaguhya. Additionally, it also
explains the philosophy of Adwaya; overcoming the dualism of “existence” and “non-existence”.
In the book, there is a very detailed description of how a tantric yogi prepares himself for the
spiritual path, from the start until the implementation of multilevel worship. It is said that the
Vajrayana doctrines are meditation towards the Five Tathagatas. By worshipping them, a yogi
can attain purity of mind.

Esoteric Buddhism is the mystical interpretation and practice of the belief system founded
by the Buddha (known as Sakyamuni Buddha, l. c. 563 - c. 483 BCE). It is known by several
names and is characterized by a personal relationship with a spirit guide or deity who leads one
to enlightenment.

An initiate must first study with a master who shares writings, teachings, and knowledge not
widely known and often referred to as "secret". The student masters various meditation
techniques and studies the tantra, generally understood to mean "the continuum" as expressed in
Tantric texts. This continuum is the pattern of universal love and compassion shown throughout
time by the supernatural entities of buddhas, of which Sakyamuni Buddha was only one, to
humanity.

An adherent of Esoteric Buddhism forms a relationship with one of these buddhas and is

then spiritually led by the entity (or deity) on the path toward enlightenment as a bodhisattva.
Vajrayana Buddhism (also known as Tibetan Buddhism) is regarded as a form of both Mahayana
Buddhism and Esoteric Buddhism as it combines elements of both, and most schools, like Zen
Buddhism, follow this same pattern in taking what works best from other schools to supplement
the foundational teachings.

The beliefs and practices of Esoteric Buddhism are not as well known or widely recognized as
those of the popular Mahayana Buddhism because they are not supposed to be. The belief system
is open only to those who feel called to follow it and are willing to submit themselves to
instruction by a master. The belief system may have developed as a reaction to
the Hindu Revival of the 8th century CE inspired by the work of the philosopher Shankara
(though this claim is challenged), which emphasized many of the same aspects of faith and
knowledge later espoused by Esoteric Buddhism, including foundational knowledge, submission
to a master’s teaching, and the importance of personal revelation.

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Early Religious Reform
During the Vedic Period (c. 1500 - c. 500 BCE) in India, the belief system known as Sanatan
Dharma ("Eternal Order"), better known as Hinduism, developed from earlier beliefs through the
written works known as the Vedas which preserved a much older oral tradition. Hinduism was
highly ritualized at this time. The Vedas ("knowledge") were composed in Sanskrit which most
people could not understand, and the priests needed to interpret the texts, which were thought to
explain the universe, human life, and how one should best live it.
The Vedas maintained that there was a divine being, Brahman, who both created and was the
universe. A spark of the divine (the  atman) was within each person, and the purpose of life was
to awaken this spark and live virtuously so that, after death, one’s own divine light would merge
with Brahman in eternal unity, and one would be freed from the cycle of rebirth and death
(known as samsara), which was associated with suffering.

Buddha Sculpture in Ajanta/ The Vedas (Rig-veda)

Around 600 BCE, a religious reform movement swept across India that questioned
orthodox Hinduism. Different schools of thought developed at this time known as astika ("there
exists"), which supported the Hindu claim regarding the existence of the atman,
and nastika ("there does not exist"), which rejected that claim as well as almost all of the Hindu
vision.

Nastika: The most famous nastika schools of the time were Charvaka, Jainism, and Buddhism.

The first was entirely materialistic and denied the existence of the soul. The second two, while
also denying the Hindu atman, recognized a self undifferentiated from the universe which
suffered under the illusion it was a separate self distanced both from its source and from other
selves in the world.

Buddhism: Establishment & Development

Buddha, according to tradition, was a Hindu prince named Siddhartha Gautama who renounced
his position and wealth to seek spiritual enlightenment. He realized that suffering comes from
attachment to transitory aspects of life and life itself, which was in a constant state of change and
so could not be held, kept, or controlled, but which people insisted should be lasting. One
suffered by continually insisting on an impossible permanence. By recognizing this, and
following a path of non-attachment, one could attain nirvana ("liberation") at one’s death,
123
freeing the self from samsara and attendant suffering.
Buddha founded his system on acceptance of the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path and
taught his disciples a spiritual discipline whereby they could attain individual enlightenment just
as he had. On his deathbed, he requested that no spiritual leader be chosen to replace him and
each of his disciples should continue on his own path. After his death, however, a leader was
chosen, and rules were written, and Buddha’s teachings were institutionalized.

The new faith splintered in 383 BCE over doctrinal differences, and many Buddhist schools
developed including Sthaviravada and Mahasanghika, which would encourage still more.
Buddhism at this time was vying with the more firmly established religions of Hinduism and
Jainism for adherents and made little headway until it was embraced by Ashoka the Great (r.
268-232 BCE) of the Mauryan Empire who not only helped establish the system in India but
spread it to Sri Lanka, Korea, Thailand, China, and Japan.

124
125
Shankara & Hindu Revival
Buddhism was enthusiastically received in these other lands but continued to struggle to gain and
hold followers in India. Hinduism offered a greater variety of ritual and pageantry while also
advancing the concept that everyone held a spark of the divine, was in fact a divine being and
part of the universe, which contrasted sharply with the Buddhist doctrine of emptiness-of-self
and simplicity of observance.

Buddhist efforts at conversion were hampered further by the Hindu Revival of the 8th and 9th
centuries CE encouraged (according to tradition, at least) by the sage Shankara who advocated
the doctrine of Advaita Vedānta ("non-duality") emphasizing the ultimate reality of Brahman, the
existence of the atman, and the illusory nature of all else. Only Brahman existed and human
beings existed, through the atman, as parts of Brahman. Shankara attacked Buddhist thought for
its denial of the atman, but his understanding of liberation through oneness of the atman with
Brahman is similar to the Buddhist concept of attaining nirvana through non-attachment.
Shankara’s doctrine relied on an adherent accepting a program based on revelation of ultimate
reality. The program had four aspects of equal importance:
 Śāstra – scriptures
 Yukti – reason
 Anubhava – knowledge through experience
 Karma – spiritually relevant actions

A student submitted to a teacher who helped them understand scripture, apply reason and
experience to interpretation of scripture, and act correctly on that interpretation. According to
some scholars, this paradigm directly influenced Esoteric Buddhism. According to other views,
the fundamentals of Esoteric Buddhism, especially a personal relationship with a spirit or deity,
were already centuries old by the time Shankara appeared. In this view, Shankara may have
influenced the 8th century CE form of Esoteric Buddhism, but his doctrine did not inspire or
inform the fundamental beliefs and practices.

Undeniably the text [of these works] exhibits some of the trappings of an Indian Buddhist text,
including many Sanskrit technical terms and doctrines of Indian origin. In an age when Chinese
Buddhists were looking to India for the authentic Buddhism, giving a Chinese composition a
Sanskrit veneer would make its presentation of a belief in the Absolute more credible. (435)

The belief system traveled from China to Japan where it was famously encouraged by Prince
Shotoku (r. 594-622 CE) who helped to establish it throughout the country. Esoteric Buddhism
was refined, systematized, and spread further by Kukai (also known as Kobo Daishi, l. 774-835
CE), a scholar-monk and poet who founded Shingon Buddhism in Japan. Shingon ("True Word")
Buddhism adhered to the cosmic vision of Buddhism as an eternal set of strictures which had
been articulated clearly by the Buddha but not conceived of by him, nor had he been the first
buddha and certainly not the last. Shingon, like Vajrayana Buddhism, claimed one could attain
complete enlightenment in one’s lifetime and only by submitting to the discipline of a virtuous
teacher.

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Copy of the Heart Sutra/ Chinese Diamond Sutra

Mainstream Buddhism emphasized adherence to the Eightfold Path after a recognition of

the Four Noble Truths which led one to enlightenment and freedom, at death, from the cycle of
rebirth. Esoteric Buddhism offers the same basic platform but claims one can attain results more
quickly by embracing and then letting go of the attachments of life as one becomes more
spiritually mature. One should not, then, renounce the world of illusion but recognize its value
since one could not accrue spiritual merit without it and, without the spiritual merit one earned
through the discipline of distancing oneself from that world, one could not advance toward
enlightenment.

Buswell and Lopez note how one of the names for Esoteric Buddhism is Mantrayana and the
importance of reciting a personal mantra in staying the course toward higher values.

In the book Sang Hyang Kamahayanikan there is a very detailed description of how a
tantric yogi prepare himself for spiritual path, from the start until the implementation of
multilevel worships. It is said that the Vajrayana doctrines is meditation towards Five Tathagata.
By worshipping them, a yogi can attain the purity of mind.
The history of Buddhism in Indonesia is closely related to the history of Hinduism, as a number
of empires influenced by Indian culture were established around the same period. The arrival of
Buddhism in the Indonesian archipelago began with trading activity, from the early 1st century,
by way of the maritime Silk Road between Indonesia and India. The oldest Buddhist
archaeological site in Indonesia is arguably the Batujaya stupas complex in Karawang, West
Java. The oldest relic in Batujaya was estimated to originate from the 2nd century, while the
latest dated from the 12th century. Subsequently, significant numbers of Buddhist sites were
found in Jambi, Palembang, and Riau provinces in Sumatra, as well as in Central and East Java.
The Indonesian archipelago has, over the centuries, witnessed the rise and fall of powerful
Buddhist empires, such as the Sailendra dynasty, the Mataram, and Srivijaya empires.

127
Borobudur Temple Compounds, located in Central Java, Indonesia

128
According to some Chinese source, a Chinese Buddhist monk I-tsing on his pilgrim journey to
India, witnessed the powerful maritime empire of Srivijaya based on Sumatra in the 7th century.
The empire served as a Buddhist learning center in the region. A notable Srivijayan revered
Buddhist scholar is Dharmakirti, a Srivijayan prince of the Sailendra dynasty, born around the
turn of the 7th century in Sumatra. [7] He became a revered scholar-monk in Srivijaya and moved
to India to become a teacher at the famed Nalanda University, as well as a poet. He built on and
reinterpreted the work of Dignaga, the pioneer of Buddhist Logic, and was very influential
among Brahman logicians as well as Buddhists. His theories became normative in Tibet and are
studied to this day as a part of the basic monastic curriculum. Other Buddhist monks that visited
Indonesia were Atisha, Dharmapala, a professor of Nalanda, and the South Indian
Buddhist Vajrabodhi. Srivijaya was the largest Buddhist empire ever formed in Indonesian
history.
A number of Buddhist historical heritages can be found in Indonesia, including the 8th
century Borobudur mandala monument and Sewu temple in Central Java, Batujaya in West
Java, Muaro Jambi, Muara Takus and Bahal temple in Sumatra, and numerous of statues or
inscriptions from the earlier history of Indonesian Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms. During the era
of Kediri, Singhasari and Majapahit empire, buddhism — identified as Dharma ri Kasogatan-
was acknowledged as one of kingdom's official religions along with Hinduism. Although some
of kings might favour Hinduism over another, nevertheless the harmony, toleration, and even
syncretism were promoted as manifested in Bhinneka Tunggal Ika national motto, coined
from Kakawin Sutasoma, written by Mpu Tantular to promotes tolerance
between Hindus (Shivaites) and Buddhists.[8] The classical era of ancient Java also had produces
some of the exquisite examples of Buddhist arts, such as the statue of Prajnaparamita and the
statue of Buddha Vairochana and Boddhisttva Padmapani and Vajrapani in Mendut temple.
Shailendra dynasty,a dynasty that flourished in Java from about 750 to 850 after the fall of the
Funan kingdom of mainland Southeast Asia. The dynasty was marked by a great cultural
renaissance associated with the introduction of Mahāyāna Buddhism, and it attained a high level
of artistic expression in the many temples and monuments built under its rule. During the reign
of one of its kings, the famous stupa of Borobuḍur (q.v.) was built. The Social Context of Politics
and Culture Borobudur was built at the peak of the Shailendra dynasty’s reign during a period
when the system of government was highly feudalistic and rulers were selected through
conquest and lineage. At that time, there were two competing forces in the region, namely the
Hindu Sanjaya dynasty and the Buddhist Shailendra dynasty. The only written evidence of the
existence of the Sanjaya dynasty in Central Java is the Canggal inscription, which is dated to
732. After that, the Sanjaya dynasty was suppressed by the Shailendra dynasty, and the area was
dominated by inscriptions from the Shailendra family.

Except for its legacy of monuments, little is known of the dynasty. It apparently emanated from
the agricultural lowlands of interior Java but extended its real power to the northwestern coasts
of the island, from which its emissaries traded with and raided the Malay peninsula and
Indochina. There is a Khmer tradition of Shailendra overlordship in the latter part of the 8th
century. The Shailendra dynasty was driven to Sumatra (Palembang) in the mid-9th century.

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bas-relief from the Shailendra dynasty-King and queen with subjects, bas relief from the Shailendra dynasty, 8th
century; in Borobudur, central Java, Indonesia.

The Buddhist temples that the Shailendra dynasty built were also magnificent and
luxurious in the southern region of Central Java, with Borobudur being the largest temple there.
Construction of the temple began around 750 AD and ended in the early decades of the 9th
century. By the mid-9 th century, relations had deteriorated severely between the Shailendra
and Sanjaya dynasties. The ending of the Shailendra dynasty in Java is generally dated to
around 852, when the Sanjaya ruler Pikatan defeated Shailendra’s ruler Balaputra.

This sequence of events indicates that far from strengthening the Shailendra dynasty, the
construction of the temple might have imposed an untenable burden on the population, possibly
weakening their support for their ruler and increasing their vulnerability to invasion and defeat.

The phenomenon of monumental buildings in the development of human civilisation is very

important and interesting to study for several reasons.

1. Firstly, the phenomenon shows the dynamics of the transformation of the metaphysical
dimension in the form of material culture, which provides an overview of the dynamics
of the economic development, power, technology and ideology of the civilisation
concerned .
2. Secondly, the establishment of monumental buildings in principle involves the allocation
of scarce resources, which has consequences on the development of social welfare.

3. It is important to evaluate the financial and economic feasibility of allocating these

resources as the misallocation of resources has a great potential to reduce the level of
1
social welfare.

One of the most remarkable monumental buildings representing ancient Javanese culture is the
Borobudur temple in Central Java, Indonesia, built by the Shailendra dynasty during the
HinduBuddhist period of the 9th century AD . It is the largest Buddhist site in the world and it
remains in use today

A major attraction of Borobudur lies in the mystery that surrounds it –

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 1. There are no records that enable people living in the world today to know exactly who
constructed it and
2. why it was constructed.
3. how the extravagant costs incurred in its construction were handled and what benefits
were derived by people living at that time.
4. how the extravagant costs incurred in its construction were handled and what benefits
were derived by the Royalty who commissioned it.

structure and spirit of Borobudur can only be understood from the perspective of Buddhism,
which originates in the Sutras and Tantras. It can be said that the reliefs carved on the walls of
the Borobudur indicate the existence of distinctive Buddhist teachings, which were a subtle
integration between Mahayana and Tantric teachings of Buddhism, particularly from the
Sanskrit and Ancient Javanese book Sang Hyang Kamahayanikan. (See my paper of the same
name)

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The Ambiguous Feasibility of Borobudur Temple Irmawati Marwoto1 , Mandala Manurung2
1Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Humanities, University of Indonesia, 2Department of
Archaeology, Faculty of Humanities, University of Indonesia International Journal of
Innovation, Creativity and Change. www.ijicc.net Volume 14, Issue 8, 2020 749

This distinctive blend of indigenous Javanese and Indian Buddhism is also evidenced by the
selection of sutras and tantrasthat can be practisedin harmony, with no apparent cosmological
conflict. This implies that the monasteries in Java already had comprehensive religious libraries,
thus allowing the integration of religious teachings in a unified and holistic manner. The
predominance of these two Buddhist schools affecting the Borobudur temple does not mean that
the other streams did not have any influence on its form and uses.

Archaeologists have identified many Buddhist streams in the Borobudur reliefs. The similarity
among the various schools of Buddhism is evinced in their agreement that life is suffering, that
the cause of suffering can be eliminated, and that there are ways to eliminate it. Thus, the way
(yana) of eliminating the cause of suffering was developed by the various schools of Buddhism.

Borobudur and Kedu Plain

Mount Merapi, colour lithograph, Junghuhn and Mieling, 1853–1854

Borobudur
The Kedu Plain lies to the north west of Yogyakarta and west of Gunung Merapi and south west

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of Magelang, in Central Java. Kedu Plain, also known as Progo River valley, is the fertile
volcanic plain that lies between the volcanoes, Mount Sumbing and Mount Sundoro to the west,
and Mount Merbabu and Mount Merapi to the east, roughly corresponds to present-
day Magelang and Temanggung Regency of Central Java, Indonesia.
The Kedu Plain hosts a large number of Hindu and Buddhist temples dated, from the 8th to the
9th century. Because of this, the Kedu Plain is considered the cradle of classic Indonesian
civilization. The temples in the region include-

 Borobudur: The gigantic 8th century stone mandala Buddhist monument was built by

the Sailendras.
 Mendut: The 8th century Buddhist temple is housing three large stone statues
of Vairocana, Avalokiteshvara, and Vajrapani.
 Pawon: The small 8th century Buddhist temple near the bank of Progo River is located
between Mendut and Borobudur.
 Ngawen: The 8th century Buddhist temple is located about 5 kilometers east of Mendut
temple.
 Banon: The ruins of a Hindu temple; located several hundred meters north of Pawon
temple. However, no significant remains of the temple have survived, thus, its reconstruction
is impossible. Only the statues of Shiva, Vishnu, Agastya, and Ganesha have been
discovered, which are now displayed at the National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta.
 Canggal: also known as Candi Gunung Wukir. One of the oldest Hindu temples in the
area. The temple is located in the Muntilan area, near the temple a Canggal
inscription connected with Sri Sanjaya, the king of Mataram Kingdom was discovered.
 Gunung Sari: The ruins of a Hindu temple on top of a hill, located near Candi Gunung
Wukir, on the outskirts of Muntilan.
 Umbul: in Grabag, Magelang; it served as a bathing and resting place for the kings
of Mataram.

Mount Merapi, Gunung Merapi (literally Fire Mountain in Indonesian and Javanese), is

an active stratovolcano located on the border between the province of Central Java and
the Special Region of Yogyakarta, Indonesia adjoining the Kedu Plains. It is the most active
volcano in Indonesia and has erupted regularly since 1548. It is located approximately 28
kilometres (17 mi) north of Yogyakarta city which has a population of 2.4 million, and thousands
of people live on the flanks of the volcano, with villages as high as 1,700 metres (5,577 ft)
above sea level.
Smoke can often be seen emerging from the mountaintop, and several eruptions have caused
fatalities. A pyroclastic flow from a large explosion killed 27 people on 22 November 1994,
mostly in the town of Muntilan, west of the volcano.[3] Another large eruption occurred in 2006,
shortly before the Yogyakarta earthquake. In light of the hazards that Merapi poses to populated
areas, it was designated as one of the Decade Volcanoes.

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 Borobudur. 9th-century Buddhist monument, reportedly the world's largest. Seven
terraces to the top represent the steps from the earthly realm to Nirvana. Reliefs of the birth,
enlightenment and death of the Buddha. A UNESCO World Heritage Site.
 Pawon. 8th-century Buddhist temple.
 Mendut. 8th-century Mahayana Buddhist temple.
 Ngawen. Five aligned sanctuaries, one decorated with finely sculpted lions. 8th-century
Buddhist temple located east from Mendut temple. The name linked to Venuvana, "the
temple of bamboo forest".
 Banon. 8th-century Hindu temple located north from Pawon temple. The few remains
make it impossible to reconstruct the temple. The Hindu god statue from this temple is now
located at the National Museum in Jakarta.
 Umbul, a 9th-century bathing complex in Grabag, Magelang
 Gunung Sari. Ruins of three secondary temples and the foot of the main temple remain.
 Gunung Wukir. One of the oldest inscriptions on Java, written in 732 CE, found here.
Only the bases remain of the main sanctuary and three secondary temples.

In anticipation of Mount Merapi’s possible

eruption, the Borobudur Conservation
Agency covers many stupas in the eighth
level of the Borobudur temple in Magelang,
Central Java. The agency may cover the
remaining stupas if volcanic activity
increases. Back in 2010, the ninth century
temple was affected by a major eruption. At
the time, acidic volcanic ash from Mt. Merapi
covered 72 stupas.

The part of present-day Central Java then known as the Mataram kingdom was the geographical
area of the kingdom contested by the Shailendra Buddhist dynastie and Sanjaya Hindu. That is
why temples in southern Central Java are mainly Buddhist, whereas those in northern Central
Java are Hindu,
The Mataram Kingdom was a Javanese Hindu–Buddhist kingdom that flourished between the
8th and 11th centuries. It was based in Central Java, and later in East Java. Established by
King Sanjaya, the kingdom was ruled by the Sailendra dynasty.During the intervening period of
late 8th century and the mid-9th century, the kingdom saw the blossoming of classical Javanese
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art and architecture reflected in the rapid growth of temple construction. Temples dotted the
landscape of its heartland in Mataram. The most notable of the temples constructed in Mataram
are Kalasan, Sewu, Borobudur and Prambanan, all quite close to present-day city of Yogyakarta. 
Later the dynasty divided into two kingdoms identified by religious patronage—
the Buddhist and Shivaist dynasties. Civil war followed. The outcome was that the Mataram
kingdom was divided into two powerful kingdoms; the Shivaist dynasty of Mataram kingdom
in Java led by Rakai Pikatan and the Buddhist dynasty of Srivijaya kingdom in Sumatra led
by Balaputradewa. Hostility between them did not end until 1016 when the Sailendra clan based
in Srivijaya incited a rebellion by Wurawari, a vassal of the Mataram kingdom, and sacked the
capital of Watugaluh in East Java. Srivijaya rose to become the undisputed hegemonic empire in
the region. The Shivaist dynasty survived, reclaimed east Java in 1019, and then established
the Kahuripan kingdom led by Airlangga, son of Udayana of Bali.

In the middle of the 9th century however, the two dynasties were united through the marriage
bonds between a prince of Sanjaya, Rakai Pikatan and Pramodawhardani, a daughter of the
Shailendra dynasty. Nonetheless, the two dynasties appeared to have competed with each other
to build temples. The Sanjaya dynasty constructed Hindu temples, the largest of which was the
Prambanan temple in Yogyakarta. Tthe Shailendra dynasty constructed Buddhist temples, of
which the largest was Borobudur, also known as Kamulan. 1

The financial infeasibility of the construction of the Borobudur temple is evaluated based on the
rationality of resource use. Table 1 above shows that the net flow of funds would have always
been negative from the beginning to year 100. This means that additional financial costs for
construction and maintenance would have been greater than any financial benefits. The flow
pattern shows that the construction of Borobudur temple was financially irrational or
unfeasible. This raises the question of whether the funds allocated to construct the Borobudur
temple were the cause of the collapse of the Shailendra dynasty. The need for funds to complete
the construction of the Borobudur temple was IDR 28 trillion, which in the present context is
still a very large amount of money. If the Shailendra dynasty currently still had control over the
area of Central Java, then building Borobudur would require additional tax revenues greater
than IDR 28 trillion. The target additional tax revenue would not be possible to achieve, as the
current total tax revenue of Central Java province is only IDR 10 trillion per year

A house of worship that should represent divine presence, a place where truth, freedom, peace
and prosperity flourished turned into a place rampant with the struggle for power and influence.
The house of worship became a representation of conflict rooted in the thirst for power.
The Indic tradition of Hindu-Buddhist architecture recognize the concept of arranging elements
in three parts or three elements. Subsequently, the design, plan and layout of the temple follows
the rule of space allocation within three elements; commonly identified as foot (base), body
(center), and head (roof). The three zones is arranged according to a sacred hierarchy. Each
Hindu and Buddhist concepts has their own terms, but the concept's essentials is identical. Either
the compound site plan (horizontally) or the temple structure (vertically) consists of three zones.

 Bhurloka (in Buddhism: Kāmadhātu), the lowest realm of common mortals; humans,

animals also demons. Where humans still bound by their lust, desire and unholy way of life.
The outer courtyard and the foot (base) part of each temples is symbolized the realm
of bhurloka.

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 Bhuvarloka (in Buddhism: Rupadhatu), the middle realm of holy people, rishis, ascetics,
and lesser gods. People here began to see the light of truth. The middle courtyard and the
body of each temples is symbolized the realm of bhuvarloka.
 Svarloka (in Buddhism: Arupadhatu), the highest and holiest realm of gods, also known
as svargaloka. The inner courtyard and the roof of each temples is symbolized the realm
of svarloka. The roof of Hindu structure usually crowned with ratna (sanskrit: jewel)
or vajra, or in eastern Java period, crowned by cube structure. While stupa or dagoba
cylindrical structure served as the pinnacle of Buddhist ones.
Style
Soekmono, an Indonesian archaeologist, has classified the candi styles into two main groups:
a central Java style, which predominantly date from before 1,000 CE, and an eastern Java style,
which date from after 1,000 CE. He groups the temples of Sumatra and Bali into the eastern
Java style.

Structure elements

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Bima temple, one of Dieng temples. It was one of the earliest temples in Java. Central Java
style(Bubrah temple)/Eastern Java style-Bajang Ratu gate/Bubrah temple near Prambanan, an
example of Central Javanese style, while Bajang Ratu gate in Trowulan is an example of Eastern
Javanese style.

Parts
of the
Central Java Style Eastern Java Style
templ
e

Shape of
the Tends to be bulky Tends to be slender and tall
structure

The multiple parts of stepped sections

Clearly shows stepped roof sections, usually
Roof formed a combined roof structure
consist of 3 parts
smoothly

Cube (mostly Hindu temples),

Stupa (Buddhist temples), Ratna or Vajra
Pinnacle sometimes Dagoba cylindrical
(Hindu temples)
structures (Buddhist temples)

Kala-Makara style; Kala head without lower Only Kala head sneering with the
Portal and
jaw opening its mouth located on top of the mouth complete with lower jaw
niches
portal, connected with double Makara on located on top of the portal, Makara is
adornment
each side of the portal absent

Relief Projected rather high from the background, Projected rather flat from the

136
 Parts
of the
Central Java Style Eastern Java Style
templ
e

background, the images was done in

the images was done in naturalistic style stylized style similar to Balinese
wayang image

Linear, asymmetric, followed

Layout topography of the site; with main
Concentric mandala, symmetric, formal; with
and temple located in the back or
main temple located in the center of the
location of furthermost from the entrance, often
complex surrounded by
the main located in the highest ground of the
smaller perwara temples in regular rows
temple complex, perwara temples is located
in front of the main temple

Direction Mostly faced east Mostly faced west

Materials Mostly andesite stone Mostly red brick

There are material, form, and location exceptions to these general design traits. While
the Penataran, Jawi, Jago, Kidal and Singhasari temples, for example, belong to the eastern Java
group, they use andesite stone similar to the Central Java temple material. Temple ruins
in Trowulan, such as Brahu, Jabung and Pari temples use red brick. Also the Prambanan temple
is tall and slender similar to the east Java style, yet the roof design is Central Javan in style. The
location also do not always correlate with the temple styles, for example Candi Badut is located
in Malang, East Java, yet the period and style belongs to older 8th century central Javanese style.
The earlier northern central Java complexes, such as the Dieng temples, are smaller and contain
only several temples which exhibit simpler carving, whereas the later southern complexes, such
as Sewu temple, are grander, with a richer elaboration of carving, and concentric layout of the
temple complex.
The Majapahit period saw the revival of Austronesian megalithic design elements, such stepped
pyramids (punden berundak). These design cues are seen in the Sukuh and Cetho temples
in Mount Lawu in eastern Central Java, and in stepped sanctuary structures on the Mount
Penanggungan slopes that are similar to meso-American stepped pyramids.

MATERIALS

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 Most of well-preserved candi in Indonesia are
made from andesite stone. This is mainly owed
to the stone's durability, compared to bricks,
against tropical weathers and torrential rains.
Nevertheless, certain periods, especially the
Majapahit era, saw the extensive use of red
brick as temple and building materials.
Interlocking andesite stone blocks forming
a corbeling arch in Borobudur. LEFT PIC

. The materials commonly used in temple construction in Indonesia are:

 Andesite is an extrusive igneous volcanic rock, of intermediate composition,

with aphanitic to porphyritic texture. Its colour ranges from light to dark grey. Andesite is
especially abundant in the volcanic island of Java, mined from a certain cliffs or stone quarry
with andesite deposit formed from compressed ancient magma chamber or cooled down lava
spill. Each andesite stone is custom made into blocks with interlocking technique, to
construct temple walls, floors and building. Andesite stones are easily formed and carved
with iron chisel, making it a suitable material for temple walls and decorations carved as bas-
reliefs. The walls of andesite was then carved with exquisite narrative bas-reliefs, which can
be observed in many temples, especially in Borobudur and Prambanan. Andesite rocks are
also used as the material for carved statues: the images of deities and Buddha.

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Red brick Jabung temple, dated from Majapahit period.

Brick is also used to construct temples. The oldest brick temple structure is the Batujaya temple
compound in Karawang, West Java, dated from 2nd to 12th century CE. Although brick had
been used in the candi of Indonesia's classical age, it was Majapahit architects of the 14th and
15th centuries who mastered it.[15] Making use of a vine sap and palm sugar mortar, their temples
had a strong geometric quality. The example of Majapahit temples are Brahu temple
in Trowulan, Pari in Sidoarjo, Jabung in Probolinggo. Temples of Sumatra, such as Bahal
temple, Muaro Jambi, and Muara Takus are made from bricks. However, compared to lava
andesite stone, clay red bricks are less durable, especially if exposed to hot and humid tropical
elements and torrential monsoon rain. As a result, many red brick structures were crumbling
down over centuries, and reconstruction efforts require recasting and replacing the damaged
structure with new bricks.

 Tuff is a volcanic rock that is quite abundant near Javanese volcanoes or limestone
formations. In Indonesian and Javanese languages, tuff is called batu putih (white stone),
which corresponds to its light color. The chalky characteristic of this stone, however, has
made it unsuitable to be carved into bas-reliefs of building ornaments. Compared to andesite,
tuff is considered as an inferior quality building material. In Javanese temples, tuff usually
are used as stone fillings — forming the inner structure of the temple — while the outer layer
employed andesite that is more suitable to be carved. The tuff quarries can be found in Sewu
limestone ranges near Ratu Boko hill. The tuff fillings in the temple can be examined in Ratu
Boko crematorium temple. Tuff was used as building material of outer walls of temple
compound, such as te walls found buried around Sewu and Sambisari temple.
 Stucco is materials similar to modern concrete, made from the mixture of sand, stone,
water, and sometimes ground clamshell. The stucco as temple building material is observable
in the Batujaya temple compound in West Java.

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Traces of worn off vajralepa plaster on Sari's relief.

 Plaster called vajralepa (Sanskrit: diamond plaster) is used to coat the temple walls. The

white-yellowish plaster is made from the mixture of ground limestone, tuff or white earth
(kaolin), with plant substances such as gums or resins as binder. The varjalepa white plaster
was applied upon the andesite walls, and then painted with bright colors, serving perhaps as
a beacon of Buddhist teaching.[16] The traces of worn-off vajralepa plaster can be observed in
Borobudur, Sari, Kalasan and Sewu temple walls.
 Wood is believed to be used in some of candi construction or at least as parts of temple
building material. Sari and Plaosan temples, for example, are known to have traces of stone
indentions to support wooden beams and floors in its second floor, as well as traces of
wooden stairs. Ratu Boko compound has building bases and stone umpak column base,
which suggests that the wooden capitals once stood there to support wooden roof structure
made of organic materials. Traces of holes to install wooden window railings and wooden
doors are observable in many of the perwara (complementary smaller) temples. Of course,
wooden materials are easily decayed in a humid tropical climate, leaving no traces after
centuries.

MOTIFS

Kala-Makara

Kala-makara on the portal of Borobudur gates, Kala's head on top of the portal and makaras
flanking either sides.
The candis of ancient Java are notable with the application of kala-makara as both decorative and

140
symbolic elements of the temple architecture. Kala is the giant symbolizing time, by making
kala's head as temple portals element, it symbolizes that time consumes everything. Kala is also a
protective figure, with fierce giant face it scares away malevolent spirits. Makara is a mythical
sea monster, the vahana of sea-god Varuna. It has been depicted typically as half mammal and
half fish. In many temples the depiction is in the form of half fish or seal with the head of
an elephant. It is also shown with head and jaws of a crocodile, an elephant trunk, the tusks and
ears of a wild boar, the darting eyes of a monkey, the scales and the flexible body of a fish, and
the swirling tailing feathers of a peacock. Both kala and makara are applied as the protective
figures of the temple's entrance.
Kala is the giant head, often takes place on top of the entrance with makaras projected on either
sides of kala's head, flanking the portal or projecting on the top corner as antefixes. The kala-
makara theme also can be found on stair railings on either sides. On the upper part of stairs, the
mouth of kala's head projecting makara downward. The intricate stone carving of twin makaras
flanking the lower level of stairs, with its curved bodies forming the stair's railings. Other than
makaras, kala's head might also project its tongue as stair's railings. These types of stair-
decorations can be observed in Borobudur and Prambanan. Makara's trunks are often describes
as handling gold ornaments or spouting jewels, while in its mouth often projected Gana dwarf
figures or animals such as lions or parrots.
Linga-Yoni
Central Javanese linga-yoni with spout decorated and supported by nāga serpent, Yogyakarta 9th
century.
In ancient Javanese candi, the linga-yoni symbolism was only found in Hindu temples, more
precisely those of Shivaist faith. Therefore, they are absent in Buddhist temples. The linga is
a phallic post or cylinder symbolic of the god Shiva and of creative power. Some lingas are
segmented into three parts: a square base symbolic of Brahma, an octagonal middle section
symbolic of Vishnu, and a round tip symbolic of Shiva. The lingas that survive from the
Javanese classical period are generally made of polished stone of this shape.
Lingas are implanted in a flat square base with a hole in it, called a yoni, symbolic of the womb
and also represents Parvati, Shiva's consort. A yoni usually has a kind of spout, usually decorated
with nāga, to help channeled and collects the liquids poured upon linga-yoni during Hindu ritual.
As a religious symbol, the function of the linga is primarily that of worship and ritual. Oldest
remains of linga-yoni can be found in Dieng temples from earlier period circa 7th century.
Originally each temples might have a complete pair of linga-yoni unity. However, most of the
times, the linga is missing.
In the tradition of Javanese kingship, certain lingas were erected as symbols of the king himself
or his dynasty, and were housed in royal temples in order to express the king's consubstantiality
with Shiva. The example is the linga-yoni of Gunung Wukir temple, according to Canggal
inscription is connected to King Sanjaya from the Mataram Kingdom, in 654 Saka (732 CE).
[17]
 Other temples that contains complete linga-yoni include Sambisari and Ijo temples. Eastern
Javanese temples that contains linga-yoni are Panataran and Jawi temple, although the linga is
missing.
Bas-reliefs
The most exquisite of the temple bas-reliefs can be found in Borobudur and Prambanan temples.

141
The first four terrace of Borobudur walls are showcases for bas-relief sculptures. These are
exquisite, considered to be the most elegant and graceful in the ancient Buddhist world. The
Buddhist scriptures describes as bas-reliefs in Borobudur such as Karmavibhangga (the law of
karma), Lalitavistara (the birth of Buddha), Jataka, Avadana and Gandavyuha. While
in Prambanan the Hindu scriptures is describes in its bas-relief panels;
the Ramayana and Bhagavata Purana (popularly known as Krishnayana).
The bas-reliefs in Borobudur depicted many scenes of daily life in 8th-century ancient Java, from
the courtly palace life, hermit in the forest, to those of commoners in the village. It also depicted
temple, marketplace, various flora and fauna, and also native vernacular architecture. People
depicted here are the images of king, queen, princes, noblemen, courtier, soldier, servant,
commoners, priest and hermit. The reliefs also depicted mythical spiritual beings in Buddhist
beliefs such as asuras, gods, boddhisattvas, kinnaras, gandharvas and apsaras. The images
depicted on bas-relief often served as reference for historians to research for certain subjects,
such as the study of architecture, weaponry, economy, fashion, and also mode of transportation
of 8th-century Maritime Southeast Asia. One of the famous renderings of an 8th-century
Southeast Asian double outrigger ship is Borobudur Ship.

Hanuman battling enemy, bas-relief of Ramayana on Penataran temple, East Java style.

There are significant distinction of bas-reliefs' style and aesthetics between the Central Javanese
period (prior of 1000 CE) and East Javanese period (after 1000 CE). The earlier Central Javanese
style, as observable in Borobudur and Prambanan, are more exquisite and naturalistic in style.
The reliefs is projected rather high from the background, the images was done in naturalistic
style with proper ideal body proportion. On the other hand, the bas-reliefs of Eastern Javanese
style is projected rather flat from the background, the images was done in stiffer pose and
stylized style, similar to currently Balinese wayang images. The East Javanese style is currently
preserved in Balinese art, style and aesthetics in temple bas-reliefs, also wayang shadow puppet
imagery, as well as the Kamasan painting.

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Deities
Kalpataru and Kinnaras

Kinnara (male), Kinnari (female), Apsara, and Devata guarding Kalpataru, the divine tree of

life. 8th century Pawon temple, Java, Indonesia.
The images of coupled Kinnara and Kinnari can be found in Borobudur, Mendut, Pawon, Sewu,
Sari, and Prambanan temples. Usually, they are depicted as birds with human heads, or humans
with lower limbs of birds. The pair of Kinnara and Kinnari usually is depicted
guarding Kalpataru (Kalpavriksha), the tree of life, and sometimes guarding a jar of treasure.
There are bas-relief in Borobudur depicting the story of the famous kinnari, Manohara.
The lower outer wall of Prambanan temples were adorned with row of small niche containing
image of simha (lion) flanked by two panels depicting bountiful kalpataru (kalpavriksha) tree.
These wish-fulfilling sacred trees according to Hindu-Buddhist beliefs, is flanked on either side
by kinnaras or animals, such as pairs of birds, deer, sheep, monkeys, horses, elephants etc. The
pattern of lion in niche flanked by kalpataru trees is typical in Prambanan temple compound, thus
it is called as "Prambanan panel".
Boddhisattva and Tara

A Bodhisattva flanked by two Taras in Sewu temple.

In Buddhist temples, the panels of bas-reliefs usually adorned with exquisite images of male
figure of Bodhisattvas and female figure of Taras, along with Gandarvas heavenly musicians,
and sometimes the flock of Gana dwarfs. These are the deities and divinities in Buddhist beliefs,
which resides in the Tushita heaven in Buddhism cosmology.
Bodhisattvas are usually depicted as handsome man with peaceful and serene facial expression,
adorned with luxurious jewelry akin to a king or a deity. While the Taras are his female
counterparts, figures of beautiful celestial maidens. Both figures are depicted gracefully, usually
holding various kinds of lotus (red padma, blue utpala, or white kumuda), monk staff
(khakkhara) or fly whisk (chamara), and standing in tribhanga pose. The notable images
of boddhisattvas could be found adorning the outer walls of Plaosan, Sari, Kalasan, Sewu,
Pawon and of course Borobudur temple.

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Devata and Apsara

A Devata flanked by two apsaras in Prambanan temple.

In Hindu temples, the celestial couple; male Devatas and female Apsaras are usually found
adorns the panels of temple's walls. They are the Hindu counterpart of Buddhist Bodhisattva-
Tara celestial beings. On the other side of narrative panels in Prambanan, the temple wall along
the gallery were adorned with the statues and reliefs of devatas and brahmin sages. The figure
of lokapalas, the celestial guardians of directions can be found in Shiva temple. The Brahmin
sage editors of veda were carved on Brahma temple wall, while in Vishnu temple the figures of a
male deities devatas flanked by two apsaras. The depiction of celestial beings of lesser gods and
goddesses- devatas and apsaras, describes the Hindu concept of sacred realm of Svargaloka.
This is corresponds to the concept of the towering Hindu temple as the epitome of Mount
Meru in Hindu cosmology.
Guardians-Dvarapala

One of dvarapala statues guarding Sewu temple.

Most of larger temple compound in ancient Java were guarded by a pair of dvarapala statues, as
gate guardians. The twin giants usually placed flanked the entrance in front of the temple, or in
four cardinal points. Dvarapala took form of two fierce giants or demons that ward off evil and
malevolent spirits from entering the sacred temple compounds. In Central Javanese art, dvarapala
is mostly portrayed as a stout and rather chubby giant, with fierce face of glaring round goggle
eyes, protruding fangs, curly hairs and moustaches, with fat and round belly. The giant usually
depicted as holding gada and sometimes knives as weapon.
In East Javanese art and Balinese version however, the dvarapala usually depicted rather well-
built and muscular, with a fine example taken from Adan-adan site near Kediri.[19] The exception

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is a gigantic dvarapala of Singhasari near Malang, East Java that measures 3.7 metres tall. The
most notable dvarapala statues are those of candi Sewu, each pair guarding four cardinal points
of the grand temple complex, making them a total eight large dvarapala statues in perfect
condition. The dvarapalas of Sewu temple has become the prototype of Gupolo guardian in later
Javanese art, copied as guardians in Javanese keratons of Yogyakarta and Surakarta. Another
fine example is two pairs of dvarapala guarding the twin temples of Plaosan.
Lion

Lion guardian of Borobudur.

The statues of a pair of lions (Sanskrit: Siṁha, Indonesian and Javanese: Singa) flanking the
portal, are often placed as the guardians of candi entrance. Lions were never native to Southeast
Asia in recorded history. As the result, the depiction of lions in ancient Southeast Asian art,
especially in ancient Java and Cambodia, is far from the naturalistic style as depicted in Greek or
Persian art counterparts, since the depictions were all based on perception and imagination. The
cultural depictions and the reverence of lions as the noble and powerful beasts in Southeast Asia
was influenced by Indian culture especially through Buddhist symbolism.
Statues of a pair of lions often founds in temples in Southeast Asia as the gate guardians.
In Borobudur Buddhist monument Central Java, Indonesia, andesite stone statues of lions guard
four main entrances of Borobudur. The thrones of Buddha and Boddhisattva found
in Kalasan and Mendut Buddhist temples of ancient Java depicted elephants, lions, and makara.
The statue of winged lion also found in Penataran temple East Java.
Stupa, Ratna and Vajra pinnacles

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Bell-shaped perforated stupas of Borobudur.
The religions dedicated in the temples of ancient Java can be easily distinguished mainly from its
pinnacles on top of the roof. Bell-shaped stupa can be found on the Buddhist temples' roof, while
ratna, the pinnacle ornaments symbolize gem, mostly founds in Hindu temples.
The typical stupas in Javanese classical temple architecture is best described as those
of Borobudur style; the bell-shaped stupa. The stupa in Borobudur upper round terrace
of Arupadhatu consist of round lotus pedestal (padmasana or "lotus pad"), gently sloped bell-
shaped dome (anda), a rectangular or octagonal shape (harmika)[20] sits on top of the dome serves
as the base of hexagonal rod-like pinnacle (yasti).
Each stupa is pierced by numerous decorative openings, either in the shape of rectangular or
rhombus. Statues of the Buddha sit inside the pierced stupa enclosures. Borobudur was first
thought more likely to have served as a stupa, instead of a temple. A stupa is intended as
a shrine for the Buddha. Sometimes stupas were built only as devotional symbols of Buddhism.
A temple, on the other hand, is used as a house of worship.

Prambanan vajra pinnacle.

Ratna pinnacle took form of a curved obtuse pyramidal shape or sometimes cylindrical,
completed with several base structure or pedestals took form as some ornamental seams
(Javanese:pelipit). This form is known as keben pinnacle or the form of Barringtonia
asiatica fruit. It can be found as the pinnacle of both Hindu and Buddhist temples. Nevertheless,
it is most prevalent in Hindu temples. The example of temple with ratna pinnacle
is Sambisari and Ijo temple.
In Prambanan, the stylized vajra replaced ratna as the temple's pinnacles. In ancient Javanese
temple architecture, the vajra pinnacle is probably served as the Hindu counterparts of Buddhist
stupa pinnacle. This practice is preserved in Balinese Hindu temples of later period where the
multi-tiered meru towers are crowned with vajra pinnacles. Nevertheless, vajra is actually a
familiar symbols in both dharmic faiths. In later periods of Eastern Java temple architecture, the
false lingga-yoni, or cube can be found in Hindu temple's roof, while cylindrical dagoba on top
of Buddhist counterparts.

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Java

Cangkuang, Garut West Java

 Batujaya, a compound of Buddhist Stupa made from red brick and mortar located at Batu
Jaya, Karawang, West Java. Probably dated back to Tarumanagara kingdom in the 6th
century AD.
 Cibuaya, a compound of Vishnuite Hindu temples made from red brick and mortar also
located at Batu Jaya, Karawang, West Java. Probably linked to Tarumanagara kingdom in
the 6th century AD.
 Bojongmenje, ruins of Hindu temple in Rancaekek, Bandung Regency.
 Candi Cangkuang, the only one of the few surviving West Java's Hindu temple estimated
dated from the 8th century, located at Leles, Garut, West Java. Located on an island in the
middle of a lake covered by water lilies. Unlike other Javanese temple characteristics by
grand architecture, Cangkuang temple is more modest with only one structure still standing.
Shiva statue faces east toward the sunrise. Date uncertain.
Central Java-Dieng Plateau

Arjuna group of Dieng temples

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The Hindu temple compound located in Dieng Plateau, near Wonosobo, Central Java. Eight
small Hindu temples from the 7th and 8th centuries, the oldest in Central Java. Surrounded by
craters of boiling mud, colored lakes, caves, sulphur outlets, hot water sources and underground
channels. The temples are:

 Arjuna temple
 Semar temple
 Srikandi temple
 Puntadewa temple
 Sembadra temple
 Dwarawati temple
 Gatotkaca temple
 Bima temple
Gedong Songo

Gedong Songo III

South-west of Semarang, Central Java. Five temples constructed in 8th and 9th centuries. The
site highlights how, in Hinduism, location of temples was as important as the structures
themselves. The site has panoramas of three volcanoes and Dieng Plateau.
Slopes of Merapi
As we know, the rulers of Sanjaya built many magnificent and luxurious Hindu temples in
the northern region of Central Java, the largest of which is the Prambanan temple. This
temple compounds date from the 8th to 9th century CE, linked with historic Mataram
Kingdom that ruled Central Java during that period. Shailendras, the ruling family of the
kingdom were known as the avid temple builders. Indeed, some temples in the area,
including Kalasan, Sari, and Sewu are credited to their second monarch King Panangkaran.
Among these temple compounds, Sewu is the oldest, completed in 792 according
to Manjusrigrha inscription. Lumbung and Bubrah also dated from around the same period or
slightly later. Prambanan however, was the latest addition in the complex, finished and
inaugurated in 856 during the reign of King Pikatan according to Shivagrha inscription.
The high concentration of candi can be found especially dense in Sleman
Regency in Yogyakarta, also Magelang and Klaten in Central Java; which corresponds to the
historical region of Kedu Plain (Progo River valley, Temanggung-Magelang-Muntilan area)
and Kewu Plain (Opak River valley, around Prambanan), the cradle of Javanese civilization.

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Other sites with notable temple compounds. includes Malang, Blitar and Trowulan areas in East
Java. West Java also contains a small number of temples such as Batujaya and Cangkuang.
Outside of Java, the candi type of temple can be found in Bali, Sumatra, and
Southern Kalimantan, although they are quite scarce. In Sumatra, two exceptional sites are
notable for its temple density; the Muaro Jambi Temple Compounds in Jambi and Padang Lawas
or Bahal complex in North Sumatra.
The candis might be built on plain or uneven terrain. Prambanan and Sewu temples for example,
are built on even flat low-lying terrain, while the temples of Gedong Songo and Ijo are built on
hill terraces on higher grounds or mountain slopes. Borobudur on the other hand is built upon a
bedrock hill. The position, orientation and spatial organization of the temples within the
landscape, and also their architectural designs, were determined by socio-cultural, religious and
economic factors of the people, polity or the civilization that built and support them.

Map showing the location of the main sites of the so-called "Indonesian classical period" or
Hindu-Buddhist period. Black dots represent Hindu sites and red dots Buddhist sites.

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After the move of the capital to eastern Java circa the 11th century, the temple was neglected.
For centuries later, it fell into disrepair, buried under Mount Merapi volcanic debris and shaken
by earthquakes. The temple collapsed in about 1600s due to a massive earthquake.
Prambanan is a Hindu temple compound dedicated to Trimurti, the three highest gods in
Hinduism, while Sewu, Lumbung and Bubrah temples are Mahayana Buddhist. Both Prambanan
and Sewu are actually temple compounds arranged in the mandala layout, surrounded with
hundreds of pervara (guardian complementary) temples. Originally, Prambanan consists of 240
structures, Sewu consists of 249 structures, while Lumbung temple consists of 17 structures.
With combined numbers of over 500 temples, Prambanan Temple Compounds represents not
only an architectural and cultural treasure, but also an example of religious harmony and
peaceful cohabitation between faiths in Indonesia's past.
Prambanan
Prambanan temple or locally known in Javanese as Rara Jonggrang, is a grand Hindu temple
complex dating from the 9th century, it is notable for its shrines and statues of Hindu patheon
and Ramayana bas relief. Murtis or Hindu deity statues venerated in Prambanan complex
including the main deity Shiva Mahadeva, Vishnu, Brahma, Durga Mahisasuramardini, Ganesha,
Agastya, and Nandi bull.
Sewu
Sewu or originally known as Manjusrigrha complex, with its four pairs of Dvarapala giant
statues, is the largest Buddhist temple complex in Indonesia, and the second largest Buddhist
temple after Borobudur. Archaeologists believe the original name for the temple compound to
be Manjusrigrha, which means "the house of Manjusri", one of the
main boddhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism belief.
Bubrah

Bubrah is a 9th-century Buddhist temple located between Lumbung in the south and Sewu in the

north. Experts believe that the temple was designed as a part of the greater Sewu temple
compound mandala.
Lumbung
Candi Lumbung a 9th-century Buddhist temple compound located within the complex
of Prambanan Temple Tourism Park, Central Java, Indonesia. The original name of this temple is
unknown, however the local Javanese named the temple "candi lumbung", which means "rice
barn temple" in Javanese language.
 

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 Sewu temple compound/Lumbung temple/Bubrah

 Plaosan. Buddhist temple located a few kilometres east from Sewu temple compound.
The temple probably dated from 9th century. Thought to have been built by a Hindu king for
his Buddhist queen. Two main temples with reliefs of Boddhisatva and Tara. Also rows of
slender stupas.
 Ratu Boko. Complex of fortified gates, bathing pools, and elevated walled stone
enclosure, all located on top of the hill.
 Sajiwan. Buddhist temple decorated with reliefs concerning education. The base and
staircase are decorated with animal fables from the Jatakas.
 Banyunibo. A Buddhist temple with unique design of roof.
 Barong. A Hindu temple complex with large stepped stone courtyard. Located on the
slope of the hill.
 Ijo. A cluster of Hindu temple located near the top of Ijo hill. The main temple houses a
large lingam and yoni.
 Arca Bugisan. Seven Buddha and bodhisattva statues, some collapsed, representing
different poses and expressions.
 Kalasan. This 8th-century Buddhist temple is the oldest in the area. Built to house the
image of Boddhisattvadevi Tara by King Panangkaran, ornamented with finely carved
reliefs.
 Sari. Once a sanctuary for Buddhist monks. 8th century. Nine stupas at the top with two
rooms beneath, each believed to be places for monks to meditate.
 Sambisari. 9th-century Hindu temple discovered in 1966, once buried 6.5 metres under
volcanic ash. The main temple houses a linga and yoni, and the wall surround it displayed
the images of Agastya, Durga, and Ganesha.
 Kedulan. Discovered in 1994 by sand diggers, 4 metres deep. Square base of main
temple visible. Secondary temples not yet fully excavated.
 The Shiva temple Candi Prambanan consist of three ascending realms, temple's base
(Bhurloka), body (Bhurvaloka) and roof (Svarloka).
 The candi structure and layout recognize the hierarchy of the zones, spanned from the
less holy to the holiest realms.

The Universal Mandala: Borobudur

Built in the 8th century by the ruling Shailendra dynasty of central Java, Borobudur is a unique
cultural universe combining the features of a mountain, a stupa, and a pyramid of the megalithic
period, showing how Indian themes were grafted onto a pre-existing Javanese genius. Its vast
reliefs depict two major Buddhist narratives: the Lalitavistara, which narrates the life of Buddha,
and Gandavyuha, which portrays the pilgrimage of the youth Sudhana in his search for
knowledge. While the life of Buddha is sketched in many Buddhist monuments around Asia, the
reliefs of Borobudur contain important variations. One example is the “Great Departure” of
Prince Siddhartha from the royal palace as he embarks on his quest for enlightenment. The feet
of his horse are lifted by Hindu gods Indra and Brahma to stop any noise that could wake up the

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guards assigned to prevent his departure; a perfect blending of Buddhist and Hindu narratives of
Nirvana.

As a Buddhist text, Gandavyuha was circulated widely around Asia, sometimes as a gift among
rulers. For example, the Chinese emperor received a Sanskrit language text of the book as a gift
from the king of Odisha in the 8th century.

Gandavyuha gives Borobudur a special meaning as a universal mandala. Its message, as leading
Borobudur scholar John Miksic notes, is “that one should not expect to find enlightenment only
in one place, or in one source. Sudhana’s Good Friends [spiritual instructors] are women, men
and children from all levels of society, as well as supernatural beings. Anyone is eligible for
enlightenment and there is no suggestion that wisdom is something to be jealously hoarded and
imparted only to the elite.”

Relief in Borobudur showing the “Great Departure” (Siddhartha leaving the palace). Sunrise to
RIGHT

Borobudur thus represents the essence of the Nirvana Route. Its Buddhist-Hindu conception of
enlightenment beckoned all people, irrespective of age, sex, wealth, or place of origin. What a far
cry from the European Enlightenment, with its parochial Eurocentric worldview that contributed
much to racism, elitism, and imperialism!

R E F E R E N C E
Sang Hyang Kamahāyānikan: Translation and Analytical Study Ven. Budi Utomo Ph.D.
(Bhikkhu Ditthisampanno) Lecture and Principal of Smaratungga Buddhist College, Indonesia.
Ph.D. Candidate in Buddhist Studies, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University.
ditthisampanno@gmail.com

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153
 CHAPTER V
Borobudur as a Temple for the Sanghyang Adi Buddha
PART II
Part I article was THE SECRET OF BOROBUDUR & the Sang Hyang Kamahayanikan
THE BELIEF SYSTEM OF ESOTERIC BUDDHISM IS OPEN ONLY TO THOSE WHO FEEL CALLED
TO FOLLOW IT & ARE WILLING TO SUBMIT THEMSELVES TO INSTRUCTION BY A MASTER.

Very few people know that the Indonesian Government Regulation Number 21/1975
about the vow of the civil bureaucrat, arranges the vow for the Buddhist bureaucrat by
mentions "Demi Sanghyang Adi Buddha" ("by Sanghyang Adi Buddha") in the
beginning of the vow.Or that the Borobudur is built to salute the Sanghyang Adi
Buddha 
Sanghyang Adi Buddha is a concept of God in Indonesian Buddhism. Since the time
of Sailendra and Medang Kingdom, Indonesian Buddhists have the same belief in the
existence of the Adi-Buddha as the Buddhists in Tibet, Nepal, and the northern schools.
Nepalese uses the term:
1. Adinata, which means "main protector" and
2.  Swayambhulokanatta, which means "the unborn protector of the
universe."other Tibetan terms such as
3.  Vajradhara (Tibet= Dorjechang; lit. "ruler of all the mysteries").

1. This term was used by Ashin Jinarakkhita at the time of Buddhist revival in Indonesia in
the mid-20th century to reconcile the first principle of the official philosophical
foundation of Indonesia (Pancasila), i.e. Ketuhanan Yang Maha Esa (lit. "Recognition
of the Divine Omnipotence") that requires the belief in a supreme God, which Buddhism,
strictly speaking, does not believe in. This concept is used by the Indonesian Buddhist
Council, an organization that seeks to represent all Buddhist traditions in Indonesia such
as Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana.The formulation of Pancasila took place in the mid-20th
century immediately after the end of the Second World War. Thus, the ideology reflects the socio-political
conditions of the late colonial period in Indonesia and the ensuing war. Its concept derived and synthesized
from the ideas and ideals of Indonesia's founding fathers, most prominently Sukarno's. The historical period
that most influenced Indonesia's founding fathers was the socio-political conditions of the Dutch East
Indies in the early and mid 20th century.By the first half of the 20th century, some ideologies that had been
established or made their way to the Dutch East Indies included imperialism and its antithesis anti-colonial
nationalism, traditional Javanese statecraft, Islamism, democracy, socialism, and communism. Proponents
of these ideologies had formed political organizations or parties to forward their respective causes. The
Islamist party Sarekat Islam was established in 1905 followed by Masyumi in 1943. The Communist
Party was established in 1914, while Sukarno's nationalist Indonesian National Party was established in
1927. Favoring one ideology over another would not satisfy the whole spectrum of Indonesian people, thus
it was decided that the new republic need to synthesize a new ideology derived from indigenous Indonesian
values as well as common shared values derived from various ideologies

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Namasangiti Text of Candrakīrti (a monk who was staying in Indonesia), and the
symbolism of Borobudur's mandala stupa, provided evidence that the Buddhism
embraced by Indonesian people since the days of Srivijaya, Ancient Mataram, Sailendra,
and Majapahit is the Buddhism which honors the Primordial Buddha.
Indonesian sacred texts which contains the name of Sanghyang Adi Buddha are
I. Guna Karanda Vyuha text
In the time of nothingness, Shambu was already exist, this is what is
called Svayambhu (self-manifested), and preceded all things, this is why he is called the
Adi Buddha.
II. Sanghyang Kamahayanikan text
All praises for Sanghyang Adi Buddha, this is the Sanghyang Kamahayanikan that I have
been wanted to teach you, to the sons of Buddha (whom also) the family of Tathagata,
the grandeur of 'Sanghyang Mahayana' practices is what i have to teach you.
Herman S. Hendro (1968) in his paper mentioned-
The closed uppermost large stupa [of Borobudur] is the epitome of a man who has
reached the Absolute Freedom (Nirvana) and united with Adi Buddha. Inside that stupa
once was an incomplete and rough Buddha statue which is depicting the Adi Buddha
1
which is unimaginable by human.
Adi-Buddha is a term used in Tantric Buddhism to refer to the Primordial Buddha. The
term Sanghyang Adi Buddha is agreed upon and used by the Indonesian Supreme
Sangha and the Indonesian Buddhist Council as the designation for God Almighty. This
term is not found in Pāli Canon, but used in some old Indonesian Vajrayana texts such
as Sanghyang Kamahayanikan.

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Sang Hyang Adi Buddha refers to "the seed of Buddhahood" inside every being.
In Mahayana Buddhism, Adi Buddha refers to the primordial Buddha that outlines the
same Universal Dhamma.[3] The Adi-buddha is not a monotheistic deity as in the
Abrahamic traditions, but is rather the primordial nature of mind, the part of the mind
that never enters samsara, and is thus the "primordial Buddha." As the Primordial
Buddha never entertains conceptual ignorance or proliferation, all that arises is referred
to as "self-liberated." Sogyal Rinpoche writes:
"[Kuntuzangpo] represents the absolute, naked, sky-like primordial purity of the nature
of our mind.”
For the purposes of official recognition as a religion by the state, Mahabhiksu Ashin
Jinarakkhita encouraged Indonesian Buddhists to present the Adi-Buddha as:
a concept of “supreme divinity” in the Dharma that would be most readily recognizable
and acceptable to predominantly Muslim authorities.
Adi-Buddha is the Primordial Buddha, or Paramadi Buddha (The first and
incomparable Buddha). He has some other names in other Buddhist traditions such
as Adau‐Buddha (Primordial Buddha), Anadi‐Buddha (Uncreated Buddha), Uru‐
Buddha (Buddha of the Buddhas). He also called Adinatha (The first
Protector), Svayambhulokanatha (self-originating World Protector), Vajradhara (Vajra
Holder), Vajrasattva (Vajra Being), Svayambhu (the Self-Originating One),
or Sanghyang Adwaya (Unequalled). In Chinese language, Adi‐Buddha is Pen‐chu‐fu,
while aramadi‐Buddha is translated as Sheng‐chu‐fu. In Tibet Dan‐pohi‐sans‐
rgyas, Mchog‐gi‐dan‐pohi‐sans‐rgyas, or Thogmahi‐sans‐rgyas are all refers to
"Buddha of the Buddhas", that existed since the beginning, as the first: Paramadi‐
buddhoddhrta‐sri‐kalacakra‐nama‐tantraraja and Jnanasattva‐manjusryadi‐
buddha‐nama‐sadhana
Mahayana Buddhism believes that Buddha has three bodies (Trikaya), i.e.: "The
Created Body" (Nirmanakaya) to teach common human being; "Body of Mutual
Enjoyment" (Sambhogakāya) or the body of bliss or clear light; and "Truth Body"
(Dharmakāya) which is eternal, omnipresent, non-individual, almighty, non-dual, and
self-originating (svabhava‐kaya). There may be many Buddhas, but only one
Dharmakaya. This Dharmakaya is identical with Adi‐Buddha. The sources of this
Trikaya doctrine are Avatamsaka Sutra and Mahayana‐sraddhotpada‐shastra. The last
one was the work of Asvagosha, a monk who lived around the first century AD.
Vetulyaka Lokottaravada School says that Sakyamuni originally was the manifestation
of Adi‐Buddha in this world. Herman S. Hendro (1968) wrote:
"Dalam Kitab Sutji Sang Hyang Kamahayanikan, pupuh ke-19 didjelaskan
bahwa Sang Buddha Gautama telah menunggal dengan Sang Hyang Adhi
Buddha atau dengan kata lain bahwa Sang Buddha Gautama adalah
pengedjawantahan dari Sang Adhi Buddha. Karena itu bila kita menjebut Sang
Adhi Buddha maka itu adalah Sang Buddha jang tidak berkarya (saguna)."
"In the Sacred Book of Sanghyang Kamahayanikan, 19th stanza, is explained that
the Buddha Gautama was merged with Sang Hyang Adhi Buddha, or in other
words the Buddha Gautama was the manifestation of the Adhi Buddha. Therefore
if we refers the Adhi Buddha then He is the Buddha who is inactive (saguna)."

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 With his power, he emanates into five Dhyani Buddhas. The Pure Land of the Adi
Buddha is called Ogamin in Tibetan or Akanistha in Sanskrit (lit. "not down" or
"without (back) to the bottom").
Buddhist concept
In Udana Nikaya (viii: 3), Sakyamuni gave his teaching:
There is, O monks, an Unborn, Unoriginated, Uncreated, Unformed. Were there
not, O monks, this Unborn, Unoriginated, Uncreated, Unformed, there would be
no escape from the world of the born, originated, created, formed. Since, O
monks, there is an Unborn, Unoriginated, Uncreated, Unformed, therefore is
there an escape from the born, originated, created, formed. What is dependent,
that also moves; what is independent does not move. Where there is no
movement, there is rest; where rest is, there is no desire; where there is no
desire, there is neither coming nor going, no ceasing-to-be, no further coming to
be. Where there is no ceasing-to-be, no further coming-to-be, there is neither
this shore [this world] nor the other shore [Nirvana], nor anything between
them.
From the Pali language: Athi Ajatam Adbhutam Akatam Samkhatamor "the Unborn,
Unoriginated, Uncreated, and Absolute One". The Primordial Buddha is something
without ego (anatta), unpersonified, and indescribable in any form. But for there is the
Absolute, the unconditioned (Asamkhatam), one can attain the freedom from the wheel
of life (samsara) by meditating.
Sanghyang Adi Buddha is the origin of everything in the universe, but he himself is
without beginning or end, self-originating, infinite, omnipotent, unconditioned,
absolute, omnipresent, almighty, incomparable, and immortal. However, those words
are unable to describe the true self of Sanghyang Adi Buddha. The existence of Adi
Buddha demonstrates that this life is not the product of chaos, but the product of
spiritual hierarchy. By the presence of Adi Buddha, this life becomes useful and be
possible to attain enlightenment and Buddhahood.
The Indonesian Supreme Sangha describes God in Buddhism and (for the purposes of
state recognition as a religion) defines God as "the source of everything that exists":
Almighty, eternal, everything in the universe are His exposition, intangible and doesn't
manifest Himself.
Indonesian National Encyclopedia
Indonesian National Encyclopedia (1988) describes Adi Buddha and the traditions that
are used this term thus:
Adi-Buddha is a term for the Almighty God in Buddhism. This title came from the
Aisvarika tradition of Mahayana in Nepal, which is spread through Bengal, and became
also known in Java. Aisvarika is the term for the disciples of theist view in Buddhism.
This word came from 'Isvara' which means 'God' or 'Great Buddha' or 'the Almighty',
and 'ika' which means 'follower' or 'disciple'. This term is used by the Svabhavavak
Buddhism in Nepal. This school is one of the branch of Tantrayana school of Mahayana.
The term for God Almighty in this school is Adi-Buddha. Later, this view also spread to
Java in the time of Srivijaya and Majapahit. The present scholars knows this term from

157
the paper of B.H. Hodgson, a researcher who studied the religious in Nepal. According
to this view, one can coalesce (moksha) with Adi-Buddha or Isvara through his efforts
with the ascetic path (tapa) and meditating (Dhyana).

The Seeker's Glossary of Buddhism

The Seeker's Glossary of Buddhism gives the following definition for Adi Buddha:
Term used in Mahayana Buddhism, especially in Nepal and Tibet, for the 'primordial
Buddha', the Buddha without beginning." (Ling: 8)
The primordial Buddha. Although the concept itself can be traced to early Buddhism, it
is widely acknowledge that the notion of the Adi-Buddha was fully developed in esoteric
Buddhism. In [traditional Mahayana] Buddhism, the Adi-Buddha is represented by
Mahavairocana Buddha". (Preb: 38)
Since the time of Sailendra and Medang Kingdom, Indonesian Buddhists have the same
belief in the existence of the Adi-Buddha as the Buddhists in Tibet, Nepal, and the
northern schools.
Pancasila as the basic foundation of the state and nationhood

The unfinished buddha statue of the main stupa of Borobudur Temple at Karmawibhangga Museum.

Since Indonesian independence in 1945, the founders of this new state had agreed on a
proposed ideology as a national foundation for uniting all ethnicities, religions, and
races, i.e. Pancasila as the basic foundation of the state and nationhood. The first
precept of Pancasila is "Belief in the Almighty Godliness" ("Recognition of the Divine
Omnipotence"). The majority of Indonesian people mistranslated the sanskrit "Esa"
-Almighty (absolute in virtues)- as "Eka" -One. This misconceptions makes some
factions questioning the doctrine of Buddhism whether it acknowledges the Belief in
God Almighty or not.
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Following the attempted coup of Communist Party of Indonesia's (PKI) in 1965,
Indonesian Government rejects and prohibits the development of all views that
correspond to communism or atheism. 

Consequently, there was some doubt within the Indonesian Government at the time
whether Buddhism can be accepted as an official religion.  The Buddhist Prist Ashin
Jinarakkhita proposed the name of Sanghyang Adi Buddha as the God of Buddhist
teachings. He sought confirmation for this uniquely Indonesian version of Buddhism in
ancient Javanese texts, and even the shape of the Buddhist temple complex at
Borobudur in Jawa Tengah Province. It was submitted to the Minister of Religious
Affairs, and the government eventually accepted Buddhism as a state religion in 1978, as
stated in GBHN (Outlines of Indonesian State Policy) of 1978, Presidential Decree No.
30 of 1978, and the Form Letter of Indonesian Department of the
Interior No.477/74054/1978 (November 18, 1978).

COMPROMISE resulting in the Almighty God (First precept of Pancasila)

The use of Sanghyang Adi Buddha as a name for a supreme God is controversial
among Indonesian Buddhists to the present day. The reason is that the concept of
Sanghyang Adi Buddha, which only exists in Tantrayana/ Vajrayana traditions, is not a
god in the sense of a personal god of the monotheistic religions. The use of the name of
Sanghyang Adi Buddha as a personal god, is the product of a compromise with political
reality, and is contrary to the teachings of Buddhism. Because of this political
compromise, Indonesian Buddhism differs from mainstream Buddhism. This
controversy also extends to Very Venerable Ashin Jinarakkhita as the originator of the
term Sanghyang Adi Buddha as a god in Buddhism.

While the State seemed to be easily satisfied with Ashin Jinarakkhita's assurance,

questions came from their fellow Buddhists and, later, also his primary disciples who
were on the same boat with him in the beginning. Since then, debates, disintegration,
and splits could not be avoided within Buddhist organizations. The strongest opposition
was coming from the Theravādin members, and it seemed to happen partly because of
the influence of the Thai Buddhist’s purification movement started in the nineteenth
century by King Mongkut as later on many Thai Bhikkhus coming to Indonesia. Though
there were also Buddhist monks coming from Sri Lanka and Myanmar, such as Narada
Mahathera, Mahasi Sayadaw and other Sangha members, they only came a few times
during these early years.

In the same year when the controversy was erupting (1974), the Indonesian Directorate
General Guidance of Hindu-Buddhism (Gde Puja, MA.) issued a resolution on all
schools/ traditions of Buddhism that they should believe in the presence of an Almighty
God (First precept of Pancasila), and while each of this sects may give different names to
Him, He is essentially the same entity. This resolution became indirectly a government
imposition of the doctrine of Oneness of God on all schools/ traditions of Buddhism.
Any schools/ traditions that do not believe in the existence of One God would be
dissolved. This happened to the Mahayana school/ tradition of the monk Sun Karma

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Chandra which was dissolved on July 21, 1978.
Nowadays, the term of Sanghyang Adi Buddha only used mostly by Indonesian
Buddhayana Council and Indonesian Supreme Sangha. Some schools treat the concept
indifferently, while the others simply refuse and consider the idea as heresy (especially
the Indonesian Theravada Sangha), and only a fraction supports it fully or partially.
Religious usage-Salutation
Sanghyang Adi Buddha is used in greeting especially by Indonesian Buddhayana
Council, i.e. Namo Sanghyang Adi Buddhaya. This salutation was popularized by the
late Venerable Mahawiku Dharma-aji Uggadhammo, one of the five first disciples
of Ashin Jinarakkhita, whose ordained as the first Indonesian Buddhist monks after
the independence of Indonesia.
The complete salutation which is commonly used as a greeting in the
books' preface, letters, or meeting is:
Namo Sanghyang Adi Buddhaya.
Namo Buddhaya, Bodhisatvaya Mahasatvaya.
Vandana
The tribute to Sanghyang Adi Buddha is often included in
the vandana (devotion) section of ritual books.

1.VANDANA
Terpujilah Sanghyang Adi Buddha Tuhan Yang Maha Esa
("Homage to Sanghyang Adi Buddha the Almighty God")
Terpujilah Bhagavā, Yang Maha Suci, Yang telah mencapai Penerangan
Sempurna
("Homage to the Blessed One the Worthy One, the Fully Enlightened One")
Terpujilah Para Bodhisattva-Mahasattva
("Homage to all Holy Beings and Great Beings")
2.VANDANA
Namo Sanghyang Ādi Buddhaya (3x)
"Homage to the Almighty God, shout the whole world"
Namo Tassa Bhagavato Arahato Sammā-sambuddhassa (3x)
"Homage to the Blessed One the Worthy One, the Fully Enlightened One"
Namo Sarve Bodhisattvāya-Mahāsattvāya (3x)
"Homage to all Holy Beings and Great Beings"

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WAS THE BOROBUDUR BUILT FOR THE SANGHYANA ADI BUDDHA ?

A temple to Sanghyang Adi-Buddha

In Buddhist temples throughout in the world, Gautama Buddha is the central figure.
Borobudur transcends this. Inside the topmost, central stupa originally stood an
incomplete and rough Buddha statue representing Sanghyang Adi-Buddha, or God
Almighty, as described in esoteric Indonesian Vajrayana texts such as the Sanghyang
Kamahayanikan.

That is why all small stupas are eventually culminating into the Great Stupa, dedicated
to Sanghyang Adi-Buddha on top of the temple.
Borobudur therefore is an absolutely unique symbol of Ultimate Truth.
Borobudur consists of two million blocks of lava rock, 2,700 carved story panels and 504
Buddha statues. Borobudur is actually a giant textbook of Buddhism, as its base reliefs
tell the story of the life of Buddha and the principles of his teachings. A universe in small
scale

Bhumisambara (Borobudur’s original name) was built as a stepped pyramid. At the base

of the massive temple, reliefs of Karmawibhangga — depiction of human life in the
endless cycle of death and rebirth (Saṃsāra) as well as the law of cause and effect
(karmic law) — were carved on all sides.
All Buddhas sit in small bell-like stupa structures covering them, corresponding with
what the Prajnaparamita sūtra calls “the Womb of the Buddhas”, symbolizing their
Enlightened State.

Viewed from above, Borobudur takes the form of a giant mandala, symbolically depicting
the path of the bodhisattva from samsara to nirvana, through the story of Sudhana
described in the Gandavyuha sūtra, a part of the Avatamsaka sūtra. The monument
guides pilgrims through an extensive system of stairways and corridors with 1,460
narrative relief panels on the walls and the balustrades.
The temple is oriented to the four directions and is expanded vertically in accordance
with Buddhist cosmology to construct the Universe in a small scale. There are all total
four entrances and four complete steps for ascending the highest point from the lowest
point from the four directions of East, South, West and North respectively to enter the
monument.

Once a year, Buddhists from the whole world celebrate Vesak at the temple.

Built in 800 CE by the Shailendra dynasty, Borobodur is a Mahayana Buddhist complex of

stupas – a gigantic Buddhist monument – at 42 meters or 100 feet tall and a total of 504 stupas in
its 123 square meter grounds, it is the largest Buddhist monument in the world. The hundreds of
stupas are not just a mass of stones ( laval andesite rocks ) but carved and built ( and all laid
without mortar ) on top of a natural hillock, where using the terraces of the natural hills, the
builders stacked stones to make these monumental stupas in perfect symmetry and total
harmony.

161
Borobudur perfectly reflects Buddhist cosmology, which divides the universe into three
superimposing levels. The three levels are Kamadhatu (world of
desire), Rupadhatu (world of forms), and Arupadhatu (world of formlessness).

1. Kamadhatu (Bhurloka) — The outer courtyard and the foot (base) part of the
temple represents the lowest realm of common mortals; humans, animals and
also demons. Where humans are still binded by their lust, desire and unholy way
of life. The Kamadhatu level pictures the world of passion and the inevitable laws
of karma — Karmavibhangga. The first 117 panels show various actions leading to
one and the same result, while the other remaining 43 panels demonstrate the
many results that follow one single effect.

2. Rupadhatu (Bhuvarloka) — The middle courtyard and the body of the temple
represents life on earth in which the soul has been purged of all desires. The
middle realm of holy people, rishis and lesser gods. People here began to see the
light of truth. The reliefs of the Rupadhatu level show the stories based on the
manuscripts of Lalitavistara, Jataka-Avadana and Gandavyuha.

3. Arupadhatu (Svargaloka) — The inner courtyard and the roof of the temple
represents the soul’s departure from the body and uniting with the gods in
Nirvana. This is the highest and holiest realm of gods, or Svarga loka. On the last
three circular uppermost terraces, 72 stupas circle the huge main stupa that
crowns the top of the temple. The circular form represents the eternity without
beginning and without end, a superlative, tranquil, and pure state of the formless
world. There are no reliefs on the three circular terraces. Arupadhatu takes the
shape of a circle, representing the formless world.

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The kamadhatu is represented by the base, the rupadhatu by the five square terraces,
and the arupadhatu by the three circular platforms as well as the big stupa. The whole
structure shows a uniquely Javanese blending of the very central ideas of ancestor
worship, related to the idea of a terraced mountain, combined with the Buddhist concept
of attaining Nirvana:

• Ordinary sentient beings live out their lives on the lowest level, the realm of desire.
• Those who have burnt out all desire for continued existence leave the world of desire
and live in the world on the level of form alone: they see forms but are not drawn to
them.
• Finally, full Buddhas go beyond even form, and experience reality at its purest, most
fundamental level, the formless ocean of nirvana. The liberation from the cycle
of saṃsāra where the enlightened soul had no longer attached to worldly form is
corresponds to the concept of Śūnyatā, or the nonexistence of the self.

A series of five square bases is succeeded by three circular terraces ringed by those 72
stupas, representing the spiritual journey from the life of desire, through meditation to
Nirvana. While viewed from above the whole resembles the sacred lotus flower.
On these circular platforms, the famous 72 bell-shaped stupas are situated, inside of each
a statue of a Buddha is placed. The top and centre of the entire structure is a large and
empty stupa. All terraces and platforms can be reached by means of stairways which are
situated at the four sides of the structure.
The entire structure is formed in the shape of a giant twirling staircase, a style of
architecture from prehistoric Indonesia. At the 10th and highest level of the temple, is
the largest and tallest stupa in Borobudur. Within this stupa was found the ‘Unfinished

163
Buddha’ symbolizing Sanghyang Adi-Buddha, which is now in the Karmawibhangga
Museum.

The Jātaka level — Bhikkhuṇī Candraprabhā and Advisors warn the king.

An extremely well-balanced structure

Borobudur‘s 10 levels are designed to correspond with the path to enlightenment. The
base is stacked with 5 concentric square terraces connected by staircases in each
direction, which are then topped by 3 circular terraces and ultimately by a monumental
stupa.

The temple is designed so that visitors can walk clockwise down the open-air paths along
the terraces as they move upward while meditating upon the path to enlightenment.
The Buddhas are placed in three circles of 16, 24 and 32 and each looking at a specific
spot on three corresponding circles which are situated outside of the perimeter of the
structure. Esoterists from all over the world are still trying to find out the meanings
contained in the structure of the temple.
There are in these four galleries 432 larger statues of the Lord Buddha ranged at regular
intervals along the upper part of the walls, each sitting in its own niche or recessed
shrine.

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All the 108 images on each side are seated with mūdra. On the North, the mūdra
is Abhaya mūdra — Have no fear; on the East, the mūdra is Bhūmisparsha — Touching
the earth; on the South, Dāna — Giving; on the West, Dhyāna — Meditation.
Upon either wall of the four galleries we find a continuous series of bas-reliefs illustrating
the religious phenomena in ascending gradation.
• the first gallery, that is to say, displays a selection of scenes from the historical life of
Buddha
• the second shows us the minor deities of the Brahmanic worship adopted into the
Buddhist Pantheon
• the third contains the higher deities, at the plane in which the shrine rather than the
deity itself is worshipped
• in the fourth we find only groups of Dhyāni-Buddhas.

In the middle of each of the four sides of the square a steep stairway ascends, the gateway
to each stairway being guarded by sitting lions, and spanned by ornate arches of the
highest architectural perfection. The main entrance is on the eastern side. The reliefs also
depicted mythical spiritual beings in Buddhist beliefs such as asuras, boddhisattvas,
kinnaras, gandharvas and apsaras.
The reliefs of noblemen, and noble women, kings, or divine beings such as apsaras, taras
and boddhisattvas usually portrayed in tribhanga pose. The three bent pose on neck,
hips, and knee with one leg resting and one uphold the body weight. This position is
considered as the most graceful pose, such as the figure of Surasundari holding a lotus.
The square lower part of the structure shows us, through hundreds of carved stone
panels, all aspects of social or communal life. It is only after this ‘school of human
development’ is passed, that the circular platforms with the 72 Stupas are reached.
Where the lower part of the structure concerns itself with earthly matters, the upper part
seems to be directed towards the cosmos and as such rises far above the lower levels in
more than one sense.

165
Scheltema, in his book Monumental Java, describes it as “the most consummate
achievement of Buddhist architecture in the whole world”.
A variety of Javanese motifs and entities are also found in theses compositions, such
as the structure of Javanese cottage houses, the birds on its roof or the motifs of trees
and leaves.

A scripture set in stone- Borobudur is constructed from 2 million volcanic rocks, and
assembled using a complex interlocking technique without the use of cement or mortar.

The monument has 2,672 relief panels that if aligned in a row, would stretch a length of
over 6 kilometers.
The reliefs are intended to impress lessons of wisdom on the believer’s mind as he
ascended the stūpa, and so to prepare him for the attainment of the highest insights of
Buddhism.

Reading the panels on the temple walls requires a specific technique. The panels on the
wall read from left to right, while those on the balustrade read from right to left,
conforming with the pradaksina.
The story begins and ends at the eastern side of the gate at every level. Stairs connect
each level to the next from each direction of the compass, but the idea is to always ascend
from the stairs at the eastern corner. The ten levels of Borobudur are representations of
the Mahayana philosophy which describe the ten levels of Bodhisattva that must be
passed to attain the Buddhist perfection.

166
Jatakas or Buddha´s previous life

Seen from the sky, Borobudur is built in the form of Mount Meru, and is a vertical
representation of the Sri Yantra. Borobudur teaches all the steps of Buddhist theology to
reach the supreme Buddha state.

When ascending from lower levels to the upper levels, the density of the numbers of
human figures gradually becomes very much diluted and also their physical gestures
become highly controlled and less suggestive.

In the final upper galleries the compositions contain only the extremely calm, isolated
rather static figures in few numbers in compositional space. It is a clear symbolization of
the transformation from the earthly sinful life of action and reaction towards the
spacious and peaceful state of isolation, meditation and transcendental mind.
In the center and on top of the Borobudur mandala-temple, is located the Main Stupa,
symbolizing something much bigger than individual Enlightenment. This Universal
Stupa corresponds with “Emptiness beyond Emptines” or Absolute Emptiness in which
Relative Emptiness (Enlightenment) disappears, also called Nirvana or Absolute
Bottomlessness of the Cosmos.

The Pawon-Mendut alignment--RIGHT

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An astronomical temple

The 4:6:9 ratio has a calendrical, astronomical and cosmological significance, as in

Angkor Wat. The gates are adorned with Kala’s head carved on top of each and Makaras
projecting from each side. This Kala-Makara motif is commonly found on the gates of
Javanese temples.

The positioning of the 72 ‘occupied’ Stupas in three circles of 32, 24 and 16 might give us
an indication as to what specific aspects of the cosmos these bell-shaped structures point.
The circular platforms on which the Stupas are situated seem to concern themselves with
the stars.

The ship reliefs on the East depict a ship underneath celestial objects, commemorating a
voyage to Africa. This shows the Indonesians crossed the ocean without a compass,
depending solely on the stars for navigation. In 2003–2004, a wooden replica of the
Borobudur ship was made and sailed the Cinnamon Route from Jakarta to Accra in
Ghana to demonstrate the trans-Indian Ocean trading links of medieval Indonesians and
Africans.

A temple to Sanghyang Adi-Buddha

In Buddhist temples throughout in the world, Gautama Buddha is the central figure.
Borobudur transcends this. Inside the topmost, central stupa originally stood an
incomplete and rough Buddha statue representing Sanghyang Adi-Buddha, or God
Almighty, as described in esoteric Indonesian Vajrayana texts such as the Sanghyang
Kamahayanikan.

That is why all small stupas are eventually culminating into the Great Stupa, dedicated
to Sanghyang Adi-Buddha on top of the temple.

168
Borobudur therefore is an absolutely unique symbol of Ultimate Truth.

The Krakatau eruption

But in the year 915 A.D. there occurred a terrible volcanic outburst. The great volcano
of Krakatau (then called the Rahata or Cancer-volcano) broke out into an eruption so
tremendous that it split the whole island into two parts — now called Java and
Sumatra respectively — and brought into existence the Straits of Sunda.
At the same time, the volcano Merapi threw out an incredible amount of sand and ashes,
destroying almost the whole of Airlanggha’s kingdom, and entirely burying Borobudur,
Mendut and Prambanan temples.

This catastrophe is mentioned in the inscriptions of King Airlanggga — sometimes

called Jala-langgha (“he who walks over the waters”, apparently because he escaped
from the floods caused by the eruption, and retired on Mount Lawu in Surakarta, where
be met some Brahmans who were living in the woods there as ascetics.

After some time, however, he came out of his seclusion and made his way into East Java,
where he married the daughter of the King of Kediri, and inherited his throne. Under his
auspices, Sanskrit learning made great advances in the Kediri and Janggala regions,
Buddhism and Hinduism flourished equally under his rule, and started to blend into
the Shiva-Buddha religion.
The present royal families of Bali and Lombok are descended from Airlangga.

The Borobudur Temple Compounds consists of three monuments: namely the

Borobudur Temple and two smaller temples situated to the east on a straight axis to
Borobudur:

169
  Mendut Temple, whose depiction of Buddha is represented by a formidable
monolith accompanied by two Bodhisattvas
 Pawon Temple, a smaller temple whose inner space does not reveal which deity
might have been the object of worship. Those three monuments represent phases
in the attainment of Nirvana.
During the full moon in May or June, Buddhists in Indonesia observe the Vesak annual
ritual by walking from Mendut temple, past Pawon and then to Borobudur. The ritual
takes the form of Buddhist prayer and pradakshina.
For local Javanese who follow Kejawen or Buddhism, praying in Mendut temple is
believed to help to heal diseases.

Indonesian Buddhism in the early 1990s was the unstable product of complex
accommodations among religious ideology, Chinese ethnic identification, and
political policy. Traditionally, Chinese Daoism (or Taoism), Confucianism, (agama
Konghucu in Indonesian) and Buddhism, as well as the more nativist Buddhist
Perbuddhi, all had adherents in the ethnic Chinese community. Following the
attempted coup of 1965, any hint of deviation from the monotheistic tenets of the
Pancasila was regarded as treason, and the founder of Perbuddhi, Bhikku Ashin
Jinarakkhita, proposed that there was a single supreme deity, Sang Hyang Adi
Buddha. He sought confirmation for this uniquely Indonesian version of Buddhism in
ancient Javanese texts, and even the shape of the Buddhist temple complex at
Borobudur in Jawa Tengah Province. In the years following the 1965 abortive coup,
when all citizens were required to register with a specific religious denomination or be
suspected of communist sympathies, the number of Buddhists swelled; some ninety
new monasteries were built. In 1987 there were seven schools of Buddhism affiliated

170
with the Perwalian Umat Buddha Indonesia (Walubi): Theravada, Buddhayana,
Mahayana, Tridharma, Kasogatan, Maitreya, and Nichiren. According to a 1987
estimate, there were roughly 2.5 million followers of Buddhism, with 1 million of
these affiliated with Theravada Buddhism and roughly 0.5 million belonging to the
Buddhayana sect founded by Jinarakkhita. Other estimates placed Buddhists at around
only 1 percent of the population, or less than 2 million. Buddhism was gaining in
numbers because of the uncertain status of Confucianism. Confucianism was
officially tolerated by the government, but since it was regarded as a system of ethical
relations rather than a religion per se, it was not represented in the Department of
Religious Affairs.

Although various sects approach Buddhist doctrine in different ways, a central feature
of the religion is acknowledgment of the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path.
The Four Noble Truths involve the recognition that all existence is full of suffering;
the origin of suffering is the craving for worldly objects; suffering ceases when
craving ceases; and the Eightfold Path leads to enlightenment. The Eightfold Path
invokes perfect views, resolve, speech, conduct, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and
concentration.

Buddhism originally was an intellectual creed, and only marginally concerned with
the supernatural. However, political necessity, and the personal emotional desire to be
shielded from the terrors of the world by a powerful deity, have led to modifications.
In many ways, Buddhism is highly individualistic, with each man and woman held
responsible for his or her own self. Anyone can meditate alone; no temple is required,
and no clergy is needed to act as intermediary. The community provides pagodas and
temples to inspire the proper frame of mind to assist the worshippers in their devotion
and self-awareness.

171
 CHAPTER VI
Indo Hellinistic Influences on Borobudur Design?

The mystery of the design elements and creation of the design have fascinated may authors least
of all me. This and that,up and down, local and foreign all kinds of influences have been
attributed to the design. This is the advantage a monument with almst no record has- it stimulates
discussion. How boring it would have been to have an inscription in f ront of the Stupa tell us all.

READ MY PAPERS ON BOROBUDUR for more INFORMATION all on

academia.edu & researchgate.net
1. Gunadharma
2. DID BOROBUDUR GET INSPIRED FROM INDIAN STUPAS
3. From darkness into light --the Idea of Gunadarma behind the design of Borobudur Dr
uday Dokras
4. Borobudur BIG BUDDHA as a complete exposition of doctrine
5. Who Built BOROBUDUR(long)
6. Who built Borobudur (SHORT)
7. The river Saraswati and the Goddess Tara in Buddhism and Hinduism
8. The Mystery of the Saraswati - Dr Uday Dokras and ms Wasudha Korke
9. Cakravartinship of Buddha Maitreya
10. VERTICAL COSMOLOGY OF BOROBUDUR
11. Battle for the Maitreya Buddha
12. Is Borobudur waiting for the Maitreya Buddha
13. THE PATH of the BUDDHA and of the Borobudur temple

172
 14. Spiritual Tech at Borobudur
15. Indian design Influences on Indonesian Stupas
16. Gunadharma
17. Grand iteration of Buddhist Monumentation and world heritage site DID BOROBUDUR
GET INSPIRED FROM INDIAN STUPAS
18. From darkness into light --the Idea of Gunadharma behind the design of Borobudur
19. Borobudur BIG BUDDHA as a complete exposition of doctrine
20. DID BOROBUDUR GET INSPIRED FROM INDIAN STUPAS?
21. The Mound and Ruins of the Square Plan stone temple in India
22. Mount Meru and SE asian art
23. Cosmology Shapes Design of Angkor Wat Temple
24. Cosmology of the Abhidharma
25. Will the real soovarna bhoomi please stand up
26. Tamils constructed Angkor ????
27. French Cousine in the Angkor Plains
28. Mount Kailash is MOUNT MERU Lord Shiva
29. books n papers on BOROBUDUR written by Dr Uday Dokras
30. Hetroclite Monument Borobodur

Traditional accounts say that, around 589 BCE, Siddhartha Gautama, ( Lord of Kapilavastu) a
young prince who saw the suffering of the world and wanted to end it, reached the forested banks
of the Phalgu river, near the city of Gaya, India. There he sat in meditation under a peepul tree
which later became known as the Bodhi tree. According to Buddhist scriptures, after three days
and three nights, Siddharta attained enlightenment and the answers that he had sought. In that
location, Mahabodhi Temple was built by Emperor Ashoka in around 260 BCE.

In approximately 250 BCE, about 200 years after the Buddha attained Enlightenment,
Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire visited Bodh Gaya in order to establish
a monastery and shrine on the holy site, which have today disappeared.
There remains however the Diamond throne, which he had established at the foot of the Bodhi
tree. The Diamond throne, or Vajrasana, is thought to have been built by Emperor Ashoka of
the Maurya Empire between 250 and 233 BCE, at the location where the Buddha reached
enlightenment. It is worshiped today, and is the center of many festivities at the temple.
Representations of the early temple structure meant to protect the Bodhi tree are found at Sanchi,
on the toraṇas of Stūpa I, dating from around 25 BCE, and on a relief carving from the stupa
railing at Bhārhut, from the early Shunga period (c. 185–c. 73 BCE
While Asoka is considered the Mahabodhi temple's founder, the current pyramidal structure
dates from the Gupta Empire, in the 5th–6th century CE.
However this may represent a restoration of earlier work of the 2nd or 3rd century: a plaque
from Kumrahar dated 150–200 CE, based on its dated Kharoshthi inscriptions and combined
finds of Huvishka coins, already shows the Mahabodhi Temple in its current shape with a
stepped truncated pyramid and a small hemispherical stupa with finals on top. This is confirmed
by archaeological excavations in Bodh Gaya.

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The stupa finial on top of the pyramidal structure. Images of the site include Avalokiteśvara (Padmapani,
Khasarpana), Vajrapani, Tara, Marichi, Yamantaka, Jambhala and Vajravārāhī. Images
of Vishnu, Shiva, Surya and other Vedic deities are also associated with the site.

It is thought that the temple in the shape of a truncated pyramid was derived from the design of
the stepped stupas which had developed in Gandhara. The Mahabodhi Temple adapted the
Gandharan design of a succession of steps with niches containing Buddha images, alternating

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with Greco-Roman pillars, and top by a stupa, as seen in the stupas of Jaulian. The structure is
crowned by the shape of an hemispherical stupa topped by finials, forming a logical elongation
of the stepped Gandharan stupas.
This truncated pyramid design also marked the evolution from the aniconic stupa dedicated to
the cult of relics, to the iconic temple with multiple images of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas. This
design was very influential in the development of later Hindu temples. The "shikhara" tower with
an amalaka near the top is today considered more characteristic of Hindu temples.
The Temple was restored by the British and India post independence.
A R C H I T E C T U R E

Artist: Crockatt, James (1755/6-1804)

Medium:  Watercolour- Watercolour drawing of the Mahabodhi temple at Bodh Gaya in
Bihar, by James Crockatt (1755/6-1804), c. 1800. Inscribed on back in ink: 'East
view of the Hindoo temple at Bode-Gya, in the neighbourhood of Gya in Behar';'
taken by Capt. Crokatt.'

Mahabodhi Temple is constructed of brick and is one of the oldest brick structures to have
survived in eastern India. It is considered to be a fine example of Indian brickwork, and was
highly influential in the development of later architectural traditions. According to UNESCO,
"the present temple is one of the earliest and most imposing structures built entirely in brick
from Gupta period" (300–600 CE). Mahabodhi Temple's central tower rises 55 metres (180 ft),
and were heavily renovated in the 19th century. The central tower is surrounded by four smaller
towers, constructed in the same style.
The Mahabodhi Temple is surrounded on all four sides by stone railings, about two metres high.

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The railings reveal two distinct types, both in style as well as the materials used. The older ones,
made of sandstone, date to about 150 BCE, and the others, constructed from unpolished
coarse granite, are believed to be of the Gupta period. The older railings have scenes such
as Lakshmi, the Hindu/Buddhist goddess of wealth, being bathed by elephants; and Surya, the
Hindu sun god, riding a chariot drawn by four horses. The newer railings have figures
of stupas (reliquary shrines) and garudas (eagles). Images of lotus flowers also appear
commonly.
Brick was a popular medium for constructing buildings then and examples of brickwork are
found through history as far back as the Bronze Age. The fired-brick faces of the ziggurat of
ancient Dur-Kurigalzu in Iraq date from around 1400 BC, and the brick buildings of
ancient Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan were built around 2600 BC. Much older examples of
brickwork made with dried (but not fired) bricks may be found in such ancient locations
as Jericho in Palestine, Çatal Höyük in Anatolia, and Mehrgarh in Pakistan. These structures
have survived from the Stone Age to the present day.

During the time of the Buddha (c. 563/480 or c. 483/400 BCE), Buddhist monks were also in the
habit of using natural caves, such as the Saptaparni Cave, southwest from Rajgir, Bihar. Many
believe it to be the site in which Buddha spent some time before his death, and where the first
Buddhist council was held after the Buddha died (paranirvana). The Buddha himself had also
used the Indrasala Cave for meditation, starting a tradition of using caves, natural or man-made,
as religious retreats, that would last for over a millennium. During the Mauryan period, rock-cut
caves were generally used as viharas, i.e. living quarters, by the Jain also. While the early caves
were used by the ajivika sect, later, they became popular as Buddhist monasteries. The caves
during Mauryan period were marked by a highly polished finish of the interior walls and
decorative gateways.

The construction of rock caves continued in Post-Mauryan period as in the Mauryan period.
However, this period saw the development of two types of rock caves – Chaitya and Vihar.
While the Vihars were residential halls for the Buddhist and Jain monks and were developed
during the time of the Mauryan Empire, the Chaitya halls were developed during this time. They
were mainly quadrangular chambers with flat roofs and used as prayer halls. The caves also had
open courtyards and stone screen walls to shield from rain. They were also decorated with
human and animal figures.

Comparing the significant features of Jaina and Buddhist rock-cut cave architecture one finds
that…

 Jaina caves were cut in sandstone which is easy to cut but not good for sculpting. But
Buddhist caves were cut into hard rocks and were better for sculpting.
 The Jaina caves had no congregation halls or rock cut shrines. Later, however, some cells
were enlarged into shrines. The Buddhist caves on the other hand had clear halls and the
shrine area.
 The Jaina cave cells were cut wherever the rock permitted. There was no planning. The
Buddhist cave structure on the other hand was well laid out.
 The Jaina caves were simple and reflected the asceticism of jina monks. The cells were
tiny (not tall enough to stand, not long enough to stretch while sleeping, small entrances

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 so as to bend very low).
The only luxury was occasional shelves cut into rocks and sloping floor acting as a pillow
but actually designed to keep of water from accumulating. Only the outer portions were
carved sometimes. The Buddhist caves on the other hand were an elaborate and spacious
affair.
 The Jaina caves are of two types – those without pillars in verandah or those with pillars.
Without pillars had cells cut along three sides of the verandah. Pillars were square at top
and bottom and octagonal at middle.
 In terms of similarities, the sculptures use similar motifs like animals, plants. The
honeysuckle style is similar too. Examples of such caves are Khandgiri and Udaigiri in
Puri

At the time the Borobudur was built, the Mhabodhi temple and the sanchi Stupa were both in
existence and famous sites of Buddhist Pilgrimage. Therefore it would be natural to assume that
both were in the focal point of those who constructed the Borobudur and if so the Gunadharma
the chief architect may have been inspired by it. Gunavarma was an Indian monk from Jibin
(ancient Gandhara). He traveled to Java from Sri Lanka around the beginning of the 5th century
A.D. Not long after his arrival, the Javanese king Po-duo-jia suffered from a foot injury caused
by an arrow in a war. Gunavarma healed the king's injury and won his trust and friendship.
Showing respect and gratitude to Gunavarma, King Po-duo-jia decided to rule his kingdom with
Buddhist belief.

As a Buddhist cakravartin, he gave all his possessions to the poor and the people were ordered to
abstain from killing. The people were also instructed to respect Gunavarma and even to receive
the 5 precepts from him. The Chinese sources do not say that Gunavarma helped King Po-duo-jia
to implement the belief in the descent of Buddharaja Maitreya. However, we may surmise that
Gunavarma did this from the fact that he was officially invited to China by Emperor Wen of the
Song (424-453) and from his activities in the Song. We describe these below. About 9 years after
Faxian had brought the painting of Nagapuspa back to the South, Emperor Wen of the Song
decided to implement the belief as his political ideology. In the 9th month of the first year of the
Yuanjia reign (424), the monks Huiguan and Huicong persuaded the emperor to send letters to
the Javanese king and Gunavarma, respectively, inviting Gunavarma to China. Later, the monks
Fachang, Daochong and Daojun etc., were despatched to bring Gunavarma to China.

Gunavarma arrived in China in the year 431. Another Indian monk, Senghavarma also arrived in
433. Both subsequently translated the Suhrllekha for the emperor. The Suhrlleka was a letter sent
by Nagarjuna to King Satavahana persuading him to practice Buddhism and to implement the
cakravartinship to rule his kingdom. Gunavarma must have been an expert in promoting the
belief in the descent of Buddharaja Maitreya. Otherwise, he would not have been invited by
Emperor Wen of the Song to China. Besides translating the Suhrlleka for Emperor Wen,
Gunavarma was also appointed by him to oversee the ritual of Bodhisattva pratimoksa.
Bodhisattva pratimoksa. is the most important ritual that initiates an emperor to become a
cakravartin or a Buddharaja. Soon after his arrival at the capital of the Song, Gunavarma was
appointed to perform this ritual. But due to an internal revolt that erupted suddenly, Emperor
Wen immediately dropped the idea of becoming a cakravartin/Buddharaja Maitreya.
The Chinese sources tell us that Gunavarma had stayed and preached the Dharma in Sri Lanka

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for quite a while thus making him an expert in the implementation of the belief and it is likely
that he would have helped the Javanese king to promote it. One can surmise that in 2 succession
of countries he transmitted the belief i.e. to Java from Sri Lanka

Based on inscriptions found on some of the stones of the monument, archaeologists agree that
construction of Borobudur was probably begun around 760 AD and completed by about 830,
the Golden Age of the Sailendra dynasty, under the reign of King Samaratunga. It was King
Dharanindra(775—800) his capital was Mataram, Central Java. He also ruled Srivijaya in
Sumatra, and could have constructed the  Manjusrigrha temple. He is also credited with
conceptualizing and starting the construction of Borobudur (c. 770), He ruled the land identified
as Ligor in Java and Southern Cambodia (Chenla) (c. 790).
Ligor inscription is an 8th-century stone stele or inscription discovered in Ligor, Nakhon Si
Thammarat, Southern Thailand Malay Peninsula. This inscription was written and carved on two
sides, the first part is called-
1. Ligor A inscription, or also known as Viang Sa inscription. Ligor A inscription tell about a
Srivijayan king named Dharmasetu, the king of kings in the world, who built the Trisamaya
caitya for Kajara. while on the other side is called the -
2. Ligor B inscription written in Kawi script dated 775 CE. This B inscription was probably
written by Mahārāja dyāḥ Pañcapaṇa kariyāna Paṇaṃkaraṇa (Panangkaran), king
of Shailendra dynasty. This inscription was connected to the kingdom of Srivijaya and
the Shailendra dynasty.

While the Ligor B inscription, dated 775 CE, written in Kawi script, contains the information
about a king named Visnu who holds the title Sri Maharaja, from Śailendravamśa (Wangsa
Syailendra) hailed as Śesavvārimadavimathana (the slayer of arrogant enemies without any
trace).
The stone inscriptions that point towards the Shailendra Dynasty

According to recovered stone inscriptions from Sumatra, the Shailendra Dynasty may have ruled
the Medang Kingdom of Central Java, as well as the Srivijaya Kingdom in Sumatra. The
Shailendras created stone inscriptions using three languages: Old Javanese, Old Malay and
Sanskrit, in either the Kawi alphabet or pre-Nāgarī script.

This use of different languages has generated speculation of the Shailendras’ possible origins.
The use of Old Javanese seems to establish them politically in Java, whereas their use of Old
Malay seems to place them with Sumatran origin; meanwhile, their use of Sanskrit strongly
indicates the official and/or religious nature of the events described on the inscription stones.

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Sojomerto inscription (dated 725 CE). Click to enlarge.

The Sojomerto inscription (c. 725 CE) found in the Batang Regency of Central Java had the
names ‘Dapunta Selendra’ and ‘Selendranamah’ inscribed. The name ‘Selendra’, a different
spelling of ‘Shailendra’, suggests that Dapunta Selendra could be the founder of the Shailendras
in Central Java. The inscription suggests that the family were originally Hindu Shaivites, a
dominant school in the Hindu tradition that worships Shiva as their main deity. This practice
took place before their conversion to Mahayana Buddhism.

  Kelurak inscription, displayed at National

Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta
Material-Andesite stone
Writing-Pranagari script in Sanskrit
Created-700 Saka (778 CE)
Discovered-Lumbung temple in Kelurak
village, Klaten Regency, located not far north
of Prambanan temple, Central Java, Indonesia
Present location-National Museum of
Indonesia, Jakarta
Registration-D.44

 There are some different interpretations regarding the king mentioned in Ligor B inscription;
some suggest that the king mentioned in this inscription was King Panangkaran while other
argues that it was his successor, King Dharanindra- commonly known as King Indra was the
ruler of the Sailendra dynasty and who also was the Emperor of Central Java and Srivijaya.
Dharanindra was the successor of Panangkaran, he ruled the kingdom in the period 775- 800. He
was mentioned as a great conqueror and credited for Sailendra's overseas campaign.
He was mentioned in Kelurak inscription dated 782) in his formal reign name Sri Sanggrama
Dhananjaya. In this inscription he was hailed as Wairiwarawiramardana or "the slayer of

179
courageous enemies". The similar title also found in Ligor B inscription discovered in Southern
Thailand Malay Peninsula; Sarwwarimadawimathana, which suggest it referred to the same
person. Dharanindra seems to be a warlike character, as he embarked on military naval
expedition overseas and has brought Sailendras' control on Ligor in Malay Peninsula. After
conquering and taking Ligor back from Water Chenla, he also launched raids against Champa in
774 and 770, and conquered Southern Cambodia in Mekong delta in early 9th century. During
this time, Jayavarman II from Java (Malay Peninsula), was probably the commander of the
Srivijayan army. At the behest of Maharaja Srivijaya (Dharaindra), Jayavarman II was installed
as a new Cambodia king and Angkor Dynasty was founded.
King Indra seems to continue the builder tradition of his predecessor. He continued and
completed the construction of Manjusrigrha temple, and according to the Karangtengah
inscription (dated 824) responsible for the construction of Venuvana temple, connected
to Mendut or probably Ngawen temple. He was also probably responsible for the conception,
planning and initiate the construction of Borobudur and Pawon temple.
The Kelurak inscription is an inscription dated 704 Saka (782 CE), written
in Sanskrit with Pranagari script, discovered near Lumbung temple in Kelurak village, Central
Java, Indonesia. Lumbung temple is a bit north of Prambanan temple in Yogyakarta. The
writings on the inscription were discovered in poor condition with several parts being unclear
and unreadable, as a result historians could only translate the main information of the inscription.
The inscription mentioned the construction of a sacred buddhist building to house
the Manjusri statue that contains the wisdom of Buddha, dharma, and sangha; the same trinity
as Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshvara. The construction of this sacred building was ordered
by King Indra, revered in his official name Sri Sanggramadhananjaya. The reference to Hindu
gods in this Buddhist temple signify the Tantrayana- Vajrayana buddhism influence. The temple
dedicated to Manjusri is identified as Sewu temple, located not far north from Prambanan
temple. Because of the use of the words KING INDRA it is referred to King Dharanindra.

Ligor Inscription
King Dharanindra. Artists view

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 The Pawon or Bajranalan Temple

Located between two other Buddhist temples, Borobudur (1.75 km (1.09 mi) to the northeast) and Mendut (1.15 km (0.71 mi) to the southwest),
Pawon is connected with the other two temples, all of which were built during the Sailendra dynasty (8th–9th centuries).[1] Examines the detail
and style of its carving this temple is slightly older than Borobudur.

Religious buildings in the form of the Buddhist stupa, a dome-shaped monument, started to be

used in India as commemorative monuments associated with storing sacred relics of the Buddha.
The relics of the Buddha were spread between eight stupas,
in Rajagriha, Vaishali, Kapilavastu, Allakappa, Ramagrama, Pava, Kushinagar, and Vethapida.
The Piprahwa stupa also seems to have been one of the first to be built. Guard rails—consisting
of posts, crossbars, and a coping—became a feature of safety surrounding a stupa. The Buddha
had left instructions about how to pay hommage to the stupas: "And whoever lays wreaths or
puts sweet perfumes and colours there with a devout heart, will reap benefits for a long
time".This practice would lead to the decoration of the stupas with stone sculptures of flower
garlands in the Classical period.

The literally meaning of Stupa is “Heap“. It is a round mound-shaped Structure used to hold
sacred Buddhist relics. Such a lot of stupas were developed in Gupta period.
Apart from the temples, the construction of two Buddhist stupas – Dhemakh Stupa
of Sarnath and Jarasangha meeting at Rajgriha is believed to have taken place during the period
of Gupta temples. Dhamekh Stupa is 128 feet high, which is constructed on a flat surface without
a platform. To keep Buddhist statues at its four corners are made takhs. The laataapatrak on the
stupa has been highly acclaimed, and the geometric structures made on it are also notable.
The Mirpur Khas Stupa in Sindh region was built in the early Gupta period. Three small chaityas
are made in it. The brick arches have been built in the Central Jatiya. Its engraved and ornate

181
brick and clay Buddha statues are beautiful examples of Gupta pottery art. Narsingh Gupta
Baladitya had built a grand temple of Buddha in Nalanda, which was three hundred feet high.
Later Chinese travelers praised it.

The temple of Bodhgaya can also be mentioned in the temples of the fifth century. The huge
statue of Buddha in its sanctum sanctorum is situated in the ground touch posture. The main
entrance is towards the east. Stairs are built near it, which can be reached on the first floor. There
is an open space there. The temple has no ventilation or gavach. Thus its plan is unique in itself.

The stylized Stupa has a high cylindrical egg, On top of which are round dome, Harmika and
three parasol. There are also figures of Yaksha, Nagadampati, Shalabhanjika, Rishi Munis etc.
the chaitygrah has only one entrance. There are 27 lined columns on the pradakshinamarg a on
both side of the pavilion.This cave has been made in the sculptures of the best chaityagrhas of
Western India, which are engraved in human form on the entrance gate, the ankles and the
monolithic stupa. It seems that Mahayana was influenced by them.

https://www.indiaolddays.com/stupa-and-cavity-architecture-in-the-gupta-period/

Stupas were soon to be richly decorated with sculptural reliefs, following the first attempts
at Sanchi Stupa No.2 (125 BCE). Full-fledged sculptural decorations and scenes of the life of the
Buddha would soon follow at Bharhut (115 BCE), Bodh Gaya (60 BCE), Mathura (125–60
BCE), again at Sanchi[ for the elevation of the toranas (1st century BCE/CE) and
then Amaravati (1st–2nd century CE). The decorative embellishment of stupas also had a
considerable development in the northwest in the area of Gandhara, with decorated stupas such
as the Butkara Stupa ("monumentalized" with Hellenistic decorative elements from the 2nd
century BCE)[63] or the Loriyan Tangai stupas (2nd century CE). Stupa architecture was adopted
in Southeast and East Asia, where it became prominent as a Buddhist monument used for
enshrining sacred relics. The Indian gateway arches, the torana, reached East Asia with the
spread of Buddhism. Some scholars hold that torii derives from the torana gates at the Buddhist
historic site of Sanchi (3rd century BCE – 11th century CE).

HELLINISTIC INFLUENCES:

The Greco-Buddhist art or Gandhara art of the north Indian subcontinent is the artistic

manifestation of Greco-Buddhism, a cultural syncretism between Ancient Greek
art and Buddhism.
The series of interactions leading to Gandhara art occurred over time, beginning with Alexander
the Great's brief incursion into the area, followed by the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka converting
the region to Buddhism. Buddhism became the prominent religion in the Indo-Greek Kingdoms.
However, Greco-Buddhist art truly flowered and spread under the Kushan Empire, when the first
surviving devotional images of the Buddha were created during the 1st-3rd centuries CE.
Gandhara art reached its zenith from the 3rd-5th century CE, when most surviving motifs and
artworks were produced.

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Gandhara art is characterized by Buddhist subject matter, sometimes adapting Greco-
Roman elements, rendered in a style and forms that are heavily influenced by Greco-Roman art.
It has the strong idealistic realism and sensuous description of Hellenistic art, and it is believed
to have produced the first representations of Gautama Buddha in human form, ending the early
period of aniconism in Buddhism.
The representation of the human form in large sculpture had a considerable influence, both to the
south in the rest of India, and to the east, where the spread of Buddhism carried its influence as
far as Japan

The traditional main centre of sculpture was Mathura, which continued to flourish, with the
art of Gandhara, the centre of Greco-Buddhist art just beyond the northern border of Gupta
territory, continuing to exert influence. Other centres emerged during the period, especially
at Sarnath. Both Mathura and Sarnath exported sculpture to other parts of northern India. It is
customary to include under "Gupta art" works from areas in north and central India that were not
actually under Gupta control. This region contained very important sites such as the Ajanta
Caves which were Buddhist Caves in Ajanta -approximately 30 rock-cut Buddhist cave
monuments dating from the 2nd century BCE to about 480 CE and Elephanta Caves- contining
rock cut stone sculptures, mostly in high relief, that show syncretism of Hindu and Buddhist
ideas and iconography also created in this period, and the Ellora Caves the  largest rock-cut
Hindu temple cave complexes in the world, featuring Buddhist and Jain monuments with artwork
dating from the period 600–1000 CE. So Gupta art encompassed many religious hues- Buddhista
and Hindu both. The Guptas were traditionally a Hindu dynasty. The reason being that inspite of
being orthodox Hindus, they  allowed followers of Buddhism and Jainism to practice their
religions. Sanchi remained an important centre of Buddhism. Kumaragupta I 455 CE) is said to
have founded Nalanda.

The gateways (left) were made by northern

(probably Gandharan) masons using Kharosthi marks, while the railings (right) were made by
masons using marks in the local Brahmi script. (East Gateway and Railings Bharhut Stupa).
From the marks left by Masonry which is the craft of shaping rough pieces of rock into accurate
geometrical shapes, at times simple, but some of considerable complexity, and then arranging the
resulting stones, often together with mortar, to form structures such as in Borobudur also,and the
Kharosthi script inscribed ob the stone Bharhut remains, indicating that some of the builders at
least came from the north, particularly from Gandhara where the Kharoshti script was in use. 

Kharosthi letters on the Eastern Gateway of Bharhut

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Kharoshthi (formerly called "Arian-Pali") mason's marks on the gateway. Five of the Kharosthi mason's
marks (on a total of eight for the whole gateway) were discovered at the base of the small pillars of the
gateway: 𐨤 pa, 𐨀 a, 𐨦 ba, 𐨯 sa

Bharhut a Buddhist stupa in the Satna district of Madhya Pradesh, central India coul be a likely

candidate to inspire Gunadharma. What makes Bharhut panels unique is that each panel is
explicitly labelled in Brahmi characters mentioning what the panel depicts. The major donor for
the Bharhut stupa was King DhanabhutiBuddhism continued to survive in Bharhut until 12th
century. A Small Buddhist temple was enlarged around 1100 AD and a new statue of Buddha
was installed. A large Sanskrit inscription from the same period was found at the site, however it
appears to have been lost. This is different from the inscription Lal Pahad inscription of AD 1158
mentioning the Kalachiri kings.
The Bharhut sculptures represent some of the earliest examples of Indian and Buddhist art, later
than the monumental art of Ashoka (circa 260 BCE), and slightly later than the early Shunga-
period reliefs on railings at Sanchi Stupa No.2 (starting circa 115 BCE).[1] Though more
provincial in quality than the sculpture at Sanchi, Amaravati Stupa and some other sites, a large
amount of sculpture has survived, generally in good condition. Recent authors date the reliefs of
the railings of Bharhut circa 125–100 BCE, and clearly after Sanchi Stupa No.2, compared to
which Bharhut has a much more developed iconography. The torana gateway was made slightly
later than the railings, and is dated to 100–75 BCE. Historian Ajit Kumar gives a later date to
Bharhut, the 1st century CE, based on stylistic comparisons with datable works of art from
the Art of Mathura, particularly sculptures inscribed in the name of ruler Sodasa. Many of the
Bharhut remains are now located in the Indian Museum in Kolkata.
Some recent reevaluations have tended to uncouple Bharhut from the Shunga period, and rather
attribute the stupa to the 1st century CE, based on artistic similarities with better dated Mathura
art and a questioning of the antiquity of the Bharhut inscriptions (particularly the Dhanabhuti
inscriptions) suggested by traditional paleography. In "Bharhut Sculptures and their untenable
Sunga Association". Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology. 2: 230,
historian Ajit Kumar gives a later date to Bharhut, the 1st century CE, based on stylistic
comparisons with datable works of art from the Art of Mathura, particularly sculptures inscribed
in the name of ruler Sodasa

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The stūpa of Bharhut: a Buddhist monument ornamented with numerous sculptures illustrative of Buddhist
legend and history in the third century B. C by Cunningham, Alexander, Sir, 1814-1893, published 1879

"One face of a fence-rail from Bharhut: Worship at a Stupa,” from Madhya Pradesh, India, on display at the
Freer Gallery in Washington, DC ((F1932.26)

According to some authors, Hellenistic sculptors had some connection with Bharhut and Sanchi
as well. The structure as a whole as well as various elements point to Hellenistic and other
foreign influence, such as the fluted bell, addorsed capital of the Persepolitan order, and the
abundant use of the Hellenistic flame palmette or honeysuckle motif. Besides the origin of its
contributors however, the gateway retains a very strong Indian character in its form.
It would seem the railings were the first elements to be built, circa 125–100 BCE. The great
gateway was built later, circa 100–75 BCE. On artistic grounds, the decorations of the railings
are considered later stylistically than those of Sanchi Stupa No.2, suggesting a date of circa 100
BCE for the reliefs of the railings, and a date of 75 BCE for the gateway
In conformity with the early aniconic phase of Buddhist art, the Buddha is only represented
through symbols, such as the Dharma wheel, the Bodhi tree, an empty seat, footprints, or
the triratana symbol. The style represents the earliest phase of Indian art, and all characters are
depicted wearing the Indian dhoti, except for one foreigner thought to be an Indo-Greek soldier,

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with Buddhist symbolism. The Bharhut carvings are slightly later than the Sanchi Stupa
No.2 reliefs and the earlier Ajanta frescos.
An unusual feature of the Bharhut panels is the inclusion of text in the narrative panels, often
identifying the individuals
The inscriptions found at Bharhut are of considerable significance in tracing the history of early
Indian Buddhism and Buddhist art. 136 inscriptions mention the donors. These include
individuals from Vidisha, Purika (a town somewhere in the Vindhya
mountains), Pataliputra (Bihar), Karhad (Maharashtra), Bhojakata (Vidarbha, eastern
Maharashtra), Kosambi (Uttar Pradesh), and Nasik (Maharashtra). 82 inscriptions serve as labels
for panels depicting the Jatakas, the life of the Buddha, former Manushi Buddhas, other stories
and Yakshas and Yakshinis.

For a study of the influence of Sanch Stupa on Borobudur read my paper-

What does Borobudur have in common with the stupa in Sanchi and how are they different?

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 CHAPTER VII
INDIC ARCHITECTURE AS A LIGHT HOUSE FOR BOROBUDUR

Vivekananda not Buddha looks out at the Arabian sea at the end tip of India at Kanyakumari
Dr Uday Dokras Phd Stockholm, SWEDEN’

All said and done the architect of the Borobudur must definitely heard and studied ( directly
or indirectly )the most important Buddhist landmark THE BODHISATVA TEMPLE and also
the large Barhut Stupa in India and The largest Buddhist stupa in the world at that time- the
Jetavanaramaya at Jetavana in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka,
There is therefore every presumption to assume that the Borobudur was designed influenced
bu these ancient Buddhist structures equally large and much holier. As a LIGHT HOUSE

The mystery of the design elements and creation of the design have fascinated may authors least
of all me. This and that,up and down, local and foreign all kinds of influences have been
attributed to the design. This is the advantage a monument with almst no record has- it stimulates
discussion. How boring it would have been to have an inscription in f ront of the Stupa tell us all.

187
 READ MY PAPERS ON BOROBUDUR for more INFORMATION all on
academia.edu & researchgate.net
31. Gunadharma
32. DID BOROBUDUR GET INSPIRED FROM INDIAN STUPAS
33. From darkness into light --the Idea of Gunadarma behind the design of Borobudur Dr
uday Dokras
34. Borobudur BIG BUDDHA as a complete exposition of doctrine
35. Who Built BOROBUDUR(long)
36. Who built Borobudur (SHORT)
37. The river Saraswati and the Goddess Tara in Buddhism and Hinduism
38. The Mystery of the Saraswati - Dr Uday Dokras and ms Wasudha Korke
39. Cakravartinship of Buddha Maitreya
40. VERTICAL COSMOLOGY OF BOROBUDUR
41. Battle for the Maitreya Buddha
42. Is Borobudur waiting for the Maitreya Buddha
43. THE PATH of the BUDDHA and of the Borobudur temple
44. Spiritual Tech at Borobudur
45. Indian design Influences on Indonesian Stupas
46. Gunadharma
47. Grand iteration of Buddhist Monumentation and world heritage site DID BOROBUDUR
GET INSPIRED FROM INDIAN STUPAS
48. From darkness into light --the Idea of Gunadharma behind the design of Borobudur
49. Borobudur BIG BUDDHA as a complete exposition of doctrine
50. DID BOROBUDUR GET INSPIRED FROM INDIAN STUPAS?
51. The Mound and Ruins of the Square Plan stone temple in India
52. Mount Meru and SE asian art
53. Cosmology Shapes Design of Angkor Wat Temple
54. Cosmology of the Abhidharma
55. Will the real soovarna bhoomi please stand up
56. Tamils constructed Angkor ????
57. French Cousine in the Angkor Plains
58. Mount Kailash is MOUNT MERU Lord Shiva
59. books n papers on BOROBUDUR written by Dr Uday Dokras
60. Hetroclite Monument Borobodur

In Buddhism, a Stupa is a monument which represents peace, prosperity and

harmony, as well as being a place for meditation. The symbolism of the form of

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the stupas is a vast and complex subject, as is the meaning behind every item
placed within a stupa.  

The shape of the stupa represents the Buddha, crowned and sitting in meditation
posture on a lion throne.   The stupa also symbolizes the five elements and colors
andtheir relationship to Enlightened Mind:

 Base – Square – Yellow – Earth - Equanimity

 Dome – Circle – White – Water -   Indestructibility
 Spire – Triangle – Red – Fire – Compassion
 Parasol – Half Circle – Green – Wind – All- accomplishing Action
 Jewel – Dewdrop (no shape/no color/void) – Space – All-pervading Awareness

'It is through the language of archetypal symbols that we reconnect ourselves with
the primordial ground from which all human culture has sprung... Among the
oldest of architectural forms, the Stupa is a universal symbol of enlightened mind, a
familiar sight in all countries where Buddhism has flourished. In the Stupa we find
the ancient reliquary monuments once built for kings and heroes transformed into
profound expressions of knowledge. Rightly interpreted and understood by both
reason and intuition, it mirrors the harmony and perfection of universal principles
and invites the human mind to awaken its full capabilities...'.  This quotation gives
us a taste of why Stupas were built and what they signify now and in former times.
They are the most fascinating structures on the planet. Their development mirrors
that of our cultures, and their transformation stands as a witness to the changes in
our philosophical concepts.

1
According to the Digha Nikaya, the stupa idea was first set forth by the Buddha, himself, just
before his death. 10. 'What are we to do, lord, with the remains of the Tathagata?' 'Hinder not
yourselves, Ananda, by honouring the remains of the Tathagata. Be zealous, I beseech you,
Ananda, in your own behalf! Devote yourselves to your own good! Be earnest, be zealous, be
intent on your own good! There are wise men, Ananda, among the nobles, among the Brahmins,
among the heads of houses, who are firm believers in the Tathagata; and they will do due honour
to the remains of the Tathagata.' 11. 'But what should be done, lord, with the remains of the
Tathagata?' 'As men treat the remains of the king of kings so Ananda, should they treat the
remains of a Tathagata.' 'And how, lord, do they treat the remains of a king of kings?' 'They wrap
the body of a king of kings, Ananda, in a new cloth. When that is done they wrap it in carded
cotton wool. When that is done they wrap it in a new cloth, and so on till they have wrapped the
body in five hundred successive layers of both kinds. Then they place the body in an oil vessel of
iron, and cover that close up with another oil vessel of iron. They then build a funeral pyre of all
kinds of perfume, and burn the body of the king of kings. And then at the four cross roads they
erect a cairn to the king of kings. This, Ananda, is the way in which they treat the remains of a
king of kings.

Traditional accounts say that, around 589 BCE, Siddhartha Gautama, ( Lord of Kapilavastu) a young
prince who saw the suffering of the world and wanted to end it, reached the forested banks of
the Phalgu river, near the city of Gaya, India. There he sat in meditation under a peepul tree (Ficus
religiosa or Sacred Fig) which later became known as the Bodhi tree. According to Buddhist scriptures,
after three days and three nights, Siddharta attained enlightenment and the answers that he had sought. In

189
that location, Mahabodhi Temple was built by Emperor Ashoka in around 260 BCE.

In approximately 250 BCE, about 200 years after the Buddha attained Enlightenment, Emperor Ashoka of
the Mauryan Empire visited Bodh Gaya in order to establish a monastery and shrine on the holy site,
which have today disappeared. Here begins the STUPA building spree:
Now let us examine 3 major edifices of that time that could have inspired Borobudur

1. Mahabodhi temple itself

2. The Bharut Stupa and the largest Stupa of that time
3. Jetavanaramaya at Jetavana in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka,

The literally meaning of Stupa is “Heap“. It is a round mound-shaped Structure used to hold
sacred Buddhist relics. Such a lot of stupas were developed in Gupta period.
Apart from the temples, the construction of two Buddhist stupas – Dhemakh Stupa
of Sarnath and Jarasangha meeting at Rajgriha is believed to have taken place during the period
of Gupta temples. Dhamekh Stupa is 128 feet high, which is constructed on a flat surface without
a platform. To keep Buddhist statues at its four corners are made takhs. The laataapatrak on the
stupa has been highly acclaimed, and the geometric structures made on it are also notable.
The Mirpur Khas Stupa in Sindh region was built in the early Gupta period. Three small chaityas
are made in it. The brick arches have been built in the Central Jatiya. Its engraved and ornate
brick and clay Buddha statues are beautiful examples of Gupta pottery art. Narsingh Gupta
Baladitya had built a grand temple of Buddha in Nalanda, which was three hundred feet high.
Later Chinese travelers praised it.

The temple of Bodhgaya can also be mentioned in the temples of the fifth century. The huge
statue of Buddha in its sanctum sanctorum is situated in the ground touch posture. The main
entrance is towards the east. Stairs are built near it, which can be reached on the first floor. There
is an open space there. The temple has no ventilation or gavach. Thus its plan is unique in itself.

The stylized Stupa has a high cylindrical egg, On top of which are round dome, Harmika and
three parasol. There are also figures of Yaksha, Nagadampati, Shalabhanjika, Rishi Munis etc.
the chaitygrah has only one entrance. There are 27 lined columns on the pradakshinamarg a on
both side of the pavilion.This cave has been made in the sculptures of the best chaityagrhas of
Western India, which are engraved in human form on the entrance gate, the ankles and the
monolithic stupa. It seems that Mahayana was influenced by them.
( https://www.indiaolddays.com/stupa-and-cavity-architecture-in-the-gupta-period/)

Stupas were soon to be richly decorated with sculptural reliefs, following the first attempts
at Sanchi Stupa No.2 (125 BCE). Full-fledged sculptural decorations and scenes of the life of the
Buddha would soon follow at Bharhut (115 BCE), Bodh Gaya (60 BCE), Mathura (125–60
BCE), again at Sanchi for the elevation of the toranas (1st century BCE/CE) and
then Amaravati (1st–2nd century CE). The decorative embellishment of stupas also had a
considerable development in the northwest in the area of Gandhara, with decorated stupas such
as the Butkara Stupa ("monumentalized" with Hellenistic decorative elements from the 2nd
century BCE)[63] or the Loriyan Tangai stupas (2nd century CE). Stupa architecture was adopted

190
in Southeast and East Asia, where it became prominent as a Buddhist monument used for
enshrining sacred relics. The Indian gateway arches, the torana, reached East Asia with the
spread of Buddhism. Some scholars hold that torii derives from the torana gates at the Buddhist
historic site of Sanchi (3rd century BCE – 11th century CE).

As a Buddhist cakravartin, he gave all his possessions to the poor and the people were ordered
to abstain from killing. The people were also instructed to respect Gunavarma(Gunadharma) and
even to receive the 5 precepts from him. The Chinese sources do not say that Gunavarma helped
King Po-duo-jia to implement the belief in the descent of Buddharaja Maitreya. However, we
may surmise that Gunavarma did this from the fact that he was officially invited to China by
Emperor Wen of the Song (424-453) and from his activities in the Song. We describe these
below. About 9 years after Faxian had brought the painting of Nagapuspa back to the South,
Emperor Wen of the Song decided to implement the belief as his political ideology. In the 9th
month of the first year of the Yuanjia reign (424), the monks Huiguan and Huicong persuaded
the emperor to send letters to the Javanese king and Gunavarma, respectively, inviting
Gunavarma to China. Later, the monks Fachang, Daochong and Daojun etc., were despatched to
bring Gunavarma to China.’

Gunavarma arrived in China in the year 431. Another Indian monk, Senghavarma also
arrived in 433. Both subsequently translated the Suhrllekha for the emperor. The Suhrlleka was a
letter sent by Nagarjuna to King Satavahana persuading him to practice Buddhism and to
implement the cakravartinship to rule his kingdom. Gunavarma must have been an expert in
promoting the belief in the descent of Buddharaja Maitreya. Otherwise, he would not have been
invited by Emperor Wen of the Song to China. Besides translating the Suhrlleka for Emperor
Wen, Gunavarma was also appointed by him to oversee the ritual of Bodhisattva pratimoksa.

Bodhisattva pratimoksa. is the most important ritual that initiates an emperor to become a
cakravartin or a Buddharaja. Soon after his arrival at the capital of the Song, Gunavarma was
appointed to perform this ritual. But due to an internal revolt that erupted suddenly, Emperor
Wen immediately dropped the idea of becoming a cakravartin/Buddharaja Maitreya.
The Chinese sources tell us that Gunavarma had stayed and preached the Dharma in Sri Lanka
for quite a while thus making him an expert in the implementation of the belief and it is likely
that he would have helped the Javanese king to promote it. One can surmise that in 2 succession
of countries he transmitted the belief i.e. to Java from Sri Lanka

Based on inscriptions found on some of the stones of the monument, archaeologists agree that
construction of Borobudur was probably begun around 760 AD and completed by about 830,
the Golden Age of the Sailendra dynasty, under the reign of King Samaratunga. It was King
Dharanindra (775—800) his capital was Mataram, Central Java. He also ruled Srivijaya in
Sumatra, and could have constructed the  Manjusrigrha temple. He is also credited with
conceptualizing and starting the construction of Borobudur (c. 770), He ruled the land identified
as Ligor in Java and Southern Cambodia (Chenla) (c. 790).

Ligor inscription is an 8th-century stone stele or inscription discovered in Ligor, Nakhon Si

Thammarat, Southern Thailand Malay Peninsula. This inscription was written and carved on two
sides, the first part is called-

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 3. Ligor A inscription, or also known as Viang Sa inscription. Ligor A inscription tell about a
Srivijayan king named Dharmasetu, the king of kings in the world, who built the Trisamaya
caitya for Kajara. while on the other side is called the -
4. Ligor B inscription written in Kawi script dated 775 CE. This B inscription was probably
written by Mahārāja dyāḥ Pañcapaṇa kariyāna Paṇaṃkaraṇa (Panangkaran), king
of Shailendra dynasty. This inscription was connected to the kingdom of Srivijaya and
the Shailendra dynasty.

While the Ligor B inscription, dated 775 CE, written in Kawi script, contains the information
about a king named Visnu who holds the title Sri Maharaja, from Śailendravamśa (Wangsa
Syailendra) hailed as Śesavvārimadavimathana (the slayer of arrogant enemies without any
trace).
The stone inscriptions that point towards the Shailendra Dynasty

According to recovered stone inscriptions from Sumatra, the Shailendra Dynasty may have ruled
the Medang Kingdom of Central Java, as well as the Srivijaya Kingdom in Sumatra. The
Shailendras created stone inscriptions using three languages: Old Javanese, Old Malay and
Sanskrit, in either the Kawi alphabet or pre-Nāgarī script.

This use of different languages has generated speculation of the Shailendras’ possible origins.
The use of Old Javanese seems to establish them politically in Java, whereas their use of Old
Malay seems to place them with Sumatran origin; meanwhile, their use of Sanskrit strongly
indicates the official and/or religious nature of the events described on the inscription stones.

Sojomerto inscription (dated 725 CE).

The Sojomerto inscription (c. 725 CE) found in the Batang Regency of Central Java had the
names ‘Dapunta Selendra’ and ‘Selendranamah’ inscribed. The name ‘Selendra’, a different
spelling of ‘Shailendra’, suggests that Dapunta Selendra could be the founder of the Shailendras
in Central Java. The inscription suggests that the family were originally Hindu Shaivites, a
dominant school in the Hindu tradition that worships Shiva as their main deity. This practice
took place before their conversion to Mahayana Buddhism.

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   Kelurak inscription, displayed at National
Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta
Material-Andesite stone
Writing-Pranagari script in Sanskrit
Created-700 Saka (778 CE)
Discovered-Lumbung temple in Kelurak
village, Klaten Regency, located not far north
of Prambanan temple, Central Java, Indonesia
Present location-National Museum of
Indonesia, Jakarta
Registration-D.44

 There are some different interpretations regarding the king mentioned in Ligor B inscription;
some suggest that the king mentioned in this inscription was King Panangkaran while other
argues that it was his successor, King Dharanindra- commonly known as King Indra was the
ruler of the Sailendra dynasty and who also was the Emperor of Central Java and Srivijaya.
Dharanindra was the successor of Panangkaran, he ruled the kingdom in the period 775- 800. He
was mentioned as a great conqueror and credited for Sailendra's overseas campaign.
He was mentioned in Kelurak inscription dated 782) in his formal reign name Sri Sanggrama
Dhananjaya. In this inscription he was hailed as Wairiwarawiramardana or "the slayer of
courageous enemies". The similar title also found in Ligor B inscription discovered in Southern
Thailand Malay Peninsula; Sarwwarimadawimathana, which suggest it referred to the same
person. Dharanindra seems to be a warlike character, as he embarked on military naval
expedition overseas and has brought Sailendras' control on Ligor in Malay Peninsula. After
conquering and taking Ligor back from Water Chenla, he also launched raids against Champa in
774 and 770, and conquered Southern Cambodia in Mekong delta in early 9th century. During
this time, Jayavarman II from Java (Malay Peninsula), was probably the commander of the
Srivijayan army. At the behest of Maharaja Srivijaya (Dharaindra), Jayavarman II was installed
as a new Cambodia king and Angkor Dynasty was founded.
King Indra seems to continue the builder tradition of his predecessor. He continued and
completed the construction of Manjusrigrha temple, and according to the Karangtengah
inscription (dated 824) responsible for the construction of Venuvana temple, connected
to Mendut or probably Ngawen temple. He was also probably responsible for the conception,
planning and initiate the construction of Borobudur and Pawon temple.
The Kelurak inscription is an inscription dated 704 Saka (782 CE), written
in Sanskrit with Pranagari script, discovered near Lumbung temple in Kelurak village, Central
Java, Indonesia. Lumbung temple is a bit north of Prambanan temple in Yogyakarta. The
writings on the inscription were discovered in poor condition with several parts being unclear
and unreadable, as a result historians could only translate the main information of the inscription.
The inscription mentioned the construction of a sacred buddhist building to house
the Manjusri statue that contains the wisdom of Buddha, dharma, and sangha; the same trinity
as Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshvara. The construction of this sacred building was ordered

193
by King Indra, revered in his official name Sri Sanggramadhananjaya. The reference to Hindu
gods in this Buddhist temple signify the Tantrayana- Vajrayana buddhism influence. The temple
dedicated to Manjusri is identified as Sewu temple, located not far north from Prambanan
temple. Because of the use of the words KING INDRA it is referred to King Dharanindra.

Ligor Inscription
King Dharanindra. Artists view
The Pawon or Bajranalan Temple

Located between two other Buddhist temples, Borobudur (1.75 km (1.09 mi) to the northeast) and Mendut (1.15 km (0.71 mi) to the southwest),
Pawon is connected with the other two temples, all of which were built during the Sailendra dynasty (8th–9th centuries).[1] Examines the detail
and style of its carving this temple is slightly older than Borobudur.

Religious buildings in the form of the Buddhist stupa, a dome-shaped monument, started to be

used in India as commemorative monuments associated with storing sacred relics of the Buddha.
The relics of the Buddha were spread between eight stupas,
in Rajagriha, Vaishali, Kapilavastu, Allakappa, Ramagrama, Pava, Kushinagar, and Vethapida.

194
The Piprahwa stupa also seems to have been one of the first to be built. Guard rails—consisting
of posts, crossbars, and a coping—became a feature of safety surrounding a stupa. The Buddha
had left instructions about how to pay hommage to the stupas: "And whoever lays wreaths or
puts sweet perfumes and colours there with a devout heart, will reap benefits for a long
time".This practice would lead to the decoration of the stupas with stone sculptures of flower
garlands in the Classical period.

INDIC ARCHITECTURE AS A LIGHT HOUSE FOR BOROBUDUR

All said and done the architect of the Borobudur must definitely heard and studied ( directly
or indirectly )the most important Buddhist landmark THE BODHISATVA TEMPLE and also
the large Barhut Stupa in India and The largest Buddhist stupa in the world at that time- the
Jetavanaramaya at Jetavana in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka,
There is therefore every presumption to assume that the Borobudur was designed influenced
bu these ancient Buddhist structures equally large and much holier. As a LIGHT HOUSE

SANCHI(Its influence on Borobudur is subject matter of another paper)

195
 CHAPTER VII
The Travels and Trvails of SUDANA on the Borobudur
reliefs

196
Singhasari and Majapahit

In the 13th century, Buddhism thrived in Eastern Java, where King

Kertanegara of Singhasari patronized Esoteric Buddhism
(Vajrayana). Buddhism continued to thrive under the Majapahit
Empire. Some of their kings were Vajrayana practitioners, such as
King Adityawarman whose inscriptions state he was “always
concentrated on Hevajra”( a popular protective diety)

Java under the Sailendras became a major center of Buddhism,

with monumental architecture such as Borobudur and Candi
Sukuh. The largest Buddhist stupa in the world is
the Borobudur temple in central Java, built as a mandala, a giant
three-dimensional representation of Esoteric Buddhist cosmology.
The temple shows both Indian and Javanese influences. The reliefs
depict stories from the Lalitavistara sūtra, Jataka tales and
the Gandavyuha sūtra.

197
In the Gandavyūha, a young pilgrim named Sudhana commences a
search for supreme enlightenment that takes him on a journey to
see more than fifty teachers—people from all walks of life—and even
leads him to an intimate, but nonetheless enlightening, encounter
with a prostitute named Vasumitrā, who is also a wise bodhisattva.
Sudhana experiences a magnificent cosmological vision, the
perspective of enlightened buddhas known
as dharmadhātu. Finally, Sudhana attains a vision of the
bodhisattva Samantabhadra and realizes that his own nature, and
those of Samantabhadra, all buddhas, and all other existences in
the cosmos are, in fact, one and infinitely interpenetrate one
another.

This is the essence of this sutra which has been transported to the
Borobudur carvings which tell the tale of YOU(US) who journey
from the ground floor of the Borobudur Stupa to the Top seening
from Left to right all thse stories of Buddha, jataka tales etc.

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………………..SO WE ARE SUDANA

Sudhanakumāra  known as Sudhana and Shancai or Shancai

Tongzi in Chinese, and translated as Child of Wealth, is the
protagonist in the last and longest chapter of the Avatamsaka
Sutra. Sudhana appears in Buddhist, Taoist and folk stories; in
most of them he is one of the acolytes of
the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara (Guanyin) and is paired
with Longnü "Dragon Girl". He and Longnü being depicted with
Guanyin was most likely influenced by Yunü (Jade Maiden)
and Jintong (Golden Youth) who both appear in the iconography of
the Jade Emperor.
Sudhana was a youth from India who was
seeking bodhi (enlightenment). At the behest of the
bodhisattva Mañjuśrī, Sudhana takes a pilgrimage on his quest for
enlightenment and studies under 53 "good friends", those who
direct one towards the Way to Enlightenment.
The 53 Stations of the Tōkaidō are a metaphor for Sudhana's
journey. Avalokiteśvara is the 28th spiritual master Sudhana visits
at Mount Potalaka. Sudhana's quest reaches it climax at when he
meets Maitreya, the Future Buddha, who snaps his fingers, thereby
opening the doors to his marvelous tower. Within the tower,
Sudhana experiences all the dharmadhatus (dimensions or worlds)
in a fantastic succession of visions. The final master he visits
is Samantabhadra, who teaches Sudhana that wisdom only exists
for the sake of putting it into practice.
The pilgrimage of Sudhana mirrors that of Gautama Buddha and
the Gandavyuha sutra becomes very popular in China during
the Song dynasty when it was adapted and circulated in small
amply illustrated booklets, each page dedicated to one of Sudhana's
spiritual teachers.
Gandavyūha Sūtra, Mahāyāna Buddhist sūtra that forms the
climax of a larger text, the Avataṃsaka Sūtra.
The Avataṃsaka Sūtra was most likely composed in Sanskrit in the
4th century and was first translated into Chinese by the monk
Bodhibhadra in the second decade of the 5th century.
The Avataṃsaka describes the universe as it is seen and
experienced by enlightened buddhas and bodhisattvas, as well as
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the various stages of a bodhisattva’s progression on the path to
enlightenment. In addition to its important position within
the Avataṃsaka, scenes from the Gandavyūha, along with ones
from other Buddhist texts such as
the Divyāvadāna and Lalitavistara, can be found among the bas
reliefs of the great Buddhist monument in Java, Borobudur.

The Gaṇḍavyūha Sutra or The Excellent Manifestation Sūtra is

a Buddhist Mahayana Sutra of Indian origin dating roughly c. 200
to 300 CE. It depicts one of the world's most celebrated
spiritual pilgrimages, and comprises the 39th chapter of
the Avatamsaka Sutra, or Flower Ornament Scripture.
In Buddhabhadra's Chinese translation of the Avatamsaka, this
39th chapter is entitled "Entrance into the Dharma Realm".  The
Sutra is described as the "Sudhana's quest for the ultimate truth",
as the sutra chronicles the journey of a disciple, Sudhana
("Excellent Riches"), as he encounters various teachings
and Bodhisattvas until his journey reaches full circle and he
awakens to teachings of the Buddha.

Sudhana learning from one of the fifty-two teachers along his journey toward
enlightenment. Sanskrit manuscript, 11-12th century.
In his quest for enlightenment, recounted in the last chapter of the
Flower Ornament Scripture, Sudhana would converse with a
diverse array of 53 kalyāṇa-mittatā (wise advisors), 20 of whom are
female, including an enlightened prostitute named Vasumitrā,
Gautama Buddha's wife and his mother, a queen, a princess and
several goddesses. Male sages include a slave, a child, a physician,
and a ship's captain. The antepenultimate master of Sudhana's
pilgrimage is Maitreya. It is here that Sudhana encounters the

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Tower of Maitreya, which — along with Indra's net – is a most
startling metaphor for the infinite:
In the middle of the great tower... he saw the billion-world
universe... and everywhere there was Sudhana at his feet... Thus
Sudhana saw Maitreya's practices of... transcendence over
countless eons (kalpa), from each of the squares of the check board
wall... In the same way Sudhana... saw the whole supernal
manifestation, was perfectly aware of it, understood it,
contemplated it, used it as a means, beheld it, and saw himself
there.

The penultimate master that Sudhana visits is

the Mañjuśrī Bodhisattva, the bodhisattva of great wisdom. Thus,
one of the grandest of pilgrimages approaches its conclusion by
revisiting where it began. The Gaṇḍavyūha suggests that with a
subtle shift of perspective we may come to see that the

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enlightenment that the pilgrim so fervently sought was not only
with him at every stage of his journey, but before it began as well—
that enlightenment is not something to be gained, but "something"
the pilgrim never departed from.
The final master that Sudhana visits is the
bodhisattva Samantabhadra, who teaches him that wisdom only
exists for the sake of putting it into practice; that it is only good
insofar as it benefits all living beings. Samantabhadra concludes
with a prayer of aspiration to buddhahood, which is recited by
those who practice according to Atiśa's Bodhipathapradīpa, the
foundation of the lamrim textual traditions of Tibetan Buddhism.

The Offering of the Four Bowls to the Buddha, Borobudur, Indonesia.

The Lalitavistara Sūtra is a Sanskrit Mahayana Buddhist

sutra that tells the story of Gautama Buddha from the time of his
descent from Tushita until his first sermon in the Deer
Park near Varanasi. The term Lalitavistara has been translated
"The Play in Full" or "Extensive Play," referring to the Mahayana
view that the Buddha’s last incarnation was a "display" or
"performance" given for the benefit of the beings in this world.
The sutra consists of twenty-seven chapters:

 Chapter 1: In the first chapter of the sutra, the Buddha is

staying at Jetavana with a large gathering of disciples. One
evening, a group of divine beings visit the Buddha and request
him to tell the story of his awakening for the benefit of all beings.
The Buddha consents.
 Chapter 2: The following morning, the Buddha tells his story
to the gathered disciples. He begins the story by telling of his
previous life, in which the future Buddha was living in the

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 heavenly realms surrounded by divine pleasures. In this previous
life, he was known as the Bodhisattva. The Bodhisattva is
enjoying the immense pleasures of his heavenly life, but due to
his past aspirations, one day the musical instruments of the
heavenly palace call out to him, reminding him of his prior
commitment to attain awakening.
 Chapter 3: Upon being reminded of his previous commitments,
the Bodhisattva announces, to the despair of the gods in this
realm, that he will abandon his divine pleasures in order to take
birth in the human realm and there attain complete awakening.
 Chapter 4: Before leaving the heavenly realms, the Bodhisattva
delivers one final teaching to the gods.
 Chapter 5: The Bodhisattva installs Maitreya as his regent in
the heavenly realms and sets out for the human realm
accompanied by great displays of divine offerings and auspicious
signs.
 Chapter 6: The Bodhisattva enters into the human world via
the womb of Queen Māyā, where he resides for the duration of
the pregnancy within a beautiful temple, enjoying the happiness
of absorption.
 Chapter 7: The Bodhisattva takes birth at the grove
in Lumbinī and declares his intention to attain complete
awakening.
 Chapter 8: The infant Bodhisattva visits a temple where the
stone statues rise up to greet him.
 Chapter 9: His father, Śuddhodana, commissions marvelous
jewelry for him.
 Chapter 10: The Bodhisattva attends his first day at school,
where he far surpasses even the most senior tutors. This chapter
is notable in that it contains a list of scripts known to the
Bodhisattva which has been of great importance in the history of
Indic scripts, particularly through the comparison of various
surviving versions of the text.[2]
 Chapter 11: On a visit to the countryside as a young boy, he
attains the highest levels of samadhi.
 Chapter 12: As a young man, he demonstrates prowess in the
traditional worldly arts, and wins the hand of Gopā, a Śākya girl

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 whose father requires proof of the Bodhisattva’s qualities as a
proper husband.
 Chapter 13: The Bodhisattva reaches maturity and enjoys life
in the palace, where he is surrounded by all types of pleasure,
including a large harem to entertain him. Seeing this, the gods
gently remind him of his vows to awaken.
 Chapter 14: The Bodhisattva takes a trip outside the palace
walls to visit the royal parks. On this trip, he encounters a sick
person, an old man, a corpse, and a religious mendicant. Deeply
affected by these sights, the Bodhisattva renounces his royal
pleasures.
 Chapter 15: The Bodhisattva departs from the palace to begin
the life of a religious seeker on a spiritual journey.
 Chapter 16: The Bodhisattva seeks out the foremost spiritual
teachers of his day, and he quickly surpasses each of his
teachers in understanding and meditative concentration. His
extraordinary charisma also attracts many beings, such as the
king of Magadhā, who requests the Bodhisattva to take up
residence in his kingdom, but without success.
 Chapter 17: The Bodhisattva follows Rudraka, a renowned
spiritual teacher. He quickly masters the prescribed trainings,
but once again he is disappointed with the teachings. The
Bodhisattva concludes that he must discover awakening on his
own, and he sets out on a six-year journey of extreme asceticism.
These practices take him to the brink of death.
 Chapter 18: The Bodhisattva concludes that the austere
practices do not lead to awakening and, encouraged by some
protective gods, he begins to eat a normal diet once again, and
regains his health.
 Chapter 19: Sensing that he is on the verge of attaining his
goal, the Bodhisattva sets out for the bodhimaṇḍa, the sacred
place where all bodhisattvas in their last existence attain full and
complete awakening.
 Chapter 20: He arrives at the seat of awakening, and the gods
perform a variety of miraculous displays, transforming the area
so that it resembles a divine realm, fit for the epic achievement
that awaits the Bodhisattva.

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 Chapter 21: Māra, the most powerful demon in the desire
realm, arrives with the aim of preventing the Bodhisattva from
attaining his goal. Māra attempts to terrify the Bodhisattva with
his powerful army, and to seduce him with his seductive
daughters, but he is unable to divert the Bodhisattva from his
goal. Māra gives up, defeated.
 Chapter 22: Now the stage is set for the Bodhisattva to attain
awakening under the Bodhi Tree, a gradual process that unfolds
throughout the night until he fully and perfectly awakens at
dawn to become the Buddha ("awakened") or Tathāgata, as he is
known subsequent to his awakening.
 Chapter 23: Recognizing his epic achievement, the entire
pantheon of divine beings visits the Thus-Gone One, making
offerings and singing his praise.
 Chapter 24: For seven weeks following his awakening, the
Buddha remains alone in the forest and does not teach. He is
concerned that the truth he has discovered might be too
profound for others to comprehend. Sensing this dilemma, the
demon Māra tries to trick the Buddha one last time. Māra visits
the Buddha and suggests that perhaps this would be a suitable
time to pass into parinirvāṇa! The Buddha rejects Māra’s advice,
and finally Māra retreats. During these first seven weeks, the
Buddha also encounters some local passersby, but no teaching
is given.
 Chapter 25: Brahmā, Śakra, and the other gods sense the
Buddha’s hesitation. They visit the Buddha and formally request
him to teach the Dharma. They repeat the request four times
before the Buddha eventually consents. Upon his consent to
teach, the Buddha says, “O Brahmā, the gates of nectar are
opened”.
 Chapter 26: The Buddha determines that the most suitable
students for his first teaching are his five former companions
from the days when he was practicing austerities. The Buddha
travels to Deer Park outside of Varanasi, to meet his former
companions. Initially, the companions are suspicious of the
Buddha for having given up their austerity practices, but they
are soon rendered helpless by his majestic presence and request
teachings from him. The five companions instantly receive

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 ordination and, in a seminal moment, the Buddha teaches them
the Four Noble Truths: suffering, the origin of suffering, the
cessation of suffering, and the path that leads to the cessation of
suffering. Thus this occasion constitutes the birth of the Three
Jewels: the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Saṅgha.
 Chapter 27: This marks the end of the teaching proper.
Finally, in the epilogue, the Buddha encourages his retinue of
gods and humans to take this sūtra as their practice and
propagate it to the best of their abilities.
The story ends at the very moment when the Buddha has finally
manifested all the qualities of awakening and is fully equipped to
influence the world, as he did over the next forty-five years by
continuously teaching the Dharma and establishing his community
of followers.

BOROBUDUR RELIEFS

The Lalitavistara Sutra. Has inspired the Borobudur reliefs design

and these contain a series of panels depicting the life of the Buddha
as described in the  In these reliefs, the story starts from the
glorious descent of the Buddha from the Tushita heaven, and ends
with his first sermon in the Deer Park.
As an example of how widely the sutra was disseminated,
the Lalitavistara Sutra was known to the Mantranaya (Vajrayana)
practitioners of Borobudur, who had the text illustrated by
stonemasons.The finished Sanskrit text dated to the 3rd century
A.D.The text is also said to be a compilation of various works by no
single author and includes materials from the Sarvastivada and
the Mahayana traditions.
World-famous Indonesian Buddhist Art
The oldest Buddhist statue in Indonesia was found in West
Sulawesi, at the mouth of the Sampaga river, Sikendeng Village,
Mamuj. It represents Dīpankara Buddha, the protective deity in
Buddhism. The statue is in the Amarawati style.
Buddhist holy sites in Indonesia include the Kalasan Temple, near
Yogjakarta, the Sari Temple, near Kalasan Temple, Borobudur, the

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Mendut and Pawon temples on the eastern side of Borobudur, the
Ngawen temples complex near Muntilan, the Sewu temples complex
near Prambanan, the Plaosan temples complex on the Eastern side
of the Sewu Temple and a few others.
The classical era of ancient Java also had produces some of the
exquisite examples of Buddhist art, such as the statue
of Prajnaparamita of Java and that of Buddha Vairochana and
Boddhisttva Padmapani and Vajrapani in Mendut temple.

The Bodhisattva in Tushita before his birth as Siddhartha Gautama. Borobudur

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Borobudur Panel

a scene from the Lalitavistara Sutra, a Mahayana Buddhist text. In

this panel Queen Maya and King Suddhodhana, parents of the
future Buddha, are shown  at their palace in Kapilavastu. The trees
on the panel indicate that they are most likely seated in a garden
pavilion. In this scene, the Queen has approached the King and
seated herself on his right. She requests permission from the King
to take a pledge of self-denial and, judging by the King’s hand
gesture, he has consented to this request.

In the Lalitavistara text, this scene takes place in the music hall

and the royal couple are seated on a throne with jeweled
latticework. The Borobudur panel, on the other hand,
shows ashoka trees (Saraca asoca) indicating an outdoor scene. The
text also mentions that the Queen came accompanied by 10,000
women but only five of them, shown behind the Queen, are
represented in the carving.

The Lalitavistara, translated loosely as ‘The Play in Full’, provides

an account of Buddha’s descent into this world and how he
attained his awakening. Borobudur has 1,460 bas-reliefs depicting
scenes from the Lalitavistara, Jataka, and other Buddhist texts.
These bas-reliefs are found in the galleries of the first four floors.
Each floor has these bas-relief panels on both sides of the walls.
The first floor has four series of panels, two series on the inner wall
and two on the outer wall. The other three floors have two series of
panels each, one on each side of the wall. This makes a total of ten

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series of panels; ten is an important figure in the Buddhist
cosmology as it represents the ten stages of a bodhisattva’s path to
awakening.

The first floor has two series of panels on each side of the wall, one
series on top of the other. The correct way in which to
circumambulate Borobudur is to start from the east staircase, turn
left on the first floor, and walk clockwise while viewing the top
series of panels on the outer wall. The visitor would then do another
three rounds on the first floor while viewing the remaining three
series of panels. The visitor then moves to the second floor and goes
around this floor twice to view the series of panels on both the inner
and outer walls. Two rounds each are again made on both the third
and fourth floors. In this way, the visitor would have walked ten
rounds. The Lalitavistara panels are located on the inner wall (top
series) of the first floor.

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 \
Model of Borobudur. Image taken from https://www.behance.net/gallery/25154373/Borobudur-
Temple
Showing the floors- outer view.

Queen > Maya and King Suddhodhana, parents of the future Buddha, are shown

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The Buddha teaching Dhamma to the seeker of truth even in  his last moments
An exhibition Borobudur Jewel of Buddhist Art, was held from 18
April to 8 July, at Baur Foundation, Geneva which presened some
40 large-scale contemporary photographs of carved reliefs from
Borobudur photographed by Hughes Dubois by moonlight

Seduced by the sheer beauty of the site, Caroline and Hughes

Dubois chose to experiment and photograph the temple at night,
under the full moon. In this particular light, the bas-reliefs adopt
contours infinitely softer than the daylight, and the subtle play of
shadows emphasise the magic and mystery of the place. This

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control of light is a fundamental element that characterises the
work of Hughes Dubois for the past 35  years.

Taking a Pilgrim Tour of the Borobubur Temple

The order of presentation of the photographs of Borobudur temple
in the exhibition follows the journey of a pilgrim making a tour and
climbing the monument. In 1885, another 160 carved panels were
discovered around the base, formerly hidden behind the basement
wall. Today, only four scenes in the southeast corner are visible.
This set illustrates the law of karma according to which actions,
good or bad, committed in one life affect the next birth.
To explore Borobudur, the exhibition flows over four galleries with
the first exploring the life of the Shakyamuni Buddha. The wall and
balustrade of the gallery are divided into two superimposed
registers. The biography of the historical Shakyamuni is recounted
in 120 scenes in the upper register, following the text
of Lalitavistara Sutra, telling the story of Gautama Buddha from the
time of his descent from Tushita until his first sermon in the Deer
Park near Varanasi, which was composed around the first century.
Also on show are scenes from the previous lives of the Buddha that
can be seen in the first and second galleries with illustrated stories
from the Jataka, as well as edifying stories (Avadana tales) that
relate virtuous actions by others. However, a significant proportion
of these bas-reliefs still remain to be identified.
Through the second, third and fourth galleries are works relating to
the Sudhana pilgrimage with 388 panels illustrating
the Gandavuya Sutra (The Excellent Manifestation sutra), composed
circa 200-300 in India and incorporated into one of the most
influential texts of Mahayana Buddhism – the Avatamsaka Sutra, or
Sutra of Ornate Flowering. It tells the pilgrimage of the young
Sudhana who visits a succession of 53 masters, Kalyanamitra, or
Friends of Good.
His journey culminates with the teaching of the Great Bodhisattvas,
provided by Maitreya and Samantabhadra. The sutra ends with a
hymn (gatha) of 62 verses to the glory of this last bodhisattva,
entitled Bhadracari, carved in Borobudur in 72 scenes – the images
of these bas-reliefs are in the exhibition on the wall of the fourth
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gallery.

The Narrative Scenes at Borobudur Temple

Taken as a whole, these narrative scenes at Borobudur represent
the spiritual progression of the practitioner, beginning at the foot of
the monument with the basic precepts of Buddhism, moving on to
demonstrations of exemplary lives following the sutras, which serve
as a prelude to an even deeper teaching, illustrated by the Sudhana
pilgrimage showing the path of the Bodhisattva leading to
enlightenment. The Geneva show is a novel attempt at bringing the
wonders of Borobudur to Europe.

The Lower-Level Galleries

The galleries around the four lower levels are decorated on both
sides with some 1,300 engraved narrative panels (representing a
total of 2,500 metres of end-to-end narration) and 1,212 decorative
panels. The walls of the five square levels are adorned with small
stupas and 432 arched niches, each housing a statue of a seated
Buddha of 106 cm in height. These figures all have similar facial
features, but are distinguished by the positions of their hands
(mudra). The specific symbolic hand gestures allow the visitor to
identify the Buddhas of the four cardinal points with Aksobhya
facing east; to the south, Ratnasambhava; to the west, Amitabha;
and to the north, Amoghasiddhi.
The Three Upper Terraces
The three upper terraces of the monument are lower and more open

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than the preceding ones and are entirely circumscribed by a row of
stupas with skylights – 72 in number, measuring an average of 3.6
metres in height, each containing a statue of a fifth Buddha,
Vairocana, the ‘Resplendent’ that is partially visible through the
openings of the walls. On the central axis of the monument is the
great summit dome, 11 metres in diameter and whose original
height has been estimated at about 40 metres.
Despite the nearly two centuries it took to build Borobudur, it still
remains enigmatic. In the absence of any historical document
relating to its foundation and construction, as well as any
indication as to the identity of the monastic community that lived
close-by, multiple hypotheses have been presented to try to unravel
the secrets surrounding its form, iconography, and symbolism.
Interpretation of the Statues
Research in the past has focused on the interpretation of the
statues and engraved scenes that adorn the different levels of the
monument, in the hope of detecting some correspondence between
this iconography and Buddhist texts that could have served as a
doctrinal source for the work. Today, a consensus is emerging
regarding the identification of a significant proportion of bas-reliefs.
On the other hand, the significance of the statues and the nature of
their link with the engraved scenes constitute a strongly debated
point that has led to extremely divergent positions.
The 1,300 narrative panels of Borobudur are arranged around the
lower five levels of the monument, from the base up. They vary in
size according to their position and measure 62 cm a panel for the
smallest ones, up to 276 cm long and 80 cm high for the larger
panels.
In a recent study the plants displayed on the Lalitavistara panels
were identified. These panels describe the life of the Buddha. This
sutra has been carved in a good detail into 120 relief panels in the
Borobudur. These reliefs showed many plant figures that have often
been carved in proper shape, so that made it possible for
identification. The identification results showed that there were at
least 63 species of plants in the Lalitavistara relief at Borobudur
and these more various than species mentioned in the Lalitavistara
sutra. Some species even only be found on reliefs but not in the
text. These findings have indicated several important points; (i). the
ancient Javanese community at that time already had a high

214
awareness of the plant diversity, (ii). the plant figures as component
in building atmosphere/background have been used by the carver
as an opportunity for improvisation, (iii). the plant reliefs in
Borobudur can be seen to reflect the surrounding plant diversity at
the time, and (iv). the identification of plant reliefs in Borobudur
can be used as an approach to understand the perspective of an
ancient Javanese community on the importance of plant diversity.

The identification of plant reliefs in the Lalitavistara story of Borobudur temple, Central Java,
Indonesia , FAUZIA, DEWI AYU LESTAR, JANIS DAMAIYANI, DESTARIO METUSALA et al from the
Purwodadi Botanic Gardens, Research Center for Plant Conservation and Botanic Gardens,
Indonesian Institute of Sciences. B IO D I V E RS IT A S ISSN: 1412-033X Volume 21, Number 5,
May 2020 pp 2206-2215

Hevajra diety

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 Travels with an elephant CLOCKWISE
1. Head of Buddha, Borobudur, end of 8th/beginning of 9th century, andesite, height 33 cm, 
2. King Rudrayana (also known as King Udayana), from the Buddhist Avadana tales
3. Sudhana listens to Samantabhadra’s teaching.

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4. Maitreya Buddha preaching in the world of animals
5. The Shakyamuni Buddha in the garden at Jetavana monastery

CHAPTER VIII
What does Borobudur have in common with the stupa in Sanchi and
how are they different?

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The Great Stupa at Sanchi-by  KAREN SHELBY

Stupa 3, 1st c., Sanchi, India 

History of Buddhist Temples

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Mahabodhi Temple Complex in Bodhgaya, where Buddha experienced his enlightenment
 The word for temple in many languages is the same as cave. Many early Buddhist temples
were "artificial caves" that attempted to recreate the atmosphere of Buddhist caves in northern
India. Describing what they were probably like, the historian Paul Strachen wrote: In his
book Pagan: Art and Architecture of Old Burma , "the now spartan brick gu [temple]" was
"cluttered with regal objects and requisites, a clamor of activity as food offerings were shuttled
from the kitchens down passageways crowded with chanting devotees, brightly colored wall
paintings, gilded furnishings and flapping banners and hangings...the usual plain, seated
Buddha image, found in the deserted temples of Pagan today, would have been bathed,
perfumed and dresses with the finest and most costly garments."

 The architecture of Buddhist temples is influenced by the architecture of country in which

they are found and various traditions of Buddhist architecture. Japanese pagodas, for example,
have unique Japanese features that are modeled after Chinese-style pagodas, which in turn
were modeled after Indian stupas.

 Because ancient wood temples were often destroyed by fire, temples today are usually made
of brick and stone with brass and iron ornaments. Chinese pagodas were often built to
commemorate important leaders or event or house important artifacts or documents.

 Many Buddhist temples are located in the forests and mountains. There are two reason for
their remote locations: first, mountains and forest have always been associated with spiritual
purity, and second, Buddhist monks were often persecuted and remote location gave them
some safety. In China, Japan and Thailand temples are often in the middle of town.

Stupas

 Stupas are generally solid, bell-shaped structures that contain a holy relic such as a hair or
tooth from Buddha, relics or remains of eminent Buddhist figure, or a sacred Buddhist
scripture. They are modeled on ancient Indian burial mounds. The base of the stupa is often
sealed with a copper plate incised with a vishva-vajra crossed thunderbolt design that is
regarded as protection from evil. Stupas themselves were venerated as symbols of the Buddha.

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Dhamekh stupa in Sarnath, where Buddha gave his first sermon
 Buddhist stupas symbolize the Buddhist concept of the universe. The solid dome that rises up
from the square or circular base is a representation of the dome-shaped sky enclosing the
world-mountain, which pierce the dome to form a small balcony at the summit. At the center
of the dome is a mast that represents that axis of the earth which rise from the waters that
surround the world up to the cosmos. Square bases often also symbolize the earth. The shape
of stupas may have been inspired by the staff and begging bowl of the wandering Buddha.

 All stupas contain a treasury filled with various objects. Many contain jewelry and other
“precious” objects. It is not necessary that the jewelry be expensive. What is important is the
symbolic value that is important, not the value in monetray terms. It is believed that the more
objects placed into the stupa, the stronger the energy of the Stupa will be. Stupas generally
have a Tree of Life, a wooden pole covered with gems and thousands of mantras. It is placed
in the central channel of the stupa during a ceremony or initiation, with participants holding
colorful ribbons connected to the Tree of Life. These participants pray hard and send their
most positive and powerful wishes and blessings, which are stored in the Tree of Life.

History of Stupas

 After Buddha’s death his relics were divided and a number of stupas were built to house them.
Although no ancient stupas remain the relics they housed are believed to have been saved and
placed in other stupas. Many of the oldest stupas date back to the period of Buddhist
expansions during the rule of King Ashoka (268-239 B.C.) The objects inside stupas are often
unknown. A gold reliquary excavated from a 2nd century B.C. stupa in Bimaran Afghanistan
was decorated with images of Buddha and Hindu gods. The reliquary is believed to have
contained the ashes of a revered saint or some object he touched.

 Stupa developed in India in the 3rd century B.C. and were general objects of worship for
Buddhists before the formation of Buddha imagery, sculpture and painting. Sanchi stupa, built
near present-day Bhopal, India, is the oldest. It is shaped like a half sphere and built to allow
worship around it. The functions of Buddhist stupas were also diffused, and shapes show a

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variety of styles in each cultural area. [Source: Takashi Sakai, Nihon Kôkogaku, May 20,
2008]

Great Stupa in Sanchi

 Stupa is a Sanskrit word that literally means “to heap” or “to pile up.” Some scholars believe
that stupas predated Buddhism and originally were mounds of dirt or rocks built to honor dead
kings. Later, these scholars say, the Buddha imbued them with spiritual meaning. Sylvia
Somerville wrote in her book on stupas: “This explanation runs counter to Buddhist tradition,
which maintains that because the stupa conveys enlightened qualities, it could only have been
revealed by the mind of enlightenment. …In fact, some stupas, such as the Swayambhunath
Stupa in Nepal, are believed to be self-arising expressions of enlightenment.” [Source:
“Stupas: Symbols of Enlightened Mind” by Sylvia Somerville]

 Stupas are the oldest Buddhist religious monuments. The first Buddhist ones were simple
mounds of mud or clay built to enclose relics of Buddha. In the third century B.C., after his
conversion to Buddhism, Emperor Asoka ordered the original stupas opened and the remains
were distributed among the several thousand stupas he had built. Stupas at the eight places
associated with the life of the Buddha were important before Ashoka and continued to after his
death. Over time, stupas changed from being funerary monuments to being objects of
veneration. As this occurred they also changed in appearance changed also. [Source:
Wikipedia +]

 Over the centuries many old stupas became pilgrimage sites. Famous ones became the center
of complex ceremonial areas. They were often surrounded by a railing with gateways, through
which pilgrims entered the ceremonial ground. Stone lions guarded the entrances. Outside
vendors sold food and offerings to pilgrims.

Can a mound of dirt represent the Buddha, the path to Enlightenment, a mountain and the
universe all at the same time? It can if its a stupa. The stupa (“stupa” is Sanskrit for heap) is an
important form of Buddhist architecture, though it predates Buddhism. It is generally considered
to be a sepulchral monument—a place of burial or a receptacle for religious objects. At its
simplest, a stupa is a dirt burial mound faced with stone. In Buddhism, the earliest stupas
contained portions of the Buddha’s ashes, and as a result, the stupa began to be associated with
the body of the Buddha. Adding the Buddha’s ashes to the mound of dirt activated it with the
energy of the Buddha himself.

Early stupas
Before Buddhism, great teachers were buried in mounds. Some were cremated, but sometimes
they were buried in a seated, meditative position. The mound of earth covered them up. Thus, the
domed shape of the stupa came to represent a person seated in meditation much as the Buddha
was when he achieved Enlightenment and knowledge of the Four Noble Truths. The base of the
stupa represents his crossed legs as he sat in a meditative pose (called padmasana or the lotus
position). The middle portion is the Buddha’s body and the top of the mound, where a pole rises
from the apex surrounded by a small fence, represents his head. Before images of the human
Buddha were created, reliefs often depicted practitioners demonstrating devotion to a stupa.
The ashes of the Buddha were buried in stupas built at locations associated with important events
in the Buddha’s life including Lumbini (where he was born), Bodh Gaya (where he achieved

221
Enlightenment), Deer Park at Sarnath (where he preached his first sermon sharing the Four
Noble Truths (also called the dharma or the law), and Kushingara (where he died). The choice of
these sites and others were based on both real and legendary events.

“Calm and glad”

According to legend, King Ashoka, who was the first king to embrace Buddhism (he ruled over
most of the Indian subcontinent from c. 269 – 232 B.C.E.), created 84,000 stupas and divided the
Buddha’s ashes among them all. While this is an exaggeration (and the stupas were built by
Ashoka some 250 years after the Buddha’s death), it is clear that Ashoka was responsible for
building many stupas all over northern India and the other territories under the Mauryan Dynasty
in areas now known as Nepal, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan.

One of Ashoka’s goals was to provide new converts with the tools to help with their new faith. In
this, Ashoka was following the directions of the Buddha who, prior to his death (parinirvana),
directed that stupas should be erected in places other than those associated with key moments of
his life so that “the hearts of many shall be made calm and glad.” Ashoka also built stupas in
regions where the people might have difficulty reaching the stupas that contained the Buddha’s
ashes.

One of the most famous stupas, The Great Stupa (Mahastupa) was built at the birthplace of
Ashoka’s wife, Devi, daughter of a local merchant. in the village of Sanchi located on an
important trade route in the state of Madya Pradesh,

Karmic benefits
The practice of building stupas spread with the Buddhist doctrine to Nepal and Tibet, Bhutan,
Thailand, Burma, China and even the United States where large Buddhist communities are

222
centered. While stupas have changed in form over the years, their function remains essentially
unchanged. Stupas remind the Buddhist practitioner of the Buddha and his teachings almost
2,500 years after his death.
For Buddhists, building stupas also has karmic benefits. Karma, a key component in both
Hinduism and Buddhism, is the energy generated by a person’s actions and the ethical
consequences of those actions. Karma affects a person’s next existence or re-birth. For example,
in the Avadana Sutra ten merits of building a stupa are outlined. One states that if a practitioner
builds a stupa he or she will not be reborn in a remote location and will not suffer from extreme
poverty. As a result, a vast number of stupas dot the countryside in Tibet (where they are
called chorten) and in Burma (chedi).

The journey to enlightenment

Buddhists visit stupas to perform rituals that help them to achieve one of the most important
goals of Buddhism: to understand the Buddha’s teachings, known as the Four Noble Truths (also
known as the dharma and the law) so when they die they cease to be caught up in samsara, the
endless cycle of birth and death.

The Four Noble Truths: 

life is suffering (suffering=rebirth)
the cause of suffering is desire
the cause of desire must be overcome
when desire is overcome, there is no more suffering (suffering=rebirth)
Once individuals come to fully understand The Four Noble Truths, they are able to achieve
Enlightenment, or the complete knowledge of the dharma. In fact, Buddha means “the
Enlightened One” and it is the knowledge that the Buddha gained on his way to achieving
Enlightenment that Buddhist practitioners seek on their own journey toward Enlightenment.

The circle or wheel

One of the early sutras (a collection of sayings attributed to the Buddha forming a religious text)
records that the Buddha gave specific directions regarding the appropriate method of honoring
his remains (the Maha-parinibbāna sutra): his ashes were to be buried in a stupa at the crossing
of the mythical four great roads (the four directions of space), the unmoving hub of the wheel,
the place of Enlightenment.

If one thinks of the stupa as a circle or wheel, the unmoving center symbolizes Enlightenment.
Likewise, the practitioner achieves stillness and peace when the Buddhist dharma is fully
understood. Many stupas are placed on a square base, and the four sides represent the four
directions, north, south, east and west. Each side often has a gate in the center, which allows the
practitioner to enter from any side. The gates are called torana. Each gate also represents the four
great life events of the Buddha: East (Buddha’s birth), South (Enlightenment), West (First
Sermon where he preached his teachings or dharma), and North (Nirvana). The gates are turned
at right angles to the axis mundi to indicate movement in the manner of the arms of a svastika, a
directional symbol that, in Sanskrit, means “to be good” (“su” means good or auspicious and
“asti” means to be). The torana are directional gates guiding the practitioner in the correct
direction on the correct path to Enlightenment, the understanding of the Four Noble Truths.

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A microcosm of the universe
At the top of stupa is a yasti, or spire, which symbolizes the axis mundi (a line through the
earth’s center around which the universe is thought to revolve). The yasti is surrounded by
a harmika, a gate or fence, and is topped by chattras (umbrella-like objects symbolizing royalty
and protection).

The stupa makes visible something that is so large as to be unimaginable. The axis symbolizes
the center of the cosmos partitioning the world into six directions: north, south, east, west, the
nadir and the zenith. This central axis, the axis mundi, is echoed in the same axis that bisects the
human body. In this manner, the human body also functions as a microcosm of the universe. The
spinal column is the axis that bisects Mt. Meru (the sacred mountain at the center of the Buddhist
world) and around which the world pivots. The aim of the practitioner is to climb the mountain
of one’s own mind, ascending stage by stage through the planes of increasing levels of
Enlightenment.

Circumambulation
The practitioner does not enter the stupa, it is a solid object. Instead, the practitioner
circumambulates (walks around) it as a meditational practice focusing on the Buddha’s
teachings. This movement suggests the endless cycle of rebirth (samsara) and the spokes of the
Eightfold Path (eight guidelines that assist the practitioner) that leads to knowledge of the Four
Noble Truths and into the center of the unmoving hub of the wheel, Enlightenment. This walking
meditation at a stupa enables the practitioner to visualize Enlightenment as the movement from
the perimeter of the stupa to the unmoving hub at the center marked by the yasti.
This video/animation shows the perspective of someone circumambulating the Mahastupa in
Sanchi, the soundtrack plays monks chanting Buddhist prayers, an aid in
medition. Circumambulation is also a part of other faiths. For example, Muslims circle the Kaaba
in Mecca and cathedrals in the West such at Notre Dame in Paris include a semicircular
ambulatory (a hall that wraps around the back of the choir, around the altar).
The practitioner can walk to circumambulate the stupa or move around it through a series of
prostrations (a movement that brings the practitioner’s body down low to the ground in a
position of submission). An energetic and circular movement around the stupa raises the body’s
temperature. Practitioners do this to mimic the heat of the fire that cremated the Buddha’s body,
a process that burned away the bonds of self-hood and attachment to the mundane or ordinary
world. Attachments to the earthly realm are considered obstacles in the path toward
Enlightenment. Circumambulation is not veneration for the relics themselves—a distinction
sometime lost on novice practitioners. The Buddha did not want to be revered as a god, but
wanted his ashes in the stupas to serve as a reminder of the Four Noble Truths.

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Votive Offerings

Borobudur, Indonesia-Pathway on one of the terraces of Borobudur, central Java,

Indonesia (RIGHT PIC)

Votive Stupa, Bodhgaya, 8th century, stone, 78 x 44 x 35 cm (Ashmolean Museum, Oxford)

Small stupas can function as votive offerings (objects that serve as the focal point for acts of
devotion). In order to gain merit, to improve one’s karma, individuals could sponsor the casting
of a votive stupa. Indian and Tibetan stupas typically have inscriptions that state that the stupa
was made “so that all beings may attain Enlightenment.” Votive stupas can be consecrated and
used in home altars or utilized in monastic shrines. Since they are small, they can be easily
transported; votive stupas, along with small statues of the Buddha and other Buddhist deities,
were carried across Nepal, over the Himalayas and into Tibet, helping to spread Buddhist
doctrine. Votive stupas are often carved from stone or caste in bronze. The bronze stupas can
also serve as a reliquary and ashes of important teachers can be encased inside.
This stupa clearly shows the link between the form of the stupa and the body of the Buddha. The
Buddha is represented at his moment of Enlightenment, when he received the knowledge of the
Four Noble Truths (the dharma or law). He is making the earth touching gesture
(bhumisparsamudra) and is seated in padmasan, the lotus position. He is seated in a gateway
signifying a sacred space that recalls the gates on each side of monumental stupas.

Borobudur, also spelled Barabuḍur or Baraboedoer, massive Buddhist monument in

central Java, Indonesia, 26 miles (42 km) northwest of Yogyakarta. The Borobudur monument
combines the symbolic forms of the stupa (a Buddhist commemorative mound usually containing
holy relics), the temple mountain (based on Mount Meru of Hindu mythology), and
the mandala (a mystic Buddhist symbol of the universe, combining the square as earth and
the circle as heaven). The style of Borobudur was influenced by Indian Gupta and post-Gupta
art. The monument was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1991.

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BorobudurEncyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Borobudur was constructed between about 778 and 850 CE, under the Shailendra dynasty. It was
buried under volcanic ash from about 1000 and overgrown with vegetation until discovered by
the English lieutenant governor Thomas Stamford Raffles in 1814. A team of Dutch
archaeologists restored the site in 1907–11. A second restoration was completed by 1983.

SEE MORE

226
Borobudur, Java, Indonesia.
Robert Harding Picture Library/Photobank BKK

Built with about 2,000,000 cubic feet (56,600 cubic metres) of gray volcanic stone, Borobudur
encloses a small hill and is shaped like a stepped pyramid with three major levels—a square
base, a middle level of five square terraces, and an upper level of three circular terraces—
totaling, in effect, nine lesser sections (the number nine is mystic in Buddhism). The centre, 115
feet (35 metres) above the base, consists of a large individual stupa.

© Ramon Abasolo/Fotolia
Each of the monument’s three main levels represents a stage on the way to the bodhisattva ideal
of enlightenment; symbolizing this spiritual journey, a pilgrim begins at the eastern stairway and
walks clockwise around each of the monument’s nine levels before reaching the top, a distance
of more than 3 miles (5 km). At the lowest level, which is partially hidden, are hundreds of
reliefs of earthly desires, illustrating kama-dhatu (“the realm of feeling”), the lowest sphere of
the Mahayana Buddhist universe. On the next level, a series of reliefs depict rupa-dhatu (the
middle sphere and “the realm of form”) through events in the life of the Gautama Buddha and
scenes from the Jatakas (stories of his previous lives). The upper level illustrates arupa-
dhatu, “the realm of formlessness,” or detachment from the physical world; there is little
decoration, but lining the terraces are 72 bell-shaped stupas, many still containing a statue of the
Buddha, partly visible through the perforated stonework. During the Waicak ceremony, which
occurs once a year during a full moon, thousands of saffron-robed Buddhist monks walk in
solemn procession to Borobudur to commemorate the Buddha’s birth, death, and enlightenment.

Borobudur SIMILARITIES & DIFFERENCES Sanchi

1. Sanchi is a Buddhist complex,

1. Both sites are relic chambers of the Buddha
2. Borobudur it is less of a dome and more of a
multi level square building. Ascending into the
levels represents for sending through the three
worlds or realms of Buddhism until ultimately
reaching nirvana.
2. In Sanchi, the great stupa of India,
3. Borobudur focuses more on the realms where as
the great stupa at Sanchi focuses on the life of the
Buddha himself.
4. Both sites had been abandoned and excavated
many years later.
famous for its Great Stupa, on a
hilltop at Sanchi Town in Raisen
District of the State of Madhya
Pradesh, India. It is located in 46
kilometres (29 mi) north-east
of Bhopal, capital of Madhya
Pradesh.
built over the relics of the Buddha, is
a hemispherical dome surrounded by
a square railing. There are two
gateways in the railing which are
supported by four pillars that feature
sculptures of Elephants, Lions, and

227

5. Both sites depict scenes of the Buddha, an
example is the scene of the temptation when the
Buddha was confronted with the seductive
daughters of Mara and with his army of demons.
Having resisted the temptations of Mara, the
Buddha finds enlightenment.
6. Emblem of Central Java displaying Borobudur.
7. It is the world's largest Buddhist temple.  Shariputra, a disciple of
8. Borobudur was likely founded around 800 AD.
9. This corresponds to the period between 760 and
830 AD, the peak of the Sailendra dynasty rule
over Mataram kingdom in central Java,
10. There is uncertainty about Hindu and Buddhist
rulers in Java around that time. The Sailendras
were known as ardent followers of Buddhism,
though stone inscriptions found at Sojomerto also
suggest they may have been Hindus
11. Borobudur is built as a single large stupa and,
when viewed from above, takes the form of a
giant tantric Buddhist mandala,
228
Yakshi. The entire gateway is
covered with vast reliefs, scenes and
decorations of nature. Throughout
the stupa, there are various Jatakas
and miracles of the buddha
illustrated. Jatakas are Buddhist
moral tales relating edifying events
of the former lives of the Buddha.
3. Both sites had been abandoned and
excavated many years later.
4. Great Stupa at Sanchi is one of the
oldest stone structures in India,
5. Important monument of Indian
Architectur
6. It is a pilgrimage site that attracts
worshipers from all over the world
who come to see Buddhist art and
architecture
7. Having remained a principal
centre of Buddhism in medieval
India
8. Sanchi bears unique witness as a
major Buddhist sanctuary to the
period from the 3rd century BC to
the 1st century AD.”
9. “Sanchi is the oldest extant
Buddhist sanctuary.
10. Although Buddha never visited the
site during any of his former lives
or during his earthly existence, the
religious nature of this shrine is
obvious.
11. The chamber of relics of Stupa 1
contained the remains of
Shakyamuni who died six months
before his master;
12. he is especially venerated by the
occupants of the 'small vehicle' or
Hinayana.
12. The temple consists of nine stacked platforms,
six square and three circular, topped by a central
dome. It is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and
504 Buddha statues. The central dome is
surrounded by 72 Buddha statues, each seated
inside a perforated stupa.
13. It represents the Buddhist cosmology and the
nature of mind.
14. The main structure can be divided into three
components: base, body, and top. The base is
123 m × 123 m (404 ft × 404 ft) in size with 4
metres (13 ft) walls. The body is composed of
five square platforms, each of diminishing height.
The first terrace is set back 7 metres (23 ft) from
the edge of the base. Each subsequent terrace is
set back 2 metres (6.6 ft), leaving a narrow
corridor at each stage.
15. The design of Borobudur took the form of a step
pyramid
16. The punden berundak step pyramid is the basic
design in Borobudur
17. Built in the 9th century during the reign of
the Sailendra Dynasty, the temple design
follows Javanese Buddhist architecture
18. There is a blend ofIndonesian indigenous
tradition of ancestor worship and the Buddhist
concept of attaining Nirvana.
19. The temple demonstrates the influences
of Gupta art that reflects India's influence on the
region
20. There are enough indigenous scenes and
elements incorporated to make Borobudur
uniquely Indonesian.
21. The monument is a shrine to the Buddha  22. its hemispherical dome measures
22. A  Buddhist pilgrimage Place
23. The pilgrim journey begins at the base of the
monument and follows a path around the
monument, ascending to the top through three
levels symbolic of Buddhist
cosmology: Kāmadhātu (the world of
229
13. The ruins of about 50 monuments
have been uncovered,
14. site was settled in the 3rd century
BC at the time that the Emperor
Asoka, the grandson of
Chandragupta, who had defeated
the Macedonian invaders and
founded the Maurya dynasty, was
converted to Buddhism (c. 250
BC).
15. Asoka, whose queen was from the
neighbouring town of Vidisha,
founded, or at least embellished, a
Buddhist sanctuary located at
Sanchi.
16. He also had a stone column more
than 12 m high erected with his
edicts carved on it.
17. Now known as Stupa 1
18. To the south of Asoka's column
and predating it is an early brick
stupa about 20 m in diameter and
crowned with stone aedicula; a
wooden railing encircles it.
19. It was enlarged under the Sunga
and the Andhra dynasties (2nd and
1st centuries BC)
20. principal monument at Sanchi.
21. It consists of a gigantic mound of
sandstone surrounded by
sumptuous porticoes with stone
railings
36.6 m in diameter and is 16.46 m
high.
23. There is extraordinarily rich
decorative work on the four
monumental gateways (torana)
that provide access.
24. Toranas are positioned almost
 desire), Rūpadhātu (the world of forms)
and Arūpadhātu (the world of formlessness).
24. Through this journey the monument guides
pilgrims through an extensive system of
stairways and corridors with 1,460 narrative
relief panels on the walls and the balustrades.
Borobudur has one of the largest and most
complete ensembles of Buddhist reliefs in the
world.
25. The original foundation is a square,
approximately 118 metres (387 ft) on each side.
It has nine platforms, of which the lower six
are square and the upper three are circular.
26. The upper platform contains seventy-two small
stupas surrounding one large central stupa. Each
stupa is bell-shaped and pierced by numerous
decorative openings
27. Statues of the Buddha sit inside the pierced
enclosures.
28. The monument's three divisions symbolize the
three "realms" of Buddhist cosmology,  period (2nd century BC).
29. Approximately 55,000 cubic metres
(72,000 cu yd) of andesite stones were taken
from neighbouring stone quarries to build the
monument
30. The stone was cut to size, transported to the site
and laid without mortar.
31. Knobs, indentations and dovetails were used to
form joints between stones. The roof of stupas,
niches and arched gateways were constructed
in corbelling method.  51 are among the most impressive
32. Reliefs were created in situ after the building
had been completed.
33. It is equipped with a good drainage system to
cater to the area's high stormwater run-off. To
prevent flooding, 100 spouts are installed at each
corner, each with a unique carved gargoyle in the
shape of a giant or makara
34. ratio of 4:6:9 :-frequent findings of a ratio of
4:6:9 around the monument. The architect had
230
exactly in line with the four
cardinal points, these gateways
transpose into stone the structure
of the wooden gateways: two
pillars and three architraves
reproduce the assembly of two
posts joined by three rails.
25. he lush carvings, prodigious
creations in bas relief, high relief
and in the round, are an
iconographic treasure trove.
26. The essential theme represented in
the decorative work revolves
around the former lives of Buddha.
27. Numerous other themes were
taken from legends and history.
28. The fresh, wonderfully charming
representations of plants, animals
and humans.
29. The narrative quality of the stories
and the creativity apparent in the
fantastic sculptured capitals and
cornices
30. Sanchi has two other famous
stupas dating from the Sunga
31. The torana of Stupa 3, executed in
the 1st century, are exceptional
works.
32. Many other structures are found
on the site: within the ruins of a
wall dating from the 11th-12th
centuries,
33. Sanchi's final years are represented
by monolithic pillars, palaces,
temples and monasteries, all in
varying states of preservation.
34. Temples 17 and 45 and monastery
structures.”
35. Sanchi is the center of a region with
a number of stupas, all within a few
miles of Sanchi,
including Satdhara (9 km to the W of
Sanchi, 40 stupas, the Relics of
Sariputra and Mahamoggallana, now
enshrined in the new Vihara, were
unearthed there), Bhojpur (also
called Morel Khurd, a fortified
 used the formula to lay out the precise hilltop with 60 stupas)
dimensions of the fractal and self- and Andher (respectively 11 km and
similar geometry in Borobudur's design. 17 km SE of Sanchi), as well
as Sonari (10 km SW of Sanchi).
35. This ratio is also found in the designs of Pawon Further south, about 100 km away,
and Mendut, nearby Buddhist temples. is Saru Maru. Bharhut is 300 km to
Archeologists have conjectured that the 4:6:9 the northeast.
ratio and the tala have calendrical, astronomical 36. It t dates back to the third century
and cosmological significance, as is the case with B.C.
the temple of Angkor Wat in Cambodia. 37. Designated a UNESCO World
Heritage
38. Site in 1989 and regarded as one
36. Borobudur is constructed in such a way that it of the most remarkable
reveals various levels of terraces, showing archaeological complexes in India,
intricate architecture that goes from being heavily it contains monasteries and the
ornamented with bas-reliefs  world’s oldest stupa.
39. Date back to the 2nd and 1st
37. During Borobudur excavation, archeologists centuries B.C.
discovered colour pigments of blue, red, green, 40. It is the oldest Buddhist sanctuary
black, as well as bits of gold foil, and concluded in existence and was a major
that the monument that we see today – a dark Buddhist centre in India until the
gray mass of volcanic stone, lacking in colour – 12th century A.D.
was probably once coated with varjalepa white 41. Hellnistic Influences found
plaster and then painted with bright colors, 42. “ From the time that the oldest
serving perhaps as a beacon of Buddhist teaching preserved monument on the site
(Asoka's column with its
projecting capital of lions inspired
38. Borobudur contains approximately 2,670 by Achaemenid art) was erected
individual bas reliefs (1,460 narrative and 1,212 43. Sanchi's role as intermediary for
decorative panels), which cover the spread of cultures and their
the façades and balustrades. The total relief peripheral arts throughout the
surface is 2,500 square metres (27,000 sq ft), and Maurya Empire,
they are distributed at the hidden foot 44. Also later of the Sunga,
(Kāmadhātu) and the five square platforms Shatavahana, Kushan and Gupta
(Rupadhatu). dynasties, was confirmed.
39. The narrative panels, which tell the story 45. Tere are a number of Supas in the
of Sudhana and Manohara, are grouped into 11 Sanchi site
series that encircle the monument with a total
length of 3,000 metres (9,800 ft). The hidden foot
contains the first series with 160 narrative panels,
and the remaining 10 series are distributed
throughout walls and balustrades in four galleries
starting from the eastern entrance stairway to the
left.
40. Panels read from left to right
41. The law of karma (Karmavibhangga)
42. The story of Prince Siddhartha and the birth of
Buddha (Lalitavistara)
43. The stories of Buddha's previous life (Jataka) and

231
 other legendary people (Avadana)
44. Sudhana's search for the ultimate truth
(Gandavyuha)

45. Buddha Statutes

46. The first balustrades have 104 niches,
47. second 104,
48. third 88,
49. fourth 72 and the
50. fifth 64.
51. Rupadhatu level.: 432 Buddha statues at the 
Arupadhatu level (or the three circular
platforms), Buddha statues are placed inside
perforated stupas. Total 72 stupas.

52. first circular platform has 32 stupas,

53. second 24
54. third 16,
55. Of the original 504 Buddha statues,
56. 300 are damaged (mostly headless),
57. 43 are missing.
58. Each statute of Buddha has different mudras
59. . Each mudra represents one of the Five Dhyani
Buddhas; each has its own symbolism.

60. The aesthetic and technical mastery of

Borobudur, and also its sheer size, has evoked the
sense of grandeur and pride for Indonesians

61. Several archaeological relics taken from

Borobudur or its replica have been displayed in
some museums in Indonesia and abroad
62. Once a year, thousands of Buddhist from
Indonesia and neighboring countries flock to
Borobudur to commemorate
national Waisak celebration

The three temples

232
63. Approximately 40 kilometres (25 mi) northwest
of Yogyakarta and 86 kilometres (53 mi) west
of Surakarta, Borobudur is located in an elevated
area between two twin volcanoes, Sundoro-
Sumbing and Merbabu-Merapi, and two rivers,
the Progo and the Elo. 
64. According to local myth, the area known as Kedu
Plain is a Javanese "sacred" place and has been
dubbed "the garden of Java" due to its
high agricultural fertility.
65. During the restoration in the early 20th century, it
was discovered that three Buddhist temples in the
region, Borobudur, Pawon and Mendut, are
positioned along a straight line. A ritual
relationship between the three temples must have
existed, although the exact ritual process is
unknown

233
234
 CHAPTER IX
The Shiva-Buddha Syncretism
A discussion
featuring how Buddha became a GOD in Indonesia- a curious case of political survival of
Buddhism

The lore of Shiva developed at the same time Buddhism developed, reaching its apex in
medieval India around 500–1000 AD. While Buddhism left India for the rest of Asia, Shaivism
remained. Of course there was mention of Shiva prior to this period. But he simply was a minor
deity originally. That is okay. Most religions developed a lot during this period since it was a
great global awakening time.

I don’t know of any mention of Shiva by the Buddha, and I just told why. Instead, he mentions
Brahma quite a lot, and Indra. I am not aware of him mentioning Vishnu either.
I don't know the way Buddha didn't know of Shiva. I don't even know about him and have never
visited nalanda University and have no interest in doing so . I think what he didn't understand he
simply ignored or didn't react. Before him sadhus, yogis were there. Brahmans were there and
more probably everything was there .

God Shiva is not mentioned in the Theravada Pali canon apart from just one instance. There is a
Suttha by the name of Siva in the Sanyuththa Nikaya of Suththa Pitaka. It is very concise one
with only four or five lines that describe the descending of a god by the name of Siva before
Lord Buddha, worshiping Lord Buddha and praising he and his followers. However in the
Mahayana school I think there are more references to Shiva of which i am not aware of since I
belong to the Theravada school.

However, culturally a lot of Buddhists do respect almost all the main Hindu deities without any
discrimination. There are some Buddhists who believe the Hindu gods to be truly existing and
there are also some Buddhists who either refuses it or even if they accept to their existence do
not worship them or give much importance to them since the acceptance of them or refusal does
not hold any significance towards achieving enlightenment.

But since Buddhism is a very liberal religion and Lord Buddha himself has sanctioned the
worshiping of anyone worthy apart from Himself a lot of Buddhists do accept other gods as well.
Only that they do not accept that any of them can guide them towards nibbana apart from Lord
Buddha, His Dhamma and His Sangha.

The answer is Shiva and Buddha and almost the same. Shiva in fact was a Buddha before
Siddhartha Gautama. They both teach the similar things. They both emphasise on what is the key
to enlightenment. Which is attachment, desire, jealousy, anger etc. difference is that Gautama
Simplified everything into, the eight fold path, the four Nobel truths, the triple gem, and the five
precepts.

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Where a Shiva had a 112 teachings and methods. Also Gautama emphasised all these lead to
suffering. And Buddhism, you have end suffering by devotion and practice to Buddhas
teachings. Similar with Shiva. His 112 teachings put more in yoga, compared with Buddha’s
meditation as a prime aspect of his teachings.

There for they are both Buddha’s in there own way. I believe in both. Have a 132 teachings
which is Shivas 112 + 5 precepts + 8 fold path+ 4 Nobel truths + the triple gem. And listen to
both mantras from both. It works for me.

Buddha essentially means “Awakened One” - so one who attained the goal of yoga, which is, to
dissolve ignorance and vice through insight and wisdom, product of spiritual cultivation, thus
ending pain and sorrow.

What is this wisdom? Is it insight into the ultimate nature of being?

In Buddhism it is usually said to be emptiness or the deathless. If you call it Shiva then sure, a
Buddha is one who recognizes Shiva in all things, that is, sees through the illusory phenomena.
In Vajrayana, it is often described as luminous emptiness - it’s not something graspable,
describable or personal, it’s all-containing, boundless, like the sky or space. It’s empty but it isn’t
dead, it’s got some creative power in it since “emptiness is form, and form is emptiness”, it’s
pure unborn awareness, a quality of knowing. Thus it is luminous.

Usually Emptiness and Buddha-nature are interchangeable terms - all things are Buddha, because
when enlighetened mind percieves the world, all things become a reflection of nirvana, and
samsara dissolves together with ignorance, vice and other mental impurities.
So if Shiva simply means the ultimate reality, Buddha is simply the state of being aware of the
Shiva-nature - whichever it may be.

It would be fair to note the theology of Trika Shaivism that stresses the idea of Shiva as
Consciousness or Universal Mind.

Now, this might not resonate right away with Buddhism, but, Consciousness isn’t said to be
some form of energy, or essence, or substance… I mean, it can, verbally. But if we really think
about it - what is the nature of consciousness? The more attempts of grasping it, the more it
evades our understanding.

In this sense Buddha is Shiva, and Shiva is Buddha. The all-pervasive nature of luminous
emptiness or Universal Consciousness - inconceivable yet self-sustaining.The difference is
verbal and conceptual, and most often your choice as to how will you differentiate between
them.

Lord Shiva is the Cosmic Super Power or Energy. One of the Supreme God-Head from the
Trinity.. Entrusted with the duty of destruction at the end of a yuga. How can Buddha be
compared to Bhagwan Shiva. Buddha was leader who preached principles of Buddhism which
were borrowed from Hinduism. Bhagwan Shiva himself is the highest epitome of Truth,
Consciousness, Principle, Knowledge. He is no mere mortal. Buddha had to face an end as he

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was born in human clan. Bhagwan Shiva has no end; no beginning. Anant, Adi, Anadi. And Lord
Shiva is in no way connected in dividing an already fragmented society.

 lord Shiva was a yogi from the beginning. He was an enlightened person. Goddess
Parvati took him into the family life.
 He was Shiva before marriage. After marriage, He became Shankar.The family man.

 But Lord Shiva was a Buddha from the beginning. After marriage, he became king
Sidharth (or just like him).

 Parvati wanted to create the world so Shiva had to become Shankar because they
are the creator of the culture but Siddharth born when the world is becoming a
materialist and wild(Violent) so he had to become Buddha.

 Lord Shiva did so many miracles for his devotees but Buddha never did any miracle.
He wanted to impress people in a simple way. Buddha taught in both ways by word
and karma while Shiva taught only by karma.

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  Lord Shiva became violent so many time for saving culture but Buddha never
became violent.
 Sri Gautam Budhh/ Tathagat is an incarnation of Sri Hari, Lord Shiva is one facet of
parabrahm. That is Sri Tathagat is human while Shiva is adi purusha.
 Shiva represents not only yog and tapa but also the concept of destruction. While Budha
represents calmness, purity and victory against 6sins.
 There are many similarities between both if we see them yogis, tapasvi and/or sanyasi.
But the main difference is Sri Tathagat represents order and peace amongst all while Sri
Har represents order and peace through destruction of evil and sins.

In fact, if you look into Tibetan Buddhism, Bon, and other areas of Mahayana Buddhism you
find Shiva in several different forms. From the Medicine Buddha (who is obviously Lord Shiva)
to Avalokiteshwara (Chenrezig). He is also understood to be several of the Buddhas within Bon,
the indigenous religion of Tibet that is often confused with other schools of Tibetan Buddhism.
He is Yarlah Shambo, Kunta Zangpo (you see him in yabyum with his consort like you do Shiv
and Parvati, not to mention a host of other similarities as Kunta Zangpo is representative of both
Lord Shiva and Vishnu.

This is not a definitive answer since the references are complex and hard to source. Moreover lot
of them may be Tantric in nature and hence even more obscure. But here’s my take and I would
expand on the view of Hindu gods within Buddhism.

Firstly Buddhism DOES NOT in anyway demean any Hindu god. They are all respected,
however, the gods are considered to have some obscurations which have not yet been removed
and hence they do not have a true understanding of reality. Hence they are not yet Buddhas.
The most common mention amongst the gods would be the god Indira or Sakara. As in Hindu
text, Indira is the king of the gods and suffers from pride that arises from the status. Also this
state of Indira is not permanent in Buddhism. There will be different Indras. In fact in one of his
past life the Buddha Shakyamuni was reborn as Indira and there is an interesting story about him.
But that’s for another occasion.

Then there is Brahma. Brahma is not the creator of the universe (in fact according to Buddhism
there is no creator) but rather the first being in the universe. By being the first everybody
mistakes him to be the creator since he was there before everybody. In Buddhism there are many
Brahmas. And of course many universes.
Then there is Ishvara. Now I’ve heard instances where Ishvara is viewed as Shiva and in some
cases Vishnu. But this is generally a term used for a creator god (who is negated in all Buddhist
arguments).

Finally there is Rudra (which in some cases is a synonym for Shiva) who is seen as a being who
has tremendous powers but has a rebirth in high plane within samsara due to uncontrollable ego.
The other overlap is that mount Kailash is revered by Buddhists as well as the center of the
spiritual universe, though not as ShIva's abode.
There are also references to Naryana, Vinayaka and Yama who all have fairly similar places in
Buddhism but not the exact same position as in Hinduism.
You can see all of this as a way to assimilate existing cultural references or actually a different

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interpretations of the same beings. Some ‘gods’ are metaphors for emotions and afflictions as
well. Which brings me back to the original premise that there is no definitive answer to this
question.

There is zero relationship between Shiva and Buddhism.

1. Buddhists only need to take three refuge to become a Buddhist. That is taking refuge in
Buddha, taking refuge in Dhamma, taking refuge in Sanga.
2. Buddha didn't teach to depend on God, gods, deva, celestial or even Boddhisatta.
3. Buddhist on the other hand might borrow other belief system or cannot release their
ancestors belief system.
4. So as some of the Hindus adopted Buddha as one of the gods. Some Buddhists also do
not release ancient belief.
5. Some of the Buddhists believe in Hindu gods doesn't mean Hinduism is part of
Buddhism.
6. Some of the Hindus adopted Buddha as one of their gods doesn't mean Buddhism is part
of Hinduism.
7. They are separate religions based on different concepts and teaching.
8. But, the culture and trading, and geographically close, there are a few things mixed up in
later centuries.
9. Tibetan Buddhism might include more essence of Hinduism rather than Theravada
Buddhism. Even Theravada Buddhist Kings, some of their practice and calculation and
choosing the right time are coming from Brahmanism.
10. Buddhism has two parts - Dhamma and culture/tradition/ceremonies/rites/rituals.
11. The Dhamma is not related to any other religions because it is based on impermanence,
not self, not pleasant, not eternal etc.
12. Actually there is one scenario where a god called Siva actually meets budda.
13. It is called Siva sutta.
14. heard thus. Once the Blessed One lived in Sàvatthi in Jeta's grove in the monastery
offered by Anàthapiõóika.
15. When the night was waning Siva the son of gods approached the Blessed One,
illuminating the complete Jeta's grove, worshiped the Blessed One and stood on a side
and said thus in the presence of the Blessed One:
16. "Associate all and become intimate with all,
17. Know the right Teaching of Great Men. It's not demerit, it's for well being.
18. Associate all and become intimate with all,
19. Know the right Teaching of Great Men. It's gaining wisdom for extinction.
20. "Associate all and become intimate with all
21. Know the right Teaching of Great Men. It's not grieving, among the grief stricken.
22. Associate all and become intimate with all.
23. Know the right Teaching of Great Men. It's shining amidst your relations.
24. Associate all and become intimate with all,
25. Know the right Teaching of Great Men. Thus beings are born in heaven.
26. Associate all and become intimate with all,
27. Know the right Teaching of Great Men. By that beings stay pleasant."
28. Then the Blessed One said this stanza to Siva the son of gods:

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 29. "Associate all and become intimate with all,
30. Know the right Teaching of Great Men, and be released from all unpleasantness."

But here Siva is known as son of gods or a Devaputtra. Usually this term is refered to gods who
are relatively young to other gods. They are very similar to teenegers.
So it is safe to say that this Siva is not the hindu Shiva (shankara), and just a teenage god.
Eventhough Shiva has no affiliation with theravada buddhism (because i do not have a lot of
knowlege of other traditions), he is revered by a lot of lay buddhists.
But mahayanists and shaivaits may have had a rivalry because in shurangama mantra
(mahayana), it asks to be protected from shiva worshippers.

1. Firstly Buddhism DOES NOT in anyway demean any Hindu god. They are all
respected, however, the gods are considered to have some obscurations which have not
yet been removed and hence they do not have a true understanding of reality. Hence
they are not yet Buddhas.
2. Then there is Brahma. Brahma is not the creator of the universe (in fact according to
Buddhism there is no creator) but rather the first being in the universe. By being the
first everybody mistakes him to be the creator since he was there before everybody. In
Buddhism there are many Brahmas. And of course many universes.
3. You can see all of this as a way to assimilate existing cultural references or actually
a different interpretations of the same beings. Some ‘gods’ are metaphors for emotions
and afflictions as well. Which brings me back to the original premise that there is no
definitive answer to this question.

Buddhism from the very first only criticised and fought with sanatan dharma …. In this
fight many Chinese got added due to ashoka but Buddhism didn't sustain in India as indians
have their own roots and deities to worship … we are from mathura Vrindavan area and our
ancestors were gopes playing with lord Krishna .. how can I leave my ancestors traditions
and believes … same happened in India some out of the varna people may accept Buddha
who himself is from kshatriya varna but may not be able to fight Hinduism …. So with time
they absorbed our deities in their books and we absorbed Buddha in Hinduism but no hindu
worship Buddha it's illogical to even say him god as he was an enlightened teacher but
everyone doesn't obtain enlightenment so they made Buddha himself a god and started
absorbing puranic deities to keep their fight on …. It's time to remove him completely from
India who so ever comes in the path of krishna bhakti …

“There is book Vigyan Bhairav Tantra, 5000 year old Sanskrit text of the Shaivism which
has 112 meditation techniques,  that Shiva gave to his partner Shakti. So, if you see, there is
always a relation and everyone who has achieved or will achieve that is related to Shiva,
always.” Ms. Khushboo Chaudhary.

My reply is not intended to disrespect or contradict what she has stated. I only mean to add that it
is not comprehensive and complete, also Vigyan Bhairav Tantra is not 5000 years old. What is
written is not that ancient when you read Sanskrit used therein. Yes, it is true that Tantra were
parallel to Vedas but what we have available in written texts is selective and much is left to
tradition of Master to disciple/initiate.

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The entire method of Tantras were two fold. To release and master powers involved in Nature
use them (i) for external purposes and (ii) use them to ascend higher levels of consciousness.
Even second method had two different goals; Mother as Love and Mother as Bliss. The former
led to Vaam Marg and later to Dakshin Marg. The Second is to invoke higher powers of Shakti
corresponding to powers involved in Nature establishing them in one’s being and ascend still
higher. This one is safer but more difficult. Thus it is two way practice; ascend higher and
contact/receive/bring back each power to establish in the being by descent. Tantra except Sri
Tantra(Agatsya and Lopa Mudra) does not admit “descent of consciousness and power from
above.” Hence no method for descent by invocation; as are reflected in Vijyan Bhairav Tantra. It
was Vedic Method.

The techniques of Vigyan Bhairav serves first method. It requires some purification of mind and
prana but need not lead to Liberation because at some point complete surrender and purification
are required.. Moreover, meditation ALONE is not the ONLY PATH it is not an end, there are
Karma, Jnana, Bhakti and Vairagya too.

Buddhist Tantra is a later development and yes very powerful but this does not mean Buddha
followed any of the dictates of ANY tantra. He may have known at least what lies beyond but he
stopped at Nirvana as his Avatar Karya.

Originally Answered: Is it ok for me to worship both Lord Krishna and Buddha? I'm a Buddhist,
but sometimes I also pray to Lord Krishna and Lord Shiva. Is it okay?
Unless you want to be close minded, you should look to explore a variety of religions.
Sometimes they might explain some philosophy better than yours and could provide you a new
way to look at your own religion. Spirituality is a quest. Understand that religions don't have
ready made answers, but provide you maps of existing explorations. The more maps you look at
better will be the clarity of your own explorations.

Hinduism has nothing against Buddha or Buddhism. In fact, many Hindus consider Buddha
to be an avatar of Vishnu. Plenty of Hindu Puranas mention the Buddha. We see the Dharma
ideals quite significant to understand our own religion. His model of organization inspired Adi
Sankara and probably even Jesus.

Traditional Buddhism has nothing much against Hinduism either. While Buddha criticized the
excessively ritual centric focus of the Vedas, this criticism was not unique to the Buddha. Plenty
of Hindu reformers have said the same. That said Buddha would not have agreed to the idol
worship [of either him or other gods].
The Neo-Buddhism of Ambedkar is more against Hindu worship though. In fact, Ambedkar
made his followers swear oath that they would not consider Buddha to be an avatar of Vishnu.

Can I worship both Lord Buddha and Krishna - If you were a Buddhist, you would not have
the desire to pray to Krishna .so your correct question is: - Can I worship both Lord Buddha and
Krishna, because I am a Hindu, but sometimes I also pray to Lord Krishna and the Lord Shiva,
and what do Buddhism and Hinduism think of such a practice?

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Buddhism is not just tolerant of other religions but also extremely accommodating of the cultures
as well. Here you can see the Dalai Lama wearing a skull cap and he does not have any
reservations about it.
But the Dalai Lama is a realized Buddhist, and does the same apply to you? Let's examine this
question.
Firstly you have to ask a fundamental question.
Are you a Buddhist?
To actually be a Buddhist you need to have taken refuge. The act of taking refuge is not a
ceremony but a mental attitude. It is an attitude of complete faith in the Dharma. Complete faith
in the Buddha who taught the dharma. And compete faith in the sangha who help you on the
path. So the when Buddhists say 'Budham Sharanam Gachchami' and so on, the refuge is actually
in the teachings or the dharma.
To be a Buddhist you cannot be simply born in Buddhist family. Or say that you like the
Buddha's teachings. It is not even enough for you to have attended a refuge ceremony. You have
to have complete faith.
So do you still call yourself a Buddhist? If you don't there is no problem in praying to the
Buddha and Vishnu and others. They are all beings you respect and perfectly worthy of
veneration.
Now, if you call yourself a Buddhist because of a deep belief in refuge there are some further
things you should know.
You should be aware that the practice of dharma is not simple.
It involves a good understanding of the motivation behind the act. If you pray, and your
motivation is simply something you want for yourself in this life, then you will not be acting
according to dharma.
Additionally, acts should be performed with a deep understanding of karma and its effects.
Unless your acts have these qualities, they do not qualify as dharma practice.
For example if you simply pray for a new job, a new house or even for a good education for your
kids, your motivation is only for yourself in this life. This is not considered dharma practice even
if it involves prayers.
So with the above attitude you make petitions to Buddha, Vishnu or Shiva or anybody else,
there is nothing Buddhist about this practice and it is perfectly fine to do so as Buddhism
will not have any opinion on non Buddhist practices.
Now we come to another level.
Do you have an attitude of refuge in the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha and is your motivation for
the prayer greater than something for yourself and this life alone? And do you understand
karma?
Well in that case, your acts would be a Buddhist practice and you will need to be aware of
certain Buddhist precepts.
The primary one is: Not taking refuge in any other objects of refuge.
So does that mean once you are a real Buddhist you can't pray to other gods? But what about the
Dalai Lama? How does he wear a skull cap? Go to Hindu temples? Address Christian
gatherings?
The real precept is that once you have taken refuge in the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha you
cannot take refuge in other gods. But that does not stop you from praying to them in the manner
described in the first two instances.
Secondly you need to understand the concept of Tathagathagarbha which says that every being

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has Buddha potential and will become a fully enlightened being. Right now they may be a louse
or a god. Does not matter. They all have the potential and need to be respected for that potential.
So with the above attitude you pray to Vishnu, Shiva, Jesus, Yahweh or even Yama, it just does
not matter.

Shaivism & Buddhism in Java and Bali.

Shaivism was always the dominant religion in Java and Bali. However, Shaivism coexisted
alongside Buddhism for more than a millennium and finally merged together, a unique
phenomenon in Asia. The variety of “Hinduism” widespread in Java and Bali was fundamentally
syncretic in character, forming a blend of Shaivist and Buddhist elements.
During the eras of Kediri, Singhasari and Majapahit empires, Buddhism was acknowledged as
one of the kingdom’s official religions along with Hinduism. The harmony, toleration, and even
syncretism of Hinduism (Shaivism) and Buddhism were promoted, as manifested in the
saying Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, (‘Unity in Diversity’) which later became the national motto of
Indonesia, mentioned in the Kakawin Sutasoma

Many other texts from the Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms state that Hinduism and Buddhism
are both two paths to the same reality, and also equate the five Buddhas with five forms of
Shiva. Likewise, many Majapahit temples depict both Buddhist and Shaivist elements. The most
important Buddhist deities that were worshiped included Prajnaparamita (the Goddess of Perfect
Knowledge), Tara, Bhairava and Lokesvara.

It has been termed the “religion of Śiva-Buddha” or “Hindu-Buddhist religion” (in

Indonesian Agama Siwa-Buda or Agama Hindu-Buda). For example, King Vishnuvardhana who
died in 1268 was worshiped as a Shiva in the Waleri temple and as Amoghapaça Buddha in the
Jago Temple. King Kertanegara was glorified as Shiva and Buddha in the Jawi temple.
• The Sanghyang Kamahayanikan indicates that one can identify Shiva with Buddha and call it
‘Shiva-Buddha’. Both are seen as a form of an assortment of the same truth.

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• In the Arjunawijaya it is explained that when the Arjunawijaya entered a Buddhist temple, the
monk explained that the Jina of the corners of nature depicted on the sculptures it is tantamount to
the incarnation of Shiva.
• In the Kunjarakarna is mentioned that no one, either followers of Shiva and Buddha could have
let slip if she separates the real one, namely Shiva-Buddha.
• The Sutasoma states that the Buddha was none other than Brahma-Vishnu-Isvara, the
Hindu Trimurti. In fact, Shiva and Buddha is One (Siwa Buddha bhinneka tunggal ika tan hana
dharma mangrwa). The Jinatwa (substance of Buddha) is the same as Siwatattwa (substance of
Shiva).
Buddhism is generally thought of as non-theistic, but in Indonesia, that non-theistic concept
was never really accepted. The Indonesians were accepting the One Supreme Deity, called by
different names, and comprehended through various philosophical views.

Sanghyang Adi Buddha

In Indonesia, the term Sanghyang Adi Buddha is agreed upon and used by the Indonesian
Buddhayana Council as the designation for the God Almighty. This term is not found in the Pāli
Canon, but in numerous other scriptures, including Indonesian Mantrayana texts such as
the Sanghyang Kamahayanikan.

This term was re-introduced from ancient Indonesian Esoteric Buddhist texts by Ashin
Jinarakkhita after independence to reconcile the first principle of the official philosophical
foundation of Indonesia (Pancasila), i.e. the “Recognition of the Divine Omnipotence”) that
requires the belief in a supreme God.

Sang Hyang Adi-Buddha is the Almighty Primordial Buddha, or Paramādi Buddha (The first
and incomparable Buddha). He has some other names such as Adau Buddha (Primordial Buddha)
or Uru Buddha (Buddha of the Buddhas).
The concept of Adi Buddha arose from the development of “Theistic Buddhism” which is the last
stage of Mahayana Buddhism and mainly influenced by Shaivite (Hindu) views.

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Ādi Buddha, or Paramādi Buddha, is a term that came from the Aisvarika and Svabhavavak
tradition of Nepal, which spread through Bengal and became later known in Java in the time
of Srivijaya and Majapahit. Adi-Buddha is also used in Tibet for the ‘primordial Buddha’, the
Buddha without beginning. In traditional Mahayana Buddhism, Adi-Buddha is represented by
Mahavairocana Buddha.

Adi Buddha is one of many Buddhist names that may be used for God Almighty, in addition to
Advaya, Diwarupa, Mahavairocana (in Kawi Buddhist texts), Vajradhara (in the Tibetan Kagyu
and Gelug schools), Samantabhadra (Tibetan Nyingma school) and Adinatha (Nepal).

In the Indonesian Sanghyang Kamahayanikan, 19th stanza, is explained that the Buddha Gautama
was merged with Sang Hyang Adhi Buddha, or in other words that Buddha Gautama was the
manifestation of the Adi Buddha.

Sanghyang Adi Buddha is the origin of everything in the Universe, but he himself is without
beginning or end, self-originating, infinite, omnipotent, absolute, omnipresent, almighty,
incomparable, and immortal. The Pali term for God Almighty is “Athi Ajatam Adbhutam Akatam
Samkhatam” or “the Unborn, Unoriginated, Uncreated, and Absolute One”.
The Nepalese uses the term Adinata which means “main protector” and Swayambhulokanatta
which means “the unborn protector of the universe”. The Tibetan familiar with terms such
as Vajradhara (“ruler of all the mysteries”.

Monks in Candi Sewu

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There may be many Buddhas, but only one Dharmakaya. This Dharmakaya is identical
with Adi Buddha. The sources of this Trikaya doctrine are the Avatamsaka sūtra and Mahāyāna
śraddhotpādaśāstra, the work of Asvagosha. Although revered, prayers are never addressed to
Adi Buddha. With his power, he emanates into five Dhyani Buddhas.

The concept of Ādi Buddha is also closely related to Srikāla-cakra-tantra, a Shaivite tantra of the
10th or 11th century AD. But the term Ādi Buddha had first appeared in Nāmasangiti as the
epithet of Mañjusri.
The other scriptures mentioning Adi-Buddha are the Svayambhu Purana, Tattvasamgraha
sūtra and  Guhyasamāja sūtra.
The Indonesian scriptures which contains the name of Sanghyang Adi Buddha are:
 Guna Karanda Vyuha — “In the time of nothingness, Shambu was already exist, this is
what is called Svayambhu (self-manifested), and preceded all things, this is why he is
called the Adi Buddha.”
 Sanghyang Kamahayanikan from the Mpu Sindok era — “All praises for Sanghyang Adi
Buddha, this is the Sanghyang Kamahayanikan that I have been wanted to teach you, to the
sons of Buddha (whom also) the family of Tathagata, the grandeur of ‘Sanghyang
Mahayana’ practices is what i have to teach you.”
 Namasangiti of Candrakirti from Srivijaya

The evidence for a belief in Adi-Buddha is also evidenced by the symbolism of Borobudur’s
final stupa. Inside that stupa once was an incomplete and rough Buddha statue which is depicting
the Adi Buddha which is unimaginable by humans. This is seen as proof that theistic Buddhism
was present in Java since at least the 8th century.
Indonesian Buddhayana followers use the greeting Namo Sanghyang Adi Buddhaya. The
complete salutation which is commonly used as a greeting in the books’ preface, letters, or
meetings is:
Namo Sanghyang Adi Buddhaya
Namo Buddhaya, Bodhisatvaya Mahasatvaya

Sanghyang Adi Buddha is a concept of God in Indonesian Buddhism. This term was used
by Ashin Jinarakkhita at the time of Buddhist revival in Indonesia in the mid-20th century to
reconcile the first principle of the official philosophical foundation of Indonesia (Pancasila),
i.e. Ketuhanan Yang Maha Esa (lit. "Recognition of the Divine Omnipotence") that requires the
belief in a supreme God, which Buddhism, strictly speaking, does not believe in. This concept is
used by the Indonesian Buddhist Council, an organization that seeks to represent all Buddhist
traditions in Indonesia such as Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana.
Adi-Buddha is a term used in Tantric Buddhism to refer to the Primordial Buddha. The
term Sanghyang Adi Buddha is agreed upon and used by the Indonesian Supreme Sangha and the
Indonesian Buddhist Council as the designation for God Almighty. [4] This term is not found
in Pāli Canon, but used in some old Indonesian Vajrayana texts such as Sanghyang
Kamahayanikan.[3]
Sang Hyang Adi Buddha refers to "the seed of Buddhahood" inside every being. In Mahayana
Buddhism, Adi Buddha refers to the primordial Buddha that outlines the same
Universal Dhamma.[3] The Adi-buddha is not a monotheistic deity as in the Abrahamic traditions,

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but is rather the primordial nature of mind, the part of the mind that never enters samsara, and is
thus the "primordial Buddha." As the Primordial Buddha never entertains conceptual ignorance
or proliferation, all that arises is referred to as "self-liberated." Sogyal Rinpoche writes:
"[Kuntuzangpo] represents the absolute, naked, sky-like primordial purity of the nature of our
mind. "
For the purposes of official recognition as a religion by the state, Mahabhiksu Ashin Jinarakkhita
encouraged Indonesian Buddhists to present the Adi-Buddha as:
a concept of “supreme divinity” in the Dharma that would be most readily recognizable and
acceptable to predominantly Muslim authorities.
Adi-Buddha is the Primordial Buddha, or Paramadi Buddha (The first and incomparable
Buddha). He has some other names in other Buddhist traditions such as Adau‐
Buddha (Primordial Buddha), Anadi‐Buddha (Uncreated Buddha), Uru‐Buddha (Buddha of the
Buddhas). He also called Adinatha (The first Protector), Svayambhulokanatha (self-originating
World Protector), Vajradhara (Vajra Holder), Vajrasattva (Vajra Being), Svayambhu (the Self-
Originating One), or Sanghyang Adwaya (Unequalled). In Chinese language, Adi‐Buddha
is Pen‐chu‐fu, while aramadi‐Buddha is translated as Sheng‐chu‐fu. In Tibet Dan‐pohi‐sans‐
rgyas, Mchog‐gi‐dan‐pohi‐sans‐rgyas, or Thogmahi‐sans‐rgyas are all refers to "Buddha of the
Buddhas", that existed since the beginning, as the first: Paramadi‐buddhoddhrta‐sri‐kalacakra‐
nama‐tantraraja and Jnanasattva‐manjusryadi‐buddha‐nama‐sadhana.
Mahayana Buddhism believes that Buddha has three bodies (Trikaya), i.e.: "The Created Body"
(Nirmanakaya) to teach common human being; "Body of Mutual Enjoyment" (Sambhogakāya)
or the body of bliss or clear light; and "Truth Body" (Dharmakāya) which is eternal,
omnipresent, non-individual, almighty, non-dual, and self-originating (svabhava‐kaya). There
may be many Buddhas, but only one Dharmakaya. This Dharmakaya is identical with Adi‐
Buddha. The sources of this Trikaya doctrine are Avatamsaka Sutra and Mahayana‐
sraddhotpada‐shastra. The last one was the work of Asvagosha, a monk who lived around the
first century AD. Vetulyaka Lokottaravada School says that Sakyamuni originally was the
manifestation of Adi‐Buddha in this world. Herman S. Hendro (1968) wrote:
"Dalam Kitab Sutji Sang Hyang Kamahayanikan, pupuh ke-19 didjelaskan bahwa Sang Buddha
Gautama telah menunggal dengan Sang Hyang Adhi Buddha atau dengan kata lain bahwa Sang
Buddha Gautama adalah pengedjawantahan dari Sang Adhi Buddha. Karena itu bila kita
menjebut Sang Adhi Buddha maka itu adalah Sang Buddha jang tidak berkarya (saguna)."
"In the Sacred Book of Sanghyang Kamahayanikan, 19th stanza, is explained that the Buddha
Gautama was merged with Sang Hyang Adhi Buddha, or in other words the Buddha Gautama
was the manifestation of the Adhi Buddha. Therefore if we refers the Adhi Buddha then He is the
Buddha who is inactive (saguna)."
With his power, he emanates into five Dhyani Buddhas. The Pure Land of the Adi Buddha is
called Ogamin in Tibetan or Akanistha in Sanskrit (lit. "not down" or "without (back) to the
bottom").
Buddhist concept
In Udana Nikaya (viii: 3), Sakyamuni gave his teaching;
There is, O monks, an Unborn, Unoriginated, Uncreated, Unformed. Were there not, O monks,

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this Unborn, Unoriginated, Uncreated, Unformed, there would be no escape from the world of
the born, originated, created, formed. Since, O monks, there is an Unborn, Unoriginated,
Uncreated, Unformed, therefore is there an escape from the born, originated, created, formed.
What is dependent, that also moves; what is independent does not move. Where there is no
movement, there is rest; where rest is, there is no desire; where there is no desire, there is neither
coming nor going, no ceasing-to-be, no further coming to be. Where there is no ceasing-to-be,
no further coming-to-be, there is neither this shore [this world] nor the other shore [Nirvana],
nor anything between them.

the mukhalinga. Shivas face on a symbol of Shiva

From the Pali language: Athi Ajatam Adbhutam Akatam Samkhatamor "the Unborn,
Unoriginated, Uncreated, and Absolute One". The Primordial Buddha is something without ego
(anatta), unpersonified, and indescribable in any form. But for there is the Absolute, the
unconditioned (Asamkhatam), one can attain the freedom from the wheel of life (samsara) by
meditating.
Sanghyang Adi Buddha is the origin of everything in the universe, but he himself is without
beginning or end, self-originating, infinite, omnipotent, unconditioned, absolute, omnipresent,
almighty, incomparable, and immortal. However, those words are unable to describe the true self
of Sanghyang Adi Buddha. The existence of Adi Buddha demonstrates that this life is not the
product of chaos, but the product of spiritual hierarchy. By the presence of Adi Buddha, this life
becomes useful and be possible to attain enlightenment and Buddhahood.
The Indonesian Supreme Sangha describes God in Buddhism and (for the purposes of state
recognition as a religion) defines God as "the source of everything that exists": Almighty,
eternal, everything in the universe are His exposition, intangible and doesn't manifest Himself.
Indonesian National Encyclopedia
Indonesian National Encyclopedia (1988) describes Adi Buddha and the traditions that are used
this term thus:
Adi-Buddha is a term for the Almighty God in Buddhism. This title came from the Aisvarika
tradition of Mahayana in Nepal, which is spread through Bengal, and became also known in

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Java. Aisvarika is the term for the disciples of theist view in Buddhism. This word came from
'Isvara' which means 'God' or 'Great Buddha' or 'the Almighty', and 'ika' which means 'follower'
or 'disciple'. This term is used by the Svabhavavak Buddhism in Nepal. This school is one of the
branch of Tantrayana school of Mahayana. The term for God Almighty in this school is Adi-
Buddha. Later, this view also spread to Java in the time of Srivijaya and Majapahit. The present
scholars knows this term from the paper of B.H. Hodgson, a researcher who studied the religious
in Nepal. According to this view, one can coalesce (moksha) with Adi-Buddha or Isvara through
his efforts with the ascetic path (tapa) and meditating (Dhyana).
The Seeker's Glossary of Buddhism
The Seeker's Glossary of Buddhismgives the following definition for Adi Buddha:
Term used in Mahayana Buddhism, especially in Nepal and Tibet, for the 'primordial Buddha',
the Buddha without beginning." (Ling: 8)
The primordial Buddha. Although the concept itself can be traced to early Buddhism, it is
widely acknowledge that the notion of the Adi-Buddha was fully developed in esoteric
Buddhism. In [traditional Mahayana] Buddhism, the Adi-Buddha is represented by
Mahavairocana Buddha". (Preb: 38)
Since the time of Sailendra and Medang Kingdom, Indonesian Buddhists have the same
belief in the existence of the Adi-Buddha as the Buddhists in Tibet, Nepal, and the northern
schools. Nepalese uses the term Adinata, which means "main protector"
and Swayambhulokanatta, which means "the unborn protector of the universe". The Tibetan
familiar with terms such as Vajradhara (Tibet= Dorjechang; lit. "ruler of all the mysteries").
Namasangiti Text of Candrakīrti (a monk who was staying in Indonesia), and the symbolism
of Borobudur's mandala stupa, provided evidence that the Buddhism embraced by Indonesian
people since the days of Srivijaya, Ancient Mataram, Sailendra, and Majapahit is
the Buddhism which honors the Primordial Buddha.
Some Indonesian sacred texts which contains the name of Sanghyang Adi Buddha are-
Guna Karanda Vyuha text
In the time of nothingness, Shambu was already exist, this is what is
called Svayambhu (self-manifested), and preceded all things, this is why he is called the Adi
Buddha.
Sanghyang Kamahayanikan text
All praises for Sanghyang Adi Buddha, this is the Sanghyang Kamahayanikan that I
have been wanted to teach you, to the sons of Buddha (whom also) the family of
Tathagata, the grandeur of 'Sanghyang Mahayana' practices is what i have to teach you.
Herman S. Hendro (1968) in his paper mentioned:[7]
The closed uppermost large stupa [of Borobudur] is the epitome of a man who has
reached the Absolute Freedom (Nibbana/ Nirvana) and united with Adi Buddha. Inside
that stupa once was an incomplete and rough Buddha statue which is depicting the Adi
Buddha which is unimaginable by human.
Modern Indonesia
The unfinished buddha statue of the main stupa of Borobudur Temple
at Karmawibhangga Museum

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 Since Indonesian independence in 1945, the founders of this new state had agreed on a
proposed ideology as a national foundation for uniting all ethnicities, religions, and
races, i.e. Pancasila as the basic foundation of the state and nationhood. The first precept
of Pancasila is "Belief in the Almighty Godliness" ("Recognition of the Divine
Omnipotence").The majority of Indonesian people mistranslated the sanskrit "Esa"
-Almighty (absolute in virtues)- as "Eka" -One. This misconceptions makes some
factions questioning the doctrine of Buddhism whether it acknowledges the Belief in God
Almighty or not.
Following the attempted coup of Communist Party of Indonesia's (PKI) in 1965, Indonesian
Government rejects and prohibits the development of all views that correspond
to communism or atheism. Consequently, there was some doubt within the Indonesian
Government at the time whether Buddhism can be accepted as an official religion. Ashin
Jinarakkhita proposed the name of Sanghyang Adi Buddha as the God of Buddhist teachings. He
sought confirmation for this uniquely Indonesian version of Buddhism in ancient Javanese texts,
and even the shape of the Buddhist temple complex at Borobudur in Jawa Tengah Province. [13] It
was submitted to the Minister of Religious Affairs, and the government eventually accepted
Buddhism as a state religion in 1978, as stated in GBHN (Outlines of Indonesian State Policy) of
1978, Presidential Decree No. 30 of 1978, and the Form Letter of Indonesian Department of the
Interior No.477/74054/1978 (November 18, 1978).
The use of Sanghyang Adi Buddha as a name for a supreme God is controversial
among Indonesian Buddhists to the present day. The reason is that the concept of Sanghyang Adi
Buddha, which only exists in Tantrayana/ Vajrayana traditions, is not a god in the sense of a
personal god of the monotheistic religions. The use of the name of Sanghyang Adi Buddha as
a personal god, is the product of a compromise with political reality, and is contrary to the
teachings of Buddhism. Because of this political compromise, Indonesian Buddhism differs from
mainstream Buddhism. This controversy also extends to Very Venerable Ashin Jinarakkhita as
the originator of the term Sanghyang Adi Buddha as a god in Buddhism.
While the State seemed to be easily satisfied with Ashin Jinarakkhita's assurance, questions came
from their fellow Buddhists and, later, also his primary disciples who were on the same boat with
him in the beginning. Since then, debates, disintegration, and splits could not be avoided within
Buddhist organizations. The strongest opposition was coming from the Theravādin members,
and it seemed to happen partly because of the influence of the Thai Buddhist’s purification
movement started in the nineteenth century by King Mongkut as later on many
Thai Bhikkhus coming to Indonesia. Though there were also Buddhist monks coming from Sri
Lanka and Myanmar, such as Narada Mahathera, Mahasi Sayadaw and other Sangha members,
they only came a few times during these early years.
In the same year when the controversy was erupting (1974), the Indonesian Directorate General
Guidance of Hindu-Buddhism (Gde Puja, MA.) issued a resolution on all schools/ traditions of
Buddhism that they should believe in the presence of an Almighty God (First precept of
Pancasila), and while each of this sects may give different names to Him, He is essentially the
same entity. This resolution became indirectly a government imposition of the doctrine of
Oneness of God on all schools/ traditions of Buddhism. Any schools/ traditions that do not
believe in the existence of One God would be dissolved. This happened to the Mahayana school/
tradition of the monk Sun Karma Chandra which was dissolved on July 21, 1978.

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Nowadays, the term of Sanghyang Adi Buddha only used mostly by Indonesian Buddhayana
Council and Indonesian Supreme Sangha. Some schools treat the concept indifferently, while the
others simply refuse and consider the idea as heresy (especially the Indonesian Theravada
Sangha), and only a fraction supports it fully or partially.
Religious usage-Salutation
Sanghyang Adi Buddha is used in greeting especially by Indonesian Buddhayana Council,
i.e. Namo Sanghyang Adi Buddhaya. This salutation was popularized by the late Venerable
Mahawiku Dharma-aji Uggadhammo, one of the five first disciples of Ashin Jinarakkhita, whose
ordained as the first Indonesian Buddhist monks after the independence of Indonesia.
The complete salutation which is commonly used as a greeting in the books' preface, letters, or
meeting is:
Namo Sanghyang Adi Buddhaya.
Namo Buddhaya, Bodhisatvaya Mahasatvaya.
Vandana
The tribute to Sanghyang Adi Buddha is often included in the vandana (devotion) section of
ritual books.
1.VANDANA
Terpujilah Sanghyang Adi Buddha Tuhan Yang Maha Esa
("Homage to Sanghyang Adi Buddha the Almighty God")
Terpujilah Bhagavā, Yang Maha Suci, Yang telah mencapai Penerangan Sempurna
("Homage to the Blessed One the Worthy One, the Fully Enlightened One")
Terpujilah Para Bodhisattva-Mahasattva
("Homage to all Holy Beings and Great Beings")
2.VANDANA
Namo Sanghyang Ādi Buddhaya (3x)
"Homage to the Almighty God, shout the whole world"
Namo Tassa Bhagavato Arahato Sammā-sambuddhassa (3x)
"Homage to the Blessed One the Worthy One, the Fully Enlightened One"
Namo Sarve Bodhisattvāya-Mahāsattvāya (3x)
"Homage to all Holy Beings and Great Beings"

Politics
Indonesian Government Regulation Number 21/1975 about the vow of the civil bureaucrat,
arranges the vow for the Buddhist bureaucrat by mentions "Demi Sanghyang Adi Buddha" ("by
Sanghyang Adi Buddha") in the beginning of the vow

CHAPTER X
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The Architecture of the 2 plains of Hindu Buddhist Harmony
&The Legend of Roro Jonggrang ꦫꦫꦗꦺꦒꦿ
The Pekalongan harbor that brought Hinduism & Buddhism to these plains

Sometimes Geography decides the harmony between people andm precipates a peaceful future in
their society and culture. This is a Tale of one such happening in Indonesia in the Kalingaa
Kingdom.
The Legend of Roro Jonggrang is a Javanese popular legend from Central Java telling the story
of love and betrayal, the warrior and the cursed princess. It also explains the mythical origin
of Ratu Boko palace, Sewu temple, and the Durga statue in Prambanan temple compound. The
title Roro (pronounced /rɔrɔ/ in Javanese) is an ancient honorific title to address unmarried
princesses and female nobility, thus the name Rara Jonggrang in Javanese means 'slender
maiden'.
The legend tells the story about two ancient and neighbouring kingdoms in Java, Pengging and
Boko.
Pengging was prosperous, and wisely ruled by its king Prabu Damar Moyo who had a son named
Bandung Bondowoso. By contrast, Boko was ruled by a cruel man-eating giant named Prabu
Boko, supported by another giant Patih Gupolo . Despite his unpleasant nature, Prabu Boko had
a beautiful daughter named Roro Jonggrang.
The story relates that Prabu Boko desired to expand his kingdom, and so began training an army
and raising taxes for an invasion of Pengging. His forces launched a surprise attack on Pengging,
and the ensuring war caused devastation and famine on both sides. In order to defeat the invader,
Prabu Damar Moyo sent his son Bandung Bondowoso to fight Prabu Boko. After a furious
battle, Prabu Boko was killed by the prince's supernatural powers. His assistant, the giant Patih
Gupolo, led his armies away from the battlefield in defeat.
Returning to Boko Palace, Patih Gupolo told princess Rara Jonggrang of the death of her father.
The princess was heartbroken, but before she could recover from her grief the Pengging army
besieged and captured the palace. Prince Bandung Bandawasa was mesmerized by the beauty of
the mourning princess and proposed marriage, but his offer was swiftly rejected. Bandung
Bandawasa insisted on the union, and finally Rara Jonggrang agreed on two impossible
conditions: first the prince must build a well named Jalatunda, and second, he must construct a
thousand temples in only one night.
The love-struck prince agreed, and immediately started work on the well. Using his supernatural
powers once again and summoning all manner of demons, the prince swiftly finished
construction and proudly displayed his work for the princess. As a trick, she urged him to enter
the well and when he did so, Patih Gupolo piled stones into it and buried him alive. With great
effort Bandung Bandawasa escaped, but his love for the princess was so strong that he forgave
her the attempt on his life.
To fulfill the second condition, the prince entered into meditation and conjured up a multitude of
spirits from the earth. With their help he built the first 999 temples and started work on the final
one. To thwart his efforts the princess and her maids lit fires in the east direction and begin

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pounding rice padi, a traditional dawn activity. The roosters crowed. Fooled into thinking the sun
was about to rise, the spirits fled back to the darkness, leaving the last temple unfinished.
The prince was furious when he learned of this deception, and He did not want to pay the blood
price of sorcery alone. She tried to plead for mercy, as the prince seemed possessed by
preternatural powers. But he placed a curse on Rara Jonggrang, turning her into stone. In this
way she herself became a feature of the final temple, completing its construction and fulfilling
the conditions for their marriage.

A depiction of the legend on an Indonesian stamp

Statue of Durga Mahisashuramardini or according to local legend known as Loro
Jonggrang, inside northern cella of Shiva temple, Prambanan, Central Java, Indonesia

A local popular folklore it connects and explains the supernatural origin of Central Java's
famous archaeological sites; such as of the Ratu Boko palace, the Durga statue in northern
cella/chamber of the main Prambanan shrine, and the Sewu temple complex nearby. Although
the temples itself dated from circa 9th century, the legend was composed in later times, probably
during Mataram Sultanate era.
According to tradition, this thousandth temple is part of the Sewu temple compound
(sèwu means "thousands" in Javanese), and the Princess is the image of Durga in the north cell of
the Shiva temple at Prambanan, still known as Rara Jonggrang or Slender Virgin.
Another interpretation mentioned that this legend could be a collective but vague local memory
about past historical events that happened in the area, staged around the 9th century struggle for

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power between the Sailendra and the Sanjaya dynasty for control of Central Java. King Boko is
probably inspired by the King Samaratungga of Sailendra dynasty, Bandung Bondowoso
is Rakai Pikatan, a prince of Sanjaya dynasty, and Rara Jongrang is Pramodhawardhani, wife of
Rakai Pikatan and the daughter of Sailendran king. The actual historical event was probably the
contest of power between Balaputradewa, the Sailendran heir, against his sister,
Pramodhawardhani, aided by her husband, Rakai Pikatan, which led to Pikatan as the victor, thus
ending the Sailendran rule on Central Java.
 Port cities are a staple of world history. They are hubs of world commerce and also of
regional trade between coast and hinterland. They are facilitators of both immigration and
emigration. They are transit points for the spread of disease as well as goods and people. They
are also markers of patterns of colonialism and development. The capitals of most developing
countries betray their colonial roots, having ports as their capital and/or largest cities that today
remain the loci of virtually all post-colonial national administrative, educational, and medical
institutions. They are prime drivers of urban sprawl and slums as well as economic growth. Yet,
the tolerant, permissive and multicultural atmosphere of port cities in developing as well as
developed societies also make them rich centers of world culture,. The relationship between land
development and distance from the port shows that the areas with strong land development
intensity gradually moved from coastal to inland areas over time. Port shipping has a profound
influence on port city land use patterns. Industrial transfer drives the development of surrounding
towns during the metaphase. This trend was used to build a second port to realize the division of
transportation capacity, as the old port’s carrying capacity tended to become saturated.

THE TWIN PLAINS

Kewu Plain, also known as Prambanan Plain or Opak River valley, is a fertile volcanic plain
that lies between Merapi-Merbabu complex in the north, Bantul lowlands
and Sewu karst limestone range in the south, Bengawan Solo river valley in east, and the Progo
River in the west, and Kedu Plain on northwest. It is located within the Yogyakarta Special
Region, Sleman Regency, Klaten Regency and Solo City (Central Java).

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The temple is located on the Prambanan Plain, between the southeastern slopes of the Merapi
volcano and the Sewu mountain range in the south, near the present border
of Yogyakarta province and Klaten Regency in central Java. The plain has many archaeological
sites scattered only a few miles apart, which suggests that this area served as an important
religious, political, and urban center.

MATARAM KINGDOM
Historically the area was identified as Mataram. The region was the center of both the Medang i
Bhumi Mataram kingdom in the 8th to 10th centuries, and later the Mataram Sultanate in the
16th century. It has been an important location in Central Javanese history and culture for over a
millennium since it contains many ancient archaeological remnants of historic significance. If
each temple structure was counted separately, the 9th century Central Java period could be said
to have produced thousands of temples, scattered from Dieng Plateau, Kedu Plain to Kewu Plain.

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Apart from the Prambanan Roro Jonggrang complex, Kewu Plain along with the valley and hills
around it is the location of some of the earliest Hindu-Buddhist temples in Indonesia. Adjacent to
the complex to the north are Bubrah temple, Lumbung temple, and Sewu temple; to the east are
found Plaosan temple. Kalasan temple and Sari temple are to the west, and further is
the Sambisari temple. The Ratu Boko compounds are on higher ground just to the south. The
discoveries of archaeological sites scattered only a few miles away suggested that this area was
once an important religious, political, and urban center of central Java. Despite the smaller scale
of its temples, the diversity and sophistication of the archaeological sites in this plain are
comparable to Angkor archaeological site in Cambodia. Borobudur and Prambanan in particular,
are popularly regarded as the two Indonesian temples to rival Angkor Wat in Cambodia.
In 2012, the Balai Pelestarian Peninggalan Purbakala Jawa Tengah (BP3, or the Central Java
Heritage Preservation Authority) suggested that the area in and around Prambanan should be
treated as a sanctuary. The proposed area is in the Prambanan Plain measuring measured 30
square kilometres (12 sq mi) spread across the Sleman and Klaten regencies. The area includes
major temples such as Prambanan, Ratu Boko, Kalasan, Sari and Plaosan temples. The sanctuary
is planned to be treated in a similar fashion to the Angkor archaeological area in Cambodia,
which suggests that the government should prevent or regulate permits to construct any new
buildings, especially the multi-storied buildings, as well as BTS towers. This was meant to
protect this archaeologically-rich area from modern day visual obstructions and the
encroachments of hotels, restaurants and any tourism-related buildings and businesses. There are
a number of temples in this area- both Hindu and Buddhist:

Shiva temple, the main temple at Prambanan temple complex rising 47m high (130 feet)and measures 34m x 34m at its
base. The main temple houses the statue of Shiva Mahadewa, Ganesha, Durga Mahisashuramardhini, and Agastya on each
chamber of cardinal points. On the far right is stood Wishnu temple. Around the ballustrade of the Shiva temple adorned

256
with panels of bas reliefs narating the story from Ramayana. This ninth century temple complex was build by Hindu
Mataram Kingdom.

 Kalasan. According to Kalasan inscription it is the oldest temple built in the plain. This
early 8th century Buddhist temple built to honor female bodhisattva Tara.
 Sari. Once a sanctuary or monastery for Buddhist priests. 8th century. Nine stupas at the
top with two rooms beneath, each believed to be places for priests to meditate.

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 Ratu Boko. Complex of fortified gates, bathing pools, and elevated walled stone
enclosure, all located on top of the hill south of Prambanan.
 Lumbung. Buddhist-style, consisting of one main temple surrounded by 16 smaller ones.
 Bubrah. Buddhist temple related to nearby Sewu temple.
 Sewu. This Buddhist temple complex is older than Prambanan temple. The original name
of this temple is Manjusrigrha and it was a royal buddhist temple of the kingdom. A main
sanctuary surrounded by many smaller temples. Well preserved guardian statues, replicas of
which stand in the central courtyard at the Jogja Kraton.
 Prambanan. A large compound of 9th century Shivaic Trimurti Hindu temple. The
construction of grand Hindu temple was probably the sign that Hinduism once again gain
royal patronage of Medang kings.
 Plaosan. Buddhist, probably 9th century. Thought to have been built by a Hindu king for
his Buddhist queen. Two main temples with reliefs of Bodhisattva and Tara. Also rows of
slender stupas.
 Sojiwan. Buddhist temple decorated with reliefs concerning education. The base and
staircase are decorated with animal fables. Sojiwan was probably the mortuary temple for a
buddhist queen, Sang Sanjiwana or Pramodhawardhani.
 Banyunibo. A Buddhist temple with unique design of roof.
 Barong. A Hindu temple complex with large stepped stone courtyard. Located on the
slope of the hill not far from Banyunibo and Ratu Boko.
 Ijo. A cluster of Hindu temple located near the top of Ijo hill. The main temple houses a
large lingam and yoni.
 Arca Bugisan. Seven Buddha and bodhisattva statues, some collapsed, representing
different poses and expressions.
 Gebang. A small Hindu temple discovered in 1937 located near the Yogyakarta northern
ring-road. The temple display the statue of Ganesha and interesting carving of faces on the
roof section.
 Gana. Rich in statues, bas-reliefs and sculpted stones. Frequent representations of
children or dwarfs with raised hands. Located in the middle of housing complex. Under
restoration since 1997.
 Sambisari. Discovered in 1966, this Hindu temple was buried in volcanic lahar 4m deep.
A main temple housen a large linggam and yoni with three smaller temple at the front.
 Kedulan. Discovered in 1994 by sand diggers, 4m deep. Square base of main temple
visible. Secondary temples not yet fully excavated. This temple shared similar design and
style with Sambisari.
 Morangan. Hindu temple complex buried several meters under volcanic ashes, located
northwest from Prambanan.
 Pustakasala. Discovered in 2009 buried in Indonesia Islamic University ground.
Together with Morangan these temple is the northernmost of temples discovered in this area.

KEDU
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 The other plain is the Kedu Plain, also known as Progo River valley, is the fertile volcanic
plain that lies between the volcanoes, Mount Sumbing and Mount Sundoro to the west,
and Mount Merbabu and Mount Merapi to the east, roughly corresponds to present-
day Magelang and Temanggung Regency of Central Java, Indonesia.
The Progo River runs through the center of this plain, from its source on the slope of Mount
Sundoro to the southern coast of Java facing the Indian Ocean. It has been a significant location
in Central Javanese history for over a millennium, as it contains traces of the Sailendra dynasty
as well as Borobudur and associated locations. During the colonial Dutch East Indies period, the
Kedu Plain was located in the Kedu Residency, which at that time covered what are now
the Magelang Regency, Magelang City, and Temanggung Regency administrative units.
The Kedu Plain hosts a large number of Hindu and Buddhist temples dated, from the 8th to the
9th century. Because of this, the Kedu Plain is considered the cradle of classic Indonesian
civilization. The temples in the region include:

Stupas overlook the Kedu Plain

 Borobudur: The gigantic 8th century stone mandala Buddhist monument was built by

the Sailendras.
 Mendut: The 8th century Buddhist temple is housing three large stone statues
of Vairocana, Avalokiteshvara, and Vajrapani.

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 Pawon: The small 8th century Buddhist temple near the bank of Progo River is located
between Mendut and Borobudur.
 Ngawen: The 8th century Buddhist temple is located about 5 kilometers east of Mendut
temple.
 Banon: The ruins of a Hindu temple; located several hundred meters north of Pawon
temple. However, no significant remains of the temple have survived, thus, its reconstruction
is impossible. Only the statues of Shiva, Vishnu, Agastya, and Ganesha have been
discovered, which are now displayed at the National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta.
 Canggal: also known as Candi Gunung Wukir. One of the oldest Hindu temples in the
area. The temple is located in the Muntilan area, near the temple a Canggal
inscription connected with Sri Sanjaya, the king of Mataram Kingdom was discovered.
 Gunung Sari: The ruins of a Hindu temple on top of a hill, located near Candi Gunung
Wukir, on the outskirts of Muntilan.
 Umbul: in Grabag, Magelang; it served as a bathing and resting place for the kings
of Mataram

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 The map of Hindu-Buddhist kingdom of Kalingga , circa 6th to 7th century CE. Located
somewhere on the north coast of Central Java, Indonesia.

This plain lay in the Kingdom of the Kalingga which was one of the first Hindu-Buddhist
kingdoms in Central Java, located between present-day Pekalongan and Jepara. That is one
reason why there is a blend of Hindu and Buddhist temples in this area.

The kingdom was described as being surrounded by wooden fortresses, with the King residing in
a multiple storied palace covered with a roof made of the leaves of Arengga pinata trees. The
kingdom exported silver, gold and elephant tusks. The Kalingga kingdom was very orderly and
serene, and led by Queen Sima. It was a center of Buddhist studies and practice, and the Chinese
came to Kalingga to study Buddhism., which around that time became the official religion in
China. Two temples remain from the Kalingga Kingdom: Candi Angin and Candi Bubrah in
Tempur Village, the present day Jepara.
Kalingga (Javanese: Karajan Kalingga; 訶陵 Hēlíng or 闍婆 Dūpó in Chinese sources[1]) was a
6th-century Indianized kingdom on the north coast of Central Java, Indonesia. It was the earliest
Hindu-Buddhist kingdom in Central Java, and together with Kutai and Tarumanagara are the
oldest kingdoms in Indonesian history.
The archaeological findings and historical records from this period are scarce, and the exact
location of kingdom's capital is unknown. It is thought to be somewhere between present-
day Pekalongan or Jepara. A place named Keling subdistrict is found in northern coast of Jepara
Regency, however some archaeological findings near Pekalongan and Batang regency shows that
Pekalongan was an ancient port, suggests that Pekalongan might be an altered name of Pe-
Kaling-an. Kalingga existed between the 6th and 7th centuries, and it was one of the earliest
Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms established in Java. The historical record of this kingdom is scarce
and vague, and comes mostly from Chinese sources and local traditions.

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Kalingga appeared in the 5th century which is thought to be located in the north of Central Java .
Information about the Kalingga Kingdom is obtained from inscriptions and records from China .
In 752, the Kalingga Kingdom became Sriwijaya's conquered territory because this kingdom was
part of a trading network, along with the Dharmasraya and Tarumanagara Kingdoms which
Srivijaya had previously conquered . The three kingdoms became strong competitors of the
Srivijaya - Buddhist trading network .

In the 15th–16th century the small city of Pekalongan emerged as a corridor for communication
between two powerful sultanates centred near Java’s northern coast: Cirebon, to the west, and
Demak, to the east. In the 17th century the regency of Pekalongan came under control of
the Mataram sultanate of south-central Java. When Mataram lost power in the 18th century, it
granted Pekalongan to the Dutch East India Company. In 1753 the Dutch built a fort in
Pekalongan city. The fort became a prison in the 19th century and was used as an internment
centre during the Japanese occupation (1942–45) of Java during World War II. The structure has
continued to function as a penitentiary in the 21st century. Today the Pekalongan,  (city) is the
capital of the kabupaten (regency), Central Java (Jawa Tengah)  situated on the northern coastal
plain of the island of Java.

Pekalongan Harbour, which lies within the city limits, is one of the principal fishing ports on
Java, and the city itself is home to one of the island’s largest fresh-fish markets. Pekalongan city
is also recognized as a major centre of batik production. Food (including fish)
processing, textile production, and the manufacture of chemical products are among the
important industries. Exports include batik, tea, rubber, locally refined sugar, and other goods.
Sugarcane, rice, kapok, cinchona, indigo, and corn (maize) are grown in the regency’s fertile
river valleys and coastal plains. Area regency, 323 square miles (837 square km); city, 17 square
miles (44 square km). Pop. (2010) regency, 838,621; city, 281,434.

HISTORY 

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The Tukmas inscription was estimated to be originated from Kalingga period. It was discovered
on the western slope of Mount Merapi, at Dusun Dakawu, Lebak village, Kecamatan
Grabag, Magelang Regency, Central Java, and is written in Pallava script in Sanskrit tells about a
clear spring water that is so sacred that adored as the analogue of holy Ganges's source in India.
The inscription also bears Hindu signs and imageries, such as trisula, kamandalu (water
jar), parashu (axe), kalacengkha (shell), chakra and padma (red lotus), those are symbols
of Hindu gods.[5]
Another inscription dated from around the same period is Sojomerto inscription, discovered in
Sojomerto village, Kecamatan Reban, Batang Regency, Central Java. It is written in Kavi script
in Old Malay language, estimated dated from 7th century. The inscription tell about a ruler
named Dapunta Selendra, son of Santanu and Bhadrawati, and husband of Sampula. Indonesian
historian Prof. Drs. Boechari suggested that Dapunta Selendra was the ancestor of Sailendras that
later rule in Mataram Kingdom.
Both inscriptions suggest that c. 7th century on the northern coast of Central Java, once flourish a
Hindu Shivaist kingdom, today identified as Kalingga kingdom. Some oldest Javanese candis are
also can be found in mountainous surrounding areas on northern Central Java, such as the Hindu
temples of Dieng Plateau, and Gedong Songo temples, but they are probably built in later period,
during the early Mataram Kingdom. Historian suggested that there was a link between this old
kingdom with later kingdom flourish in Southern Central Java Kedu Plain, the Sailendra
of Mataram Kingdom.

The Chinese sources come from China and date back to the Tang Dynasty. According to the
Chinese Buddhist monk Yijing, in 664 a Chinese Buddhist monk named Huining (會寧 Huìníng)
had arrived in Heling and stayed there for about three years. During his stay, and with the
assistance of Jnanabhadra, a Heling monk, he translated numerous Buddhist Hinayana scriptures.
In 674 the kingdom was ruled by Queen Shima, notorious for her fierce law against thievery,
which encouraged her people to be honest and uphold absolute truth. According to tradition, one
day a foreign king placed a bag filled with gold on the intersection in Kalingga to test the famed
truthful and honesty of Kalingga people. Nobody dared to touch the bag that did not belong to
them, until three years later when Shima's son, the crown prince, accidentally touched the bag
with his foot. The queen issued a death sentence to her own son, but was over-ruled by a minister
that appealed the queen to spare the prince's life. Since it was the prince's foot that touched the
bag of gold, so it was the foot that must be punished through mutilation. [3] According to Carita
Parahyangan, a book composed in later period, Shima's great-grandson is Sanjaya, who is the
king of Sunda Kingdom and Galuh Kingdom, and also the founder of Mataram Kingdom.
Between 742 and 755, the kingdom had moved further east from the Dieng Plateau, perhaps in
response to the Buddhist Sailendras

The Buddhist king Panangkaran who ruled the Medang Kingdom started the construction of the
great Manjusrigrha Temple (‘House of Manjushri’, the Bodhisattva of Wisdom), which is the
original name of the Sewu Temple complex, the second largest Buddhist complex in Indonesia
after Borobudur, with 249 buildings. Archaeologists believe the original name for the temple
compound to be Manjusrigrha which is Sewu an eighth

263
century Mahayana Buddhist temple located 800 metres north of Prambanan in Central
Java, Indonesia. The word for a Hindu or Buddhist temple in Indonesian is "candi," hence the
common name is "Candi Sewu." Candi Sewu is the second largest Buddhist temple complex
in Indonesia; Borobudur is the largest. Sewu predates nearby "Loro Jonggrang" temple at
Prambanan. Although the complex consists of 249 temples, this Javanese name translates to 'a
thousand temples,' which originated from popular local folklore (The Legend of Loro
Jonggrang).

Candi Sewu temple layout

Sewu is an eighth century Mahayana Buddhist temple located 800 metres north

of Prambanan in Central Java, Indonesia. The word for a Hindu or Buddhist
temple in Indonesian is "candi," hence the common name is "Candi Sewu." Candi Sewu is the
second largest Buddhist temple complex in Indonesia; Borobudur is the largest. Sewu predates

264
nearby "Loro Jonggrang" temple at Prambanan. Although the complex consists of 249 temples,
this Javanese name translates to 'a thousand temples,' which originated from popular
local folklore (The Legend of Loro Jonggrang). Archaeologists believe the original name for the
temple compound to be Manjusrigrha.

CONSTRUCTION
Manjusrigrha inscription (792 CE), discovered in 1960 at the outer west perwara temple no. 202 (row 4 no.
37) of Sewu Buddhist temple.
According to the Kelurak inscription (dated from 782 CE) and the Manjusrigrha
inscription (dated from 792 CE),   which were discovered in 1960, the original name of the
temple complex was probably "Manjusri grha" (The House of Manjusri). Manjusri is
a Bodhisattva from Mahayana Buddhist teachings that symbolizes the "gentle glory" of
transcendent wisdom (Sanskrit: prajñā). Sewu Temple was built by the end of eighth century at
the end of Rakai Panangkaran's reign and was completed during the reign of his successor, King
Indra. Rakai Panangkaran (746–780 CE) was well known as a devoted Mahayana Buddhist king
who ruled the Medang Mataram Kingdom.
Built 70 years before tge Hindu Shiva temple og Prambhanan, the Manjusrigrha temple
was the largest Buddhist temple in the Prambanan Plain region and the Borobudur was
completed 37 years later.
Located in the heart of Mataram, the temple served as the royal Buddhist temple of the
kingdom. Stately religious ceremonies were held here regularly. The Manjusrigrha inscription
(792) praises the perfect beauty of the prasada (tower) of this temple compound.
The Bubrah temple, (read later in this paper ) is located several hundred meters south, and
the Gana temple, located is ob east of the Sewu temple. Both these are supposedlyguardian
temples for the Manjusrigrha complex, guarding the four cardinal directions around the Sewu
temple. Prior to the construction of Borobudur and Prambanan, Sewu likely served as the
kingdom's main temple. The temples are arranged in the mandala layout, which symbolizes the
universe in Buddhist cosmology.
Sewu temple was probably expanded and completed during the rule of Rakai Pikatan, a prince
who married a Buddhist princess from the Sailendra dynasty, Pramodhawardhani. Most of his
subjects retained their old religions after the court returned to favour Hinduism. The proximity of
the Sewu temple to Prambanan, a Hindu Temple, suggests that the Hindu and Buddhist

265
communities lived in harmony during the era in which the temples were built. And the scale of
the temple complex suggests that Candi Sewu was a royal Buddhist temple that served as an
important religious site.
Rediscovery

Although buried deep beneath the volcanic debris around Mount Merapi, the temple ruins were
not completely forgotten by the local Javanese inhabitants. However, the origins of the temple
were a mystery. Over the centuries, tales and legends infused with myths of giants and a cursed
princess were recounted by villagers. Prambanan and Sewu were purport to be of supernatural
origin, and in the legend of Loro Jonggrang they were said to have been created by a multitude
of demons under the order of Bandung Bondowoso. Such tales are most likely the reason the
temples were preserved through the centuries prior to the Java War (1825–1830). The local
villagers dared not remove any of the temple stones, believing the ruins to be haunted by
supernatural beings.
1. In 1733, Pakubuwono II granted the Dutch merchant Cornelius Antonie Lons permission
to make a sightseeing tour through the heartland of Mataram. Lons' report of this trip
contains the first known extant description of the Sewu and Prambanan temples and in
the years 1806–07, the Dutch archaeologist Hermann Cornelius unearthed the Sewu
temples.
2. During the Java War (1825–1830) some of the temple stones were carted away and used
in fortifications. In the years that followed the temples suffered from looting.
3. Many of the Buddha statues were decapitated and the heads stolen. Some Dutch colonists
stole sculptures and used them as garden ornaments, and native villagers used the
foundation stones as construction material.
4. Some of the temple's best preserved bas-reliefs, Buddha's head, and some ornaments
were carried away from the site and ended up in museums and private collections abroad.
5. In 1867, Isidore van Kinsbergen photographed the ruins of Candi Sewu after an
earthquake had caused the dome in main temple to collapse.
6. In 1885 Jan Willem IJzerman, revising some plans of the temple complex made earlier by
Cornelius, made notes regarding the temple's condition. He noted that several Buddha
heads were missing.
7. By 1978 none of the Buddha heads had survived, all of them having been looted from the
site completely
8. In 1901 a new set of photographs was taken, sponsored by Leydie Melville.
9. In 1908 Theodoor van Erp  initiated the clearing and reconstruction of the main temple.
10. In 1915 H. Maclaine Pont drew the reconstruction of a temples of the second row. It was
de Haan who reconstructed the Perwara temples with the aid of Van Kinsbergen's
photographs.
11. Subsequently, the temple became a subject of study among archaeologists

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Contemporary events
Since the early 20th century the temple has been slowly and carefully reconstructed, yet it has
not been completely restored. There are hundreds of temple ruins, and many stones are missing.
The main temple reconstruction and two of the apit temples on the east side were completed in
1993 and inaugurated by President Soeharto on 20 February 1993.
The temple was severely damaged during the 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake. The structural
damage was significant, and the central temple suffered the worst. Large pieces of debris were
scattered about on the grounds, and cracks between stone blocks were detected. To prevent the
central temple from collapsing, metal frame structures were erected on the four corners and
attached to support the main temple. Although some weeks later in 2006 the site was reopened
for visitors, the main temple remained closed for safety reasons. Today the metal frame has been
removed, and visitors may visit and enter the main temple.
The Sewu Temple often hosts the annual Vesak ceremony.

A lithograph of Tjandi Sewoe ruins near Prambanan, circa 1859

Image extracted from page 281 of volume 1 of Neerlands-Oost-Indie. Reizen over Java, Madura,(1852-1857), by
BUDDINGH, Steven Adriaan. Original held and digitised by the British Library. 

267
 Candi Sewu
main temple at left and one of apit temple at right BELOW Aerial view of Sewu temple near
Prambanan shows the mandala layout of the main temple surrounds by smaller perwara temples.

Candi Sewu Layout

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An architectural model of Candi Sewu temple compound, reconstruct the complete condition of the
8th century Sewu temple in Central Java, Indonesia.
The Sewu temple complex is the largest Buddhist compound in the Prambanan area, with
rectangular grounds that measure 185 meters north-south and 165 meters east-west. There is an
entrance on all four cardinal points, but the main entrance is located on the east side. Each of the
entrances is guarded by twin Dvarapala statues. These large guardian statues have been better
preserved, and replicas can be found at Jogja Kraton. There are 249 buildings in the complex are
arranged in a Mandala pattern around the main central hall. This configuration expresses the
Mahayana Buddhist view of the universe. There are 240 smaller temples,
called Perwara (guardian) temples, with similar designs that are arranged in four rectangular
concentric rows. Two outer rows are arranged closer and consist of 168 smaller temples, while
two inner rows, arranged at certain intervals, consist of 72 temples. The 249 temples located in
the second precinct were all made with a square frame but varied by different statues and
orientations. Many of the statues are now gone, and the arrangements on the current site are not
in the original orientations. The statues are comparable to the statues of Borobudur and were
likely made of bronze.

Along the north-south and east-west central axis at a distance of about 200 meters, between the
second and third rows of the smaller temple are located the apit (flank) temples, a couple on each
cardinal point facing each other. The apit temples are the second largest temples after the main
temple, however only eastern twin apit and a northern one still remain today. These smaller

269
temples encompass a larger sanctuary that has been heavily looted. Behind the fourth row of
smaller temples lies the stone paved courtyard where the main temple stood on the center.
The nearby temples, Gana temple in the east and Bubrah temple in the south, are suggested as
the part of greater Manjusrigrha vajradhatu mandala complex. Both temples are located around
300 metres from the Sewu main temple. There are northern and western ruins discovered around
the same distance from the main temple, however the stones was too scarce for reconstruction.
These temples suggested that indeed the Sewu temple compound was completed with four
additional temples, located 300 metres from the main temple, which is corresponds with the
mandala and the guardians of the directions concept.
The main temple measures 29 meters in diameter and soars up to 30 meters high. The ground
plan of the main temple is a cross-shaped 20-sided polygon. On each of the four cardinal points
of the main temple, there are four structures projected outward, each with its own stairs,
entrances and rooms, crowned with stupas, which form a cross-like layout. All of the structures
are made from andesite stones.
The main temple has five rooms, one large garbhagriha in the center and four smaller rooms in
each cardinal direction. These four rooms are all connected with outer corner galleries with
balustrades bordered by rows of small stupas. From the findings during the reconstruction
process, it was suggested that the original design of central sanctuary only consisted of a central
roomed temple surrounded by four additional structures with open portals. Doorways were added
later. The portals were narrowed to create door frames on which to attach wooden doors. Some
of the holes to attach doors are still visible. The doorways join the temples together into one
main building with five rooms.
The central chamber can be reached from the eastern room. The central chamber is larger than
other rooms with a higher ceiling and a taller roof. Now all the five rooms are empty. However
the lotus carved stone pedestal in the central chamber suggests that the temple once contained a
large bronze Buddhist statue (possible the bronze statue of Manjusri), probably reaching a height
of four meters. The statue is missing, probably looted for scrap metal over the centuries.
However another theory suggested that the main statue was probably constructed from several
stone blocks coated with vajralepa plaster.

The ruin of Bubrah temple in 2006, prior of reconstruction/ The makara stairs adornment of

Bubrah temple in 1900s

270
As an architectural masterpiece built in the 8th century and older than Borobudur and Prambanan
Temples, Sewu Temple has an important role in the development of archipelago’s architecture.
The background of the temple building can be known through the ornaments that decorate parts
of the temple. Ornaments contain certain meanings with Hindu-Buddhist principles, not only as
visual ornament elements, so the role of ornaments is important. Ornaments are an artistic
component that is added to decoration in crafts, including architecture. Ornamentation cannot be
separated from the socio-cultural background of the community and the area of origin of the
ornament, because ornamentation is a means of communication to reduce culture from the
previous generation to the next generation. Therefore, it is necessary to further study the
evolution or development of the forms and meanings of architectural ornaments in the
archipelago with a time series of architectural developments in the Hindu-Buddhist era and
traditional architecture, especially Java, following the location of the temple. The purpose of this
study is to examine the evolution of forms, patterns, and meanings of Hindu-Buddhist
architectural ornaments found in Sewu Temple in their development towards traditional Javanese
architecture. This research uses descriptive qualitative method. This research found that there is a
1
relationship between Javanese architectural ornaments and architectural ornaments
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1. Evolution of Hindu–Buddhist Architectural Ornaments Into Javanese Traditional Architecture: Case

Study of Sewu Temple Ayu Ratna Pertiwi- Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities
Research, volume 421 4th International Conference on Arts Language and Culture (ICALC 2019)

271
Once a bustling city, Prambanan is a multi-religious temple-complex at the center of Java. While
the site is best known for its Hindu temples, it is also home to Candi Sewu, the largest enterable
Buddhist temple in all of Indonesia. Composed of hundreds of small stupas surrounding a
cruciform central shrine, the complex covers more than twenty-seven square kilometers
(seventeen square miles) and is replete with finely carved Buddhist deities. In the spread of
Indian religious ideas, Buddhists played an especially active role. Buddhist communities found
great sponsorship in Indonesia’s eighth- and ninth-century rulers. The plethora of Buddhist
figures at Candi Sewu proclaim the establishment’s religious dedication, and the temple’s
massive scale points to elite patronage.

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Candi Sewu; Right: Sundaravarada-Perumal temple; south India, Tamil Nadu, Uttiramerur; Pallava period, 9th century; granite.
(RIGHT) Today, many of Candi Sewu’s freestanding buddhas are missing their heads. Such losses are due to
looting, intentional destruction, and forces of nature over the course of the last millennium.

The eighth and ninth centuries were a period of heightened contact between India and Southeast
Asia. Imagery and texts circulated along with the people who traveled across the regions. Candi
Sewu’s sculptures show close connections with Indian sculpture from this period. See, for
example, the lions that are positioned at corners along the temple’s base. Much like the lion at a
temple in Tamil Nadu, the animal sits back on its haunches, its tail upturned and mouth open,
and its head seems to support the structure above.

273
Relief carvings on surviving and restored buildings have better stood the test of time. Prominent
imagery includes bodhisattvas in palatial settings, gandharvas and devatas (minor deities), and
flying rishis (sages) who shower devotees with blessings as they enter the temple. Bells and
billowing garments evoke sound and movement.RIGHT - A flight of stairs leads through a
vestibule and into the central shrine, which quickly plunges into darkness.

In the middle of the chamber is an altar with an empty throne positioned high on a semicircular
platform.From the top, temple priests could have lustrated an image or a holy person with sacred
fluids and possibly flowers. https://asia.si.edu/collections-area/southeast-asian/sacred-sites-in-
southeast-asia-candi-sewu/

274
  The Buddhist temple of Bubrah  or  Candhi Bubrah is a 9th-century Buddhist temple located
within the complex of the Prambanan Temple Archaeological Park, in Central Java, Indonesia.
The temple is located within Prambanan or Kewu Plain, an archaeologically rich area dotted with
numerous Hindu-Buddhist temples dated circa 8th to 9th century CE. To visit Bubrah temple,
visitors can go through the Prambanan temple compound entrance.
The temple is located around 300 meters south from Sewu temple. Archaeologists suggest that
the temple is actually a part of the greater Sewu temple compound (Manjusrigrha complex), as
the southern temple marking the southern point of the mandala layout. This suggestion is based
on the fact that there is a similar-sized temple on the eastern side called Candi Gana that marking
the eastern end on Manjusrigrha mandala. On northern and western sides around 300 metres
from Sewu main temple, there were also ruins discovered, however, the stones are too scarce to
reconstruct. In conclusion, Bubrah temple were originally part of four vanguard temples placed
around 300 meters in four cardinal points from the main temple of Sewu. Bubrah is the guardian
temple of southern direction, according to mandala and guardians of the directions concept.
The original name of this temple is unknown, however the local Javanese named the temple
"candi bubrah", which means "ruins temple" in the Javanese language. The name reflect the
conditions of this temple during its discovery, which was a heap of 2 metres tall stone
ruins. Bubrah means broken, in ruins or disorderly in Javanese, it has been in a state of ruins for
many years, until it was reconstructed between 2011 and 2017. The temple is a part
of Prambanan Temple Compounds, a World Heritage Site since 1991.
It is located between Sewu temple compound in the north and Lumbung temple in the south.
Administratively, this temple is located in Bener Hamlet, Bugisan Village, Prambanan
District, Klaten Regency, Central Java . Unlike the Prambhanan. Bubrah temple is a Buddhist
temple, and was built around the 9th century during the era of the Mataram kingdom that ruled
Central Java and some parts of Eastern Java. The temple is closely related to Sewu temple which
is located around 300 metres to the north.[2] Bubrah temple believed was constructed around the
same period or slightly later after the completion of nearby Sewu and Lumbung temple, all three
being a Buddhist-style mandala. The Sewu complex was built by Rakai Panangkaran hailed
as Shailendra Wamsatilaka, or the ornament of the Shailendra dynasty. Bubrah temple seems to
be added later to complete Manjusrigrha (Sewu) vajradhatu mandala as the southern shrine
dedicated as the guardian of directions. Thus possibly Bubrah temple was constructed after the
reign of Panangkaran, either during the reign of Dharanindra, or possibly Samaragrawira, which
means the temple was constructed in the early 9th century.
After the move of the capital to eastern Java circa the 11th century, the temple was neglected.
For centuries later, it fell into disrepair, buried under Mount Merapi volcanic debris and shaken
by earthquakes.
The temple was in ruins during its rediscovery back in the early 19th century, along with nearby
Prambanan and Sewu temple compound. During its rediscovery, the temple took form of a 2
metres tall mounds of stone, thus the gave the name Bubrah which in Javanese means "ruins".
Throughout the 20th century, nothing much had been done to restore and reconstruct the temple,
as the temple stones were left scattered around the area.
In 1992, the temple was included within the area of Prambanan Archaeological Park or
Prambanan Temple Tourism Park, along with nearby Lumbung, Sewu, and Prambanan temples,
registered as Prambanan Temple Compound and recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

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Between 2011 and 2017 the temple had undergone reconstruction. The project developed in 7
stages, and was completed on 14 December 2017, inaugurated by Muhajir Effendy, Indonesian
Minister of Education and Culture. The reconstruction took 7 years and 11 billion rupiah cost.
The temple plan measures 12 x 12 metres and facing east side, with flight of stairs, portico and
portal facing east. The design of the temple is similar to the Apit temple within the Sewu temple
compound and Sojiwan temple not far south. The roof is lined with rows of smaller stupas, with
larger main stupa as the pinnacle of the structure.

PRAMBHANAN COMPLEX

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR DR UDAY DOKRAS

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About the Author
The author has worked for 30 years in the human resources arena in India and abroad. He
was Group Vice -President of MZI Group in New Delhi and has anchored Human
Relations in Go Air and Hotel Holiday Inn;was General Manager-Health Human
Resources at the Lata Mangeshkar Hospital amd Medical college. Is currently Consultant
to Gorewada International Zoo,Nagpur and visiting Faculty at the Central Institute of
Business Management and Research, Nagpur.

In Sweden he anchored HR in Stadbolaget RENIA, SSSB and advisor to a multi

millionaire. He has studied in Nagpur, India where he obtained degrees of Bachelor of
Science, Bachelor of Arts(Managerial Economics) and Bachelor of Laws. He has done
his Graduate Studies in labour laws from Canada at the Queen's University, Kingston; a
MBA from USA, and Doctorate from Stockholm University, Sweden. Apart from that he
has done a Management Training Program in Singapore.

A scholar of the Swedish Institute, he has been an Edvard Cassel Fund and Wineroth
Fund Awardee.A scholar for the Swedish Institute for 5 years.
In 1984 he was involved with the Comparative Labour Law Project of the University of
California, Los Angeles, U.S.A. He was also visiting lecturer there. In 1985 he was
invited by the President of Seychelles to do a study of the efficacy of the labour laws of
Seychelles.

Author of a book on a Swedish human resource law, his brief life sketch is part of the
English study text book of 7 th Class Students in Sweden -“Studying English.

279
 SPOTLIGHT 7”- and 8th Class students in Iceland - “SPOTLIGHT 8- Lausnir.”

RESEARCH PAPERS-320 + in Researchgate and academia.edu & scribd

Followers(readers) 65,000 consolidated as on 26 th September,2020.

Authors-DR Uday DOKRAS

Dr. Uday Dokras

B.Sc., B.A. (Managerial Economics), LL.B., Nagpur University, India
Certificat'e en Droit, Queen’s University. Ontario, Canada,
MBA, CALSTATE,Los-Angeles, USA,
Ph.D. Stockholm University, Sweden,
Management and Efficacy Consultant, India

280
 Reviews of the Book PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

The authors highlight the benefits of paying attention to human resources and offer success and
failure factors guideline for a variety of potential practitioners and students in global project
marketplace.
Ms.Ylva Arnold, Head HR- Norstedts Publishers, Stockholm SWEDEN

281
From the Newspaper Times of India March
24, 2018

282
Iceland Sweden both countries use the English Text SPOTLIGHT-one
of the lessons in which is about Dr Uday Dokras

283
Prof. S.Deshpande,President of the Indian Instituye of Architects, New Delhi INDIA
releasing the book of Dr Dokras HINDU TEMPLES on the web in CARONA
gimes( May 2010)

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Some of my books

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 Unravelling the

SCIENTIFIC
BORUBUDUR

Dr Uday Dokras-Srishti Dokras - Kinjal Shah

Indo Nordic Author’s Collective

Indo Nordic Gem research Institute

SCIENTIFIC BORUBUDUR

292
Dr Uday Dokras and 2 others

51 BOOKS BY DR UDAY DOKRAS

Published by
The Indo Swedish Author’s Collective Stockholm
The Indo Swedish Author’s Collective Finland

Dr. Uday Dokras

Tamil People as Traders and Voyagers

The Cambodian Trilogy

293
 I.HINDU CAMBODIA

II.HYDROLOGY of ANGKOR
ANGKOR is known as a Hydraulic city- full or canals and river and
waterways. It is this water system they say that brought the downfall of this
intrinsic kingdom. But is that TRUE?

III.ENTER…… THE KINGDOM THAT

VANISHED- Angkor

Building Materials of the Hindu Temple

Indo Nordic Author's collective, 2021
In depth study of how Building Materials of the Hindu Temple was used in
India,Indonesia and Cambodia and India

294
The Art & Architecture of THE GOLDEN TEMPLE
COMPLEX, AMRITSAR

Mathematics in Temple Designs

Jain ART
Book on Jain Art and Iconography

Jain Temples- Part I -Complete Compendium-

295
 Book I
A to Z of the architecture, Design,Cosmology,Philosophy of Jain temples in

Jain Temples II
DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARCHITECTURE OF JAIN TEMPLES AND THE
ACTUAL PHOTOGRAPHS(ORIGINAL) OF 3JAIN TEMPLES of Nagpur

DWARKA- CELESTIAL MYSTERIES of the Lost

CITY of KRISHNA

TIRUPATI TEMPLE Book part I

296
TIRUPATI TemplePart II

Vahanas- the vehicles of Hindu Gods

Vahanas- the vehicles of Hindu Gods. Animals in Hinduism. demi Gods

SATYANARAYAN PUJA-The Complete Compendium

Satyanarayan Puja or 9 Graha Puja( a puja of 9 planets) has been
performed by most Hindus not only now but for 1,000’s of years.

MAHALAXMI Puja
Hindu Goddess MAHALAXMI Puja

ARCHITECTURE OF PALESTINE

297
Palestine my Love
Palestine my Love is about the culture arts and crafts of palestine so we
recognize it as a entity that is fighting for recognition of not only its
legitimacy but also its cultural heritage
QUINTET (5) BOOKS ON MANDALA

Unravelling the MAZE of the MANDALA BOOK I

First part of a two book treatise on MANDALAS. This introductory phase
introduces mandalas

Maze of MANDALA BOOK II

Advanced Mandala routine for those who want to know more about
MANDALAS

298
Mandala BOOK III on Nakshatra

BOOK IV MANDALA & ARCHITECTURE

The Use of Mandalas in Building Temples and Modern Buildings

Book V on Mandala of the Oriental Kingdoms

Islamic Architectureal Arts of of Imam Ali's 2

Shrines

Hindu Gods in Scandinavia

299
Did the Hindu Gods originate or live in Scandinavia once? Find out

Book on Divinity and Architecture

What is divinity? How has man tried to harness architecture to create magic
in space

Virat Hridaya Padma-sthalam CHIDAMBARAM

Temple -Celestial Mysteries
This book is about a mysterious and revered tempe built by the Chola
Kings of South India 2000 years ago

T2- Temple Tech. A Book

How are Hindu temples built and the technology that follows this craft.
From A to Z Complete Guide.

300
Rendezvous with Sri RAM Portfolio of Temple Art
by Srishti Dokras, Architect Special section on
Hindu Foods by Karan Dokras, Product Guru

Best Foot Forward

The story of Footwear through the ages up to COVID times

Hindu Temple Panorama-Celestial Mysteries

A to Z of Temples. A total Panoramic View of design and architecture of
Hindu temples in 350 page...

DUOLOGY (2) on JAINISM

Ativir
301
ATIVIR means Very Brave and is the name given to Lord Mahavir the 24 th
Saint(TIRTHANKAR) Contains rare translations of the Dialogue of the
Mahavir with his disciples called GHANDHARVAVAD

Vardhaman-वर्धमान
IThis book is about Jainism- written by a non-
THE TRILOGY(3) on DEVRAJA The God
kIngs of Khemer

Book I DEVRAJ- The God Kings of Indo China-

Cambodia.
This is the first Book of a Trilogy that traces the growth of Hinduism in
South East Asia.
BOOK I I DEVRAJA- The Great Civilizations of
South East Asia -HINDU Era
How Hinduism reached Cambodia and how the Hindu Kings called Devraj
Built these magnificent structures

Devraja BOOK II I Devraja and Raj Dharma God

302
King and Kingly Religion The HINDU Era of
Great Civilizations of Khemer
Book 2 of a Trilogy that traces the advent of Hinduism on South East Asian
and Indo-Chinese

Vayu- Man's taming of the winds

Man's conquest of nature spans a million years. How was wind tamed by
him. Here is the full story... more 

VIMANA Ancient Conquests of Wind

Ancient flying machines of Gods and Men(?) Were they true. Did they really
exist. 7000 years ago?

LIGHT HOUSES In words and pictures

303
BOOK Architecture of the Lighthouse of
Alexandria-BOOK
Indo Swedish Author's Collective, 2020
The lighthouse was built on an island off the coast of Alexandria called
Pharos. Its name, legend

Cosmology of lotus
Indo Nordic Author's Collective, 2020
The Lotus is the king of the flower world but few know it as a part of
creation. Find out the Cosmology.

Celestial Mysteries of the Borobudur Temple

Borobudur remains a mystery even today. The largest Buddhist Stupa in
the world has many unanswered...
Win with this new DIET

304
Hindu tempel of India , Cambodia and Indonesia
Hindu Temples dot India, Cambodia and Indonesia

DISRUPTION-Book

Book Architecture Creativity

Creativity and Architecture are linked and go hand in hand. This Book is a
culmination of 16 publications that have been put together as a book

Project HR Management
Indo Swedish Author's Collective
PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT/'Dr UDAY DOKRAS The
project sphere has not been valued appropriately

305
Human Resource Engineering in Theme Parks.
by Dr. Uday Dokras and Mansse Bhandari
As theme parks evolve into facilitating for greater thrill seeking
audience,the role of human res... more 

Health Human Resource Management

Management of Health care workers in hospitals and the human resource
practices to be followed in hospitals.

WIN DIET Lose fat-Diet and Exercise Book ONLY

BODY SHAPING GUIDE YOU NEED

The Act on Co-determination at Work – an Efficacy

study
Thesis of the Author for the degree of Doctor of Law
Stockholm University, SWEDEN 1990

306
SCIENTIFIC BOROBUDUR

307
U.DOKRAS

BOOKS ON CAMBODIA & South East ASIA by Dr UDAY DOKRAS

308
Temple Mountain

Book V on
The Lands of Ganesh Mandala of the DEVRAJ- The God Kings of Indo China-
Oriental Kingdoms Cambodia. Book I of a Trilogy of 3 books

Cosmology of lotus
Selected Essays on
some Celestial HINDU CAMBODIA
Mysteries

Celestial Mysteries of the Borobodur

Temple
HYDROLOGY of
ANGKOR
Potpurri of Research
of Dr Uday Dokras,
Book

Hindu tempels of Bharat Cambodia and

Indonesia
Mathematics in
Temple Designs

New Essays on
ANGKOR

The Great Marco Polos of Ancient Trade- The

Civilizations of Tamilians
South East Asia
-HINDU Era BOOK
THE BATTLES for II
Preah Pisnulok-

309
 Srijijay the Kingdom of the Winds- booK

Devraja and Raj

Newer Essays on Scientific Borobudur
Dharma -God King
Khemer inspired by
and Kingly
Jayavarman II
Religion The
-
HINDU Era of
Great Civilizations
of Khemer

GRAPHIC Tamil People as Traders and Voyagers

BUDDHIST-STUPA
- BOOK
Scientific Angkor I

ENTER…… THE KINGDOM THAT

VANISHED- Angkor
Suvarnabhoomi
Scientific Angkor II BOOK

Khemer Timeline
Prambanan
South East Asian Temple-BOOK
Architecture BOOK II

DEVRAJA BOOK III

South East Asian Complete Essays
Architecture BOOK I of Architect
SRISHIT DOKRAS
VOLUME II

310
 BOROBUDUR
BOOKS and Research papers/ articles by Dr Uday
Dokras

Celestial Mysteries of the Borobodur Temple

Hindu tempel of India , Cambodia and

Indonesia

MANDALA & ARCHITECTURE

Temple Mountain

Scientific Angkor and Borobudur

Book II

South East Asian Architecture BOOK II

311
 GRAPHIC BUDDHIST-STUPA - BOOK

Scientific Borobudur

STUPA MANDALA- Book 6 of the Mandala

Series-

PAPERS
1. The Concept of the Mountain Temple in Hinduism and comparison with the cambodian temple
mountain
2. Southeast Asia had 3 great empires
3. Quintessential EGG Shape of the Buddhist Stupas
4. Bakong in Cambodia and Borobudur in Java-Mandala Comparison
5. " A form of Emptiness"-Stupa Design Elements of the Borobudur based on Sutras of the Buddha
6. Bakong in Cambodia and Borobudur in Java-Mandala Comparison
7. The striking similarity of the Bakong in Cambodia and Borobudur in Java
8. Did the Borobudur ships carry a African diaspora?
9. Comparison between Angkor Wat and Borobudur temple
10. Mandala in Borobudur
11. The blueprint for Borobudur
12. Comparison between Angkor Wat, Paharpur and Borobudur
13. DIFFERENT TEMPLE CONSTRUCTION TECH OF INDONESIAN TEMPLES 

312
14. The Mysterious Malayu, Dharmasraya & the Candi Gumpung-a Buddhist temple, aligned with the temple
Burobudur
15. Stepped pyramid
16. The Main Stupa of Borobudur as Gnomon and Its Relation With Pranotomongso Calendar System
17. Navel in Buddha
18. Balinese Nudes
19. Mysteries of the Borobodur Temple of Indonesia’
20. Lotus in Buddhism
21. Borobudur Temple of Indonesia
22. Reliefs in Borobudur Temple of Indonesia
23. Indian design in Borobudur Temple

313
ENTER……
MYSTERIOUS BOROBUDUR

314
Uday Dokras Phd
(Stockholm University,SWEDEN)

Indo Nordic Author’s Collective

315
STOCKHOLM. TAMPERFORS. NAGPUR

316