EDUC.

4 – Assessment of Learning 1

UNIT FIVE UTILIZATION OF ASSESSMENT DATA

Introduction
Statistics is very important tool in the utilization of the assessment data most especially in describing,
analyzing, and interpreting the performance of the students in the assessment procedures.

Lesson Objectives
At the end of the module, the students should be able to:
1. explain the importance of different statistical tools in
describing the performance of students;
2. utilize the scores in describing the performance of
students;
3. apply different statistical tools in the utilization of
assessment data; and
4. construct meaningful analysis/ interpretation of
quantitative assessment data.

Lesson 1 Frequency Distribution

Frequency distribution is a tabular arrangement of data into appropriate categories showing the
number of observations in each category or group. There are two major advantages:
a) it encompasses the size of the table
b) it makes the data more interpretative.

∙ Parts of Frequency Table

1) Class limit is the groupings or categories defined by the lower and upper limits.
Example: LL – UL
10 – 14
15 – 19
20 – 24
Lower class limit (LL) represents the smallest number in each group.
Upper class limit (UL) represents the highest number in each group.
2) Class size (c.i.) is the width of each class interval.
Example: The class size in the data above is 5.

3) Class boundaries are the numbers used to separate each category in the frequency distribution but
without gaps created by the class limits. The scores of the students are discrete. Add 0.5 to the upper
limit to get the upper class boundary and subtract 0.5 to the lower limit to get the lower class boundary
in each group or category.
Example: LL – UL LL - UL
10 – 14 9.5 – 14.5
15 – 19 14.5 – 19.5
20 – 24 19.5 – 24.5

4) Class marks are the midpoint of the lower and upper class limits. The formula is

Xm = LL + UL
2

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Illustrative Example 1.
 X F Class Boundaries Xm

15 – 20 4 14.5 – 20.5 17.5

21 – 26 9 20.5 – 26.5 23.5

27 – 32 3 26.5 – 32.5 29.5

33 – 38 10 32.5 – 38.5 35.5

39 – 44 4 38.5 – 44.5 41.5

45 – 50 10 44.5 – 50.5 47.5

N = 40

∙ Graphical Representation of Scores in Frequency Distribution

The scores expressed in frequency distribution can be meaningful and easier to interpret when they are
graphed. There are methods of graphing frequency distribution: bar graph or histogram and frequency polygon
and smooth curve.

Lesson 2 Describing Group Performance ∙ Measure of Central

Tendency
Measure of central tendency provides a very convenient way of describing a set of scores with a single
number that describes the performance of the group. It is also defined as a single value that is used to
describe the “center” of the data. There are three commonly used measures of central tendency; the mean,
median and mode.
1. Mean is the most commonly used measure of the center of data and it is also referred as the
“arithmetic average”.
Formula for computing Mean of Ungrouped Data:

Illustrative Example 2.
Problem: Scores of 15 students in Math 1 quiz consist of 25 items. The highest score is 25 and the
lowest is 10. Here are the scores: 25, 20, 18, 18, 17, 15, 15, 15, 14, 14, 13, 12, 12, 10, 10. Find the mean.
Solution: Mean = 25 + 20 + 18 + 18 +17 + 15 + 15 + 15 +14 + 14 + 13 +12 +12 + 10 +10. 15
Mean = 228 / 15 = 15.2
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Analysis: The average performance of 15 students who participated in the Math quiz consisting of 25 items is
15.2. The implication of this is that student who got scores below 15.2 did not perform well in the said quiz,
while those who got higher than 15.2 performed well.

Illustrative Example 3.
Find the Grade Point Average of Liza for the first semester of the school year 2019 – 2020.
Subjects Grade (x) Units (w) (x)(w)

English 1.25 3 3.75

Filipino 1.00 3 3.00

Science 1.25 6 7.50

Math 1.00 3 3.00

Soc. Sci 1.50 3 4.50

Envi Sci 1.25 3 3.75

Ethics 1.50 3 3.50

PE 1.00 2 2.00

Ʃ w = 26 Ʃ(x)(w) = 32.00

Mean = 32 / 26 = 1.23
The GPA of Liza for the first semester SY 2019-2020 is 1.23.
2. Median is the second type of measures of central tendency. Median is what divides the scores in the
distribution into two equal parts. Fifty percent (50%) lies below the median value and 50% lies above
the median It is also known as the middle score or the 50th percentile.
Illustrative Example 4.
Find the median score of 7 students in an English class.
x = 19, 17, 16, 15, 10, 5, 2
Analysis: The median score is 15. Fifty percent (50%) or three of the scores are above 15 and three of the
scores are below 15.

3. Mode or modal score is the score or scores that occurred most in the distribution.
Illustrative Example 5.

Find the mode for Scores of 10 students in Section A, B, and C.

Scores of Section A Scores of Section B Scores of Section C

25 25 25

24 24 25

24 24 25

20 20 22

20 18 21

20 18 21

16 17 21

12 10 18

10 9 18

7 7 18
Analysis: The score that appeared most in section A is 20, hence, the mode of section A is 20. There is only
one mode, therefore, score distribution is called unimodal. The modes of section B are 18 and 24, since both
18 and 24 appeared twice. There are two modes in section B, hence section B is bimodal. The modes of
section C are 18, 21, and 25, so, the distribution is trimodal.

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∙ Mean for Grouped Data

Grouped data are the data or scores that are arranged in a frequency distributions.
To calculate the mean of grouped data, the first step is to determine the midpoint of each interval, or class.
These midpoints must then be multiplied by the frequencies of the corresponding classes. The sum of the
products divided by the total number of values will be the value of the mean.

∙ Median of Grouped Data

The position of the median is. {(n + 1) ÷ 2}th value, where n is the number of values in a set of data. In
order to calculate the median, the data must first be ranked (sorted in ascending order). The median is the
number in the middle. Median = the middle value of a set of ordered data.

∙ Mode of Grouped Data

The mode of a list of data values is simply the most common value (or values … if any). When
data is grouped (binned) as in a histogram, we normally talk only about the modal class (the class, or
group, with the greatest frequency), because we don't know the individual values.

For more discussion, visit the following sources/ references:

Mean, Median, Mode: Measures of Central Tendency

https://www.slideshare.net/CasperWendy/measures-of-central-tendency-mean-median- mode

Mean, Median, and Mode of Grouped Data & Frequency Distribution Tables
Statistics https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zjHfAhcU6kE

Lesson 2 Measures of Dispersion

In lesson 1, you explored the three average values – the mean, median, and mode. Some
characteristics of a set of data may not be evident from the examination of averages. The spread or dispersion
of data in the distribution cannot be measured by averages. Hence, you need to study another statistical
values known as the range and the standard deviation.

∙ Range

The range of a set of data values is the difference between the greatest data value and the least data
value.

Illustrative Example 6.

In {4, 6, 9, 3, 7} the lowest value is 3, and the highest is 9. So the range is 9 − 3 = 6.

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∙ Standard Deviation

To calculate the standard deviation:

1. Work out the Mean (the simple average of the numbers).
2. Then for each number: subtract the Mean and square the result.
3. Then work out the mean of those squared differences.
4. Take the square root of that and we are done!

Standard Deviations for Populations and Samples

Illustrative Example 7.

Sam has 20 Rose Bushes. The number of flowers on each bush is 9, 2, 5, 4, 12, 7, 8, 11, 9, 3, 7, 4, 12,
5, 4, 10, 9, 6, 9, 4. Work out the Standard Deviation.

Solution:

Step 1. Work out the mean

In the formula above μ (the greek letter "mu") is the mean of all our values.

The mean is: 9+2+5+4+12+7+8+11+9+3+7+4+12+5+4+10+9+6+9+4 = 140 / 20 = 7. Step 2.

Then for each number: subtract the Mean and square the result

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This is the part of the formula that says:

(9 - 7)2 = (2)2 = 4
(2 - 7)2 = (-5)2 = 25

(5 - 7)2 = (-2)2 = 4

(4 - 7)2 = (-3)2 = 9

(12 - 7)2 = (5)2 = 25

(7 - 7)2 = (0)2 = 0

(8 - 7)2 = (1)2 = 1

... etc ...

And we get these results:

4, 25, 4, 9, 25, 0, 1, 16, 4, 16, 0, 9, 25, 4, 9, 9, 4, 1, 4, 9

Step 3. Then work out the mean of those squared differences.

To work out the mean, add up all the values then divide by how many.

First add up all the values from the previous step.

4 + 25 + 4 + 9 + 25 + 0 + 1 + 16 + 4 + 16 + 0 + 9 + 25 + 4 + 9 + 9 + 4 + 1 +4 + 9 8.9 20

Step 4. Take the square root.

8.9 2.98

Alternative Method:

You may use Excel in finding measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion.

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∙ The Variance
A statistic known as the variance is also used as a measure of dispersion. The variance for a given set
of data is the square of the standard deviation of the data.

Illustrative Example 8

Find the variance for the problem in illustrative example 6.

Solution:
 In Example 6, SD = √8.9 = 2.98
Since variance is the square of SD, therefore

S2 = (2.98)2 = 8.9

Lesson 3 Relative Measure of Variation

The coefficient of variation (CV) is the ratio of the standard deviation to the mean. The higher the
coefficient of variation, the greater the level of dispersion around the mean. It is generally expressed as a
percentage. The lower the value of the coefficient of variation, the more precise the estimate. In other words,
the smaller the value of CV the more homogeneous the scores in that particular group. On the other hand, the
higher the value of CV the more dispersed the scores in that particular distribution.

Formula in computing CV:

CV = standard deviation 100%

mean

Illustrative Example 9.
Find the coefficient of variation of the given data below:
Section A Section B Section C

12 12 12

12 12 12

14 12 12

15 13 12

17 13 12

18 14 12

18 17 13

18 20 26

19 20 26

23 28 26

23 28 26

30 30 30

Mean = 18.25 Mean = 18.25 Mean = 18.25

SD= 5.15 SD = 6.92 SD = 7.63

Solution:
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CVa = [ 5.15 / 18.25] 100%= 28.22%

CVb = [6.92 / 18.25 ] 100% = 37.92%

CVc = 7.63 / 18.25 ] 100%= 41.81%
Analysis:
The scores in section A are less scattered than the scores in section A and C. In other words, scores in
section A are more homogeneous that the scores in section B and C. Another way to interpret this is, the
scores in C are more spread out than the scores in section A and section B, or the scores in section c are more
heterogeneous than the scores in section a and B.

Lesson 3 Measures of Skewness

Skewness refers to distortion or asymmetry in a symmetrical bell curve, or normal distribution, in a set
of data. If the curve is shifted to the left or to the right, it is said to be skewed. Skewness can be quantified as a
representation of the extent to which a given distribution varies from a normal distribution.

Skewness, in statistics, is the degree of distortion from the symmetrical bell curve in a probability
distribution.
Distributions can exhibit right (positive) skewness or left (negative) skewness to varying degrees.
Investors note skewness when judging a return distribution because it, like kurtosis, considers the extremes of
the data set rather than focusing solely on the average.
Skewness can be classified according to the skewness coefficient (SK). If SK > 0, it is called positively
skewed distribution. When Sk < 0, it is negatively skewed distribution. However, if SK = 0, the scores are
normally distributed. Thw skewness of a score distribution indicates only the performance of the students but
not the reasons about their performance.
Positively skewed or skewed to the right is a distribution where the thin end tail of the graph goes to the
right part of the curve. This happens when most of the scores of the students are below the mean.
Negatively skewed or skewed to the left is a distribution where the thin end tail of the graph goes to the
left part of the curve. This happens when most scores got by the students are above the mean.

In a classroom testing, a positively skewed distribution means that the students who took the
examination did very poor. Most of the students got a very low score and only few students got a high score.
Positively skewed distribution tells you only on the poor performance of the test takers but not the reasons why
the students did poorlyin the said examination.
Negatively skewed distribution means that the students who took the examination performed well. Most
of the scores are high and there are only few low scores.

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Illustrative Example 10
Find the coefficient of skewness of the scores of 40 grade 6 pupils in a 100-item test in Mathematics if the
mean is 82 and the median is 90 with standard deviation of 15.
Solution:
Given: Mean (Xbar) = 82
Median = 90
SD = 15

SK = 3 [ 82 -90]
15
= 3[ -8] / 15
= -24 / 15
SK = -1.60

Analysis:
SK = -1.60, the value of SK is negative, meaning the score distribution is negatively skewed. Most of the
scores are high, this means that the students have performed excellently in the said examination.

Lesson 4 Normal Distribution

The normal distribution is a continuous probability distribution that is symmetrical on both sides of the
mean, so the right side of the center is a mirror image of the left side. The area under the normal distribution
curve represents probability and the total area under the curve sums to one.

In order to be considered a normal distribution, a data set (when graphed) must follow a bell-shaped
symmetrical curve centered around the mean. It must also adhere to the empirical rule that indicates the
percentage of the data set that falls within (plus or minus) 1, 2 and 3 standard deviations of the mean.

The normal distribution is the most important probability distribution in statistics because it fits many
natural phenomena. For example, heights, blood pressure, measurement error, and IQ scores follow the
normal distribution. It is also known as the Gaussian distribution and the bell curve.

Properties of Normal Distribution

1. The curve has a single peak, meaning the distribution is unimodal.
2. It is a bell-shaped curve.
3. It is symmetrical to the mean.
4. The end tails of the curve can be extended indefinitely in both sides and asymptotic to the horizontal
line. 5. The shape of the curve will depend on the value of the mean and standard deviation. 6. The total
area under the curve is 1.0. Hence, the area of the curve in each side of the mean is 0.5. 7. The probability
between two given points in the curve is equal to the area between the two points.

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 Areas Unser the Normal Curve

Illustrative Example 11.

Illustrate the area under the normal curve for a score distribution with mean = 74 and SD = 4.
Solution:

Using the Normal Curve Model,

Discussion:

62 66 70 74 78 82 86
From the illustration above, the mean 74 (located at the center) and a SD of 4 means four points are
added to each SD unit above the mean ( 78, 82, 86) and four points ae subtracted from the mean for each SD
unit below the mean (70, 66, 62). This is approximately equal to 68 % of the scores in the distribution fall
between 70 and 78.

Lesson 5 Describing Individual Performance

 ∙ Standard Score

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Scores directly obtained from the test are known as actual scores or raw scores. Such scores cannot be
interpreted as whether the score is low, average or high. Scores must be converted or transformed so that they
become meaningful and allow some kind of interpretations and direct comparisons of two scores.

Consider the figure below:

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 Figure A Figure B

Figure A represents the score distribution with a mean of 50 with a SD of 10. Figure B represents a
score distribution with a mean of 80 and SD of 5.
The shape of the curve above is the same, however, the means and SD are different. This happens
because the ranges of scores from figure A differ from figure B. In this case, the scores in the figures cannot be
compared because they belong to two different groups.

∙ Z- Scores
To get exact information about performance of students, collect the raw score, mean and SD and
determine how far below or above the mean in SD units is the obtained raw score.
To determine the exact position of each score in the normal distribution use z-score formula. The z-
score is used to convert a raw score to standard score to determine how far a raw score lies from the mean in
SD units. From this we can also determine whether an individual student performs well n the examination
compared to the performances of the whole class.

Z-SCORE FORMULA:

Illustrative Example 12.

Ritz obtained a score of 92 in Calculus and 88 in Statistics. In which subject did she perform weel? Are we
correct if we say that Ritz performed well in Calculus than in Statistics? Let us add the mean values and SD of
students in Calculus and Statistics:
Calculus Statistics
X = 92 X = 88
Mean = 95 Mean = 80
SD = 3 SD = 4

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Solution:
Z-score for Calculus: Z-score for Statistics:
Z = 92 – 95 Z = 88 - 80
34
= -1 = +2
Analysis:

The score of Ritz in Calculus is one SD unit below the man, while her score in Statistics is 2 SD units
above the mean. Therefore, we can conclude tht Ritz perform better in Satistics than in Calculus.

∙ T- Scores

There are two possible values of z-score, positive z if the raw score is above the mean and negative z if
the raw score is below the mean. to avoid confusion between negative and positive value, use T-score to
convert raw scores. T-score is another type of standard score where the mean is 50 and the SD is 10. In z-
score the mean is 0 and the SD is 1. to convert raw score to T-score, find the first z-score equivalent of the raw
score and use the formula
T-score = 10z + 50.

Illustrative Example 13.

From the previous example, Z-score for calculus is -1 and Z-score for Statistics is +2. Let us convert the
z-score to T-score.

Solution:

T-score for Calculus = 10z + 50 T-score for Statistics= 10z + 50

= 10(-1) +50 = 10 ( 2) +50
= 40 = 70

Analysis:

z-score of -1 is equivalent to a T-score of 40, and z-score of 2 is equivalent to a T-score of 70. The
negative value is eliminated in the T-score equivalent. Therefore, Ritz performed better in Statistics than in
Calculus due to higher value of T-score which is equal to 70.

Relationship between z-score and T-score:

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z- score
EDUC. 4 – Assessment of Learning
1

Lesson 6 Describing Relationships ∙ Correlation

Correlation is the tool that we are going to utilize if we want to determine the relationship or association
between the scores of students in two different subjects.

Correlation means association - more precisely it is a measure of the extent to which two variables are
related. There are three possible results of a correlational study: a positive correlation, a negative correlation,
and no correlation. ... A zero correlation exists when there is no relationship between two variables.

Scattergrams
A correlation can be expressed visually. This is done by drawing a scattergram (also known as a
scatterplot, scatter graph, scatter chart, or scatter diagram).
A scattergram is a graphical display that shows the relationships or associations between two
numerical variables (or co-variables), which are represented as points (or dots) for each pair of score.
A scattergraph indicates the strength and direction of
the correlation between the co-variables.

The graph has positive slope and points are closer,

hence, this graph represents a positive correlation, r = 1.
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The
graph has negative slope which represents negative

correlation.

The points in
this graph are scattered, far from each
other. Therefore, slope cannot be
determined, thus, this describes no
correlation. r = 0.

To determine the strength of a linear relationship between two variables, statistician use statistic called the
linear correlation coefficient ---- Pearson Product Moment Coefficient of Correlation or
simply Pearson r.
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PEARSON PRODUCT MOMENT COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION (Pearson r)

The Pearson Product Moment Coefficient of Correlation or Pearson r is an index of relationship

between two variables, the independent and dependent variables.
If there is relationship between the independent and the dependent variables, we can say that x influences
y or y depends on x, however if there is no relationship that exists between x and y then x and y are
independent of each other.

The value of r:

r = +1 , positive perfect correlation which indicates that for every increase of x there is corresponding
increase of y or decrease in x will also result to decrease in y.
r = -1, negative perfect correlation indicates that for every increase of x there is corresponding decrease of y
or decrease of x results to increase in y.
r = 0, there is no correlation between x and y.

The quantitative interpretation of the degree of linear relationship existing is shown

below: ± 1 Perfect correlation
± 0.91 - ± 0.99 Very high correlation
± 0.71 - ± 0.90 High correlation
± 0.51 - ± 0.70 Moderate correlation
± 0.31 - ± 0.50 Low correlation
± 0.01 - ± 0.30 Slight correlation
0 No correlation

If the linear correlation coefficient r is positive, the relationship between the variables has a positive
correlation. In this case, if one variables increases, the other variable also tends to increase. If r is
negative, the linear relationship between the variables has a negative correlation. In this case, if one
variable increases, the other variable tends to decrease. The graphs above describe the correlation.

The closer r to 1, the stronger the linear relationship between them.

Illustrative Example 14.

The following are scores of 5 students in Mathematics and Science respectively. Determine if there is
relationship between the two set of scores.
Math Science
25 40
39 58
24 39
34 45
40 60

Solution: Using Excel

Step 1. Arrange the scores in two columns of Spread sheet (Excel)

MATH SCIENCE
25 40
39 58
24 39

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 34 45
40 60

Step 2. Go to “More Functions”, select STATISTICS and then, click PEARSON. Select the column for ‘Array 1’
(Column 1); ‘Array 2’ (Column 2).

Step 3. Then, click ‘OK’ to reveal the Pearson r value.

Analysis:
Using Excel, the resulting Pearson r value is 0.95. This means that there is a very high correlation
between the two groups of scores. This result implies that an increase in the Math score will result to the
increase of Science score. Moreover, we can say that when student who performs well in Math will probably
be performing well also in Science

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