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Topographical influence on pedogenesis – Insights from Rock Magnetism

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 Catena 198 (2021) 105013

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

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journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/catena

Topographical influence on pedogenesis – Insights from Rock Magnetism

B.G. Harshavardhana *, 1, R. Shankar 2
Department of Marine Geology, Mangalore University, Mangalagangothri 574199, Karnataka, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Topography being a pedogenic factor influences the physico-chemical and biological properties of soil profiles.
Hill topography Besides, the magnetic characteristics of soil profiles may also be varied, as iron minerals in soils are strongly
Rock magnetic properties redox sensitive. However, hardly any study has been reported from the topographic implication on the magnetic
Pedogenesis
characteristics of soils to date. Hence, the present study aims to delineate the influence of topography on the in-
Magnetic enhancement
Soil erosion
situ soil profiles developed on hill topography by studying their rock magnetic properties.
Two soil profiles each, formed at different altitudes of the two hills named Doddabathi Siddeshwara (14.58◦ N;
75.66◦ E) with peak ~650 m above mean sea level (AMSL) and Elimale (12.5◦ N; 75.5◦ E) with peak ~200 m
AMSL were chosen for the investigation. Rock magnetic measurements were carried out on soil samples; Rock
Magnetism is a geophysical technique applied on environmental samples such as rocks, soils, dust and sediments
for determining their intrinsic magnetic properties namely, magnetic susceptibility, anhysteretic remanent
magnetization and isothermal remanent magnetisation. These intrinsic magnetic properties are the result of
concentration, mineralogy and grain-size of magnetic minerals present in the samples that are unique for every
environmental condition. Hence, determination of rock magnetic properties of environmental samples leads to
the corresponding environmental set-up in which the samples are formed. Particle size and organic matter
content were also estimated to support the rock magnetic interpretation. Based on the investigation it was
concluded that topography has indeed influenced the magnetic properties of soil profiles of the hills, irrespective
of rainfall and organic matter content. Both depletion in magnetic mineral concentration and coarsening of
magnetic grains towards the profile-top were observed in all the soil profiles; this indicates the effect of soil
erosion. The decrease in the magnetic properties of hill-top soil profiles was determined to be dominantly due to
the removal of finer pedogenic magnetic minerals. Whereas the lowered magnetic characteristics of the hill-
bottom soil profiles were attributed to the mixing of bulk materials eroded from higher elevations. Mean­
while, the greater difference in magnetic properties of Doddabathi soil profiles than that of Elimale was
attributed to the combined effect of slope-angle and lateral-distance between their respective hill-top and
-bottom profiles. Thus, exploring the applicability of rock magnetism to address the spatial-spread of magnetic
minerals on hill topography, the study confirms the suitability of the technique to be used as a proxy for the
same.

1. Introduction
Important factors that govern soil formation are parent rock type,
climate, organic matter (both living and non-living), topography and
time (Jenny, 1941; Retallack, 2001). Hairston and Grigal (1991) delin­
eated the topographic influence on soil characteristics and forest pro­
ductivity at different slope positions of a hill in Minnesota, USA. Steep
slope increases the possibility and extent of removal of particles because
of gravity (Robichaud, 2000; Foster 1982). Thus, soil stability is nega­
tively influenced by the removal of soil material (Zádorová et al., 2011).
Washburn (1980) documented that soil creep may take place even when
the slope is as gentle as 2.5◦ .
Jien et al. (2009) evaluated the influence of topography on soil
genesis and hence, soil properties in the Lienhuachih Experimental
Forest that has subtropical climatic conditions. The study relates soil
genesis to the instability of topography owing to frequent tectonic

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: harshavardhana.ganesh@jaipur.manipal.edu (B.G. Harshavardhana).
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Manipal University Jaipur, Jaipur 303007, Rajasthan, India.
2
Retired.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2020.105013
Received 5 April 2020; Received in revised form 18 October 2020; Accepted 23 October 2020
Available online 4 November 2020
0341-8162/© 2020 Published by Elsevier B.V.
B.G. Harshavardhana and R. Shankar
Fig. 1. Location map of Doddabathi-Siddeshwara Hill and Elimale Hill, Karnataka, India (modified Google Earth satellite-imagery).
events in the region and thus characterises pedogenesis of the soil ma­
terial eroded from higher elevation. Seibert et al. (2007) brought out the
importance of topography on soil properties by determining the topo­
graphic indices for about 4000 soil samples from Sweden. Liu et al.
(2007), during a study of the upland gullied area of the Loess Plateau in
China, documented the influence of topographic slope, elevation, and
aspect of landscape on spatial variations in soil properties. Based on the
investigation of H. J. Andrews Experimental Forest (HJA) in the Oregon
Cascade Mountains, Griffiths et al. (2009) suggested that topographic
elevation and aspect influence the climatic gradients of soils differently
at different topographic set ups. The study emphasized the need to un­
derstand the local effect of topographic aspect on soils.
Quijano et al. (2014) pointed out the influence of topography on
redistribution, removal and transport of fine soil particles, including
magnetic minerals, to down-slope positions in the Mediterranean agro­
systems. Ananthapadmanabha et al. (2014) studied the surficial soils of
northern Kerala, SW India, to determine the effect of topography, slope
and geology on the spatial variability of their rock magnetic properties.
They attributed the presence of fine-grained magnetic minerals in sur­
ficial soils to flat topography where soil erosion is negligible compared
to a sloping terrain.
Despite the foregoing investigations, hardly any study has been re­
ported on the magnetic characteristics of soil profiles influenced by
topography. Hence, a detailed study to document topographical influ­
ence on the magnetic properties of soil profiles is warranted to under­
stand pedogenesis at different slope positions of a hill. The application of
rock magnetism for the present investigation is a geophysical approach
employed to understand the intrinsic magnetic properties of environ­
mental samples such as soils, sediments, dust and rocks. The easy,
simple, rapid and non-destructive method of rock magnetism helps in
determining the concentration, mineralogy and grain-size of magnetic
minerals in the samples and relates it to the corresponding environ­
mental conditions (Oldfield, 1999a; Retallack, 2001; Evans and Heller,
2003). With this background, we have undertaken such an investigation
of hill-top and hill-bottom soil profiles from two hills in the tropical
southern India.
2
Catena 198 (2021) 105013
1.1. Study area
The two hills – Doddabathi Siddeshwara (14.58◦ N; 75.66◦ E) and
Elimale (12.5◦ N; 75.5◦ E; Fig. 1) – that were considered for this inves­
tigation are from Davanagere and Dakshina Kannada Districts of Kar­
nataka, southern India. Two soil profiles each from the top and bottom
parts of the hills were sampled. Slope angles at the top and bottom parts
of Doddabathi Siddeshwara and Elimale Hill sampling locations were
~23◦ and 4◦ , and ~23◦ and 15o, respectively. Also, the lateral-distance
between the hill-top and hill-bottom profiles along the hill-surface for
Doddabathi is ~70–80 m and that for Elimale is ~16 m. It may be noted
that although the slope angle is similar at both the hill-tops, it is gentle at
the bottom of Doddabathi Siddeshwara Hill compared to Elimale Hill.
The lithology of both sites is characterized by gneissic rocks (Rad­
hakrishna and Vaidyanadhan, 1997) of Dharwar Craton, Karnataka,
India. The rocks are found as laterite- capping in the nearby areas,
forming the base for Ferralsols in Elimale Hill. Ferralsols are deeply
weathered, dark brown soils of tropics that support humid tropical trees
with thick canopy and hence, the surface soil is possibly covered with
shed leaves. Moreover, the sampled profiles were devoid of plant-roots
and enriched with decayed organic matter that helped in maintaining
the soil moisture in the profile; hence, relatively loose to dig out.
However, it is a dry yellowish-brown soil profile in Doddabathi Hill, due
to an over exposure to the sunlight compared to Ferralsols. Hence,
having an incipient subsurface, supporting only scanty bush and grass,
the hard soil profile on Doddabathi Hill was characterized to be Cam­
bisols (Nachtergaele et al., 2009; IUSS Working Group WRB, 2015);
hence it is exposed to the sunlight. Although there is no prominent
variation in temperature (range: 20–25 ◦ C), the average annual rainfall
differs significantly, which are ~800 and ~3600 mm/year for Dodda­
bathi and Elimale Hills respectively (Deepthy and Balakrishnan, 2005).
2. Sampling and methodology
2.1. Sample collection and preparation
In situ, undisturbed soil profile samples from pristine areas, that may
possibly retain the imprints of natural environmental set-up on Dodda­
bathi and Elimale Hills, identified during field survey were considered
B.G. Harshavardhana and R. Shankar Catena 198 (2021) 105013

Table 1 supplied by the manufacturer. Frequency-dependent susceptibility (χfd )

Rock magnetic parameters and inter-parametric ratios with their units and in­ and χfd % were calculated as follows:
terpretations (after Thompson and Oldfield, 1986; Maher, 1988; Oldfield, 1991;
Sangode and Bloemendal, 2004). χfd = χlf − χhf (1)
Parameter/Ratio with units Indicative of [( )/ ]
χfd % = χlf − χhf χlf × 100 (2)
Mass-specific low- and high-frequency Concentration of ferrimagnetic
magnetic susceptibility (χlf and χhf; minerals. Anhysteretic remanent magnetisation (ARM) was grown in samples
10− 8 m3 kg− 1) by steadily ramping down a mains frequency alternating field (AF) of
Frequency-dependent magnetic Concentration of ultra-fine grained 100 milliTesla (mT) while the sample was subjected to a steady field of
susceptibility (χfd; 10− 8 m3 kg− 1) super-paramagnetic (SP) minerals
0.04 mT. An AF demagnetiser and an ARM attachment (both of Molspin
Frequency-dependent magnetic Proportion of SP grains make) were used for this purpose. The ARM thus grown was measured
susceptibility percentage (χfd %;
dimensionless)
on a Molspin spinner fluxgate magnetometer. The calibration sample (a
Susceptibility of anhysteretic remanent Concentration of single domain (SD)
strip of magnetic tape embedded in a wooden cylinder) provided by the
magnetization (χARM; 10− 5 m3 kg− 1) ferrimagnetic minerals manufacturer was used to calibrate the magnetometer. The suscepti­
Isothermal remanent magnetization Concentration and grain size of bility of ARM (χARM) was calculated by dividing the mass-specific ARM
(IRM) and Saturation IRM (SIRM) remanence-carrying minerals by the size of the biasing field (0.04 mT = 31.84 A m− 1; Walden, 1999).
(10− 5 A m2 kg− 1) Subsequently, the isothermal remanent magnetisation (IRM)
Hard isothermal remanent Concentration and grain size of
attained by samples over the magnetic fields grown up to 1000 mT in a
magnetization (HIRM = SIRM- magnetically “hard” minerals like
IRM300mT; 10− 5 A m2 kg− 1) haematite and goethite Molspin pulse magnetiser was measured using Fluxgate magnetometer.
S-ratio (=IRM300mT/SIRM; Mineralogy; relative proportions of The IRM at 1000 mT field was considered as the saturation isothermal
dimensionless) ferrimagnetic vs. anti-ferromagnetic remanent magnetisation (SIRM), as 1000 mT is the maximum magnetic
minerals field that could be generated in the Environmental Magnetism Labora­
Reduction Index (χARM/HIRM; mA− 1) Mineralogy; similar to S-ratio, but more
specific
tory at Mangalore University. As magnetically “soft” minerals in sample
Oxidation Index (HIRM/IRM300mT; Mineralogy; relative proportions of anti- attain magnetic saturation at 300 mT, the remanence gained by sample
dimensionless) ferromagnetic vs. ferrimagnetic minerals from 300 mT to 1000 mT would correspond to the contribution of
χARM/χfd (dimensionless) Grain size and relative proportions of SD magnetically “hard” minerals (Walden, 1999). This data was used to
vs. SP grains; the higher the ratio, the
calculate “hard” IRM (HIRM) and S-ratio. Later on, other ratios like
coarser the grain size and vice versa
χARM/SIRM (10− 5
mA− 1) Grain size and the proportion of SD oxidation index (HIRM/IRM300mT), reduction index (χARM/HIRM),
remanence-carrying minerals. The χARM/χlf, χARM/χfd, χARM/SIRM and SIRM/χlf were calculated (Walden,
higher the ratio, the finer the grain size 1999; Snowball, 1999; Oldfield, 1999a; Sangode and Bloemendal,
and vice versa 2004). Details of the magnetic parameters and inter-parametric ratios,
SIRM/χlf (103 A m− 1) Grain size; the higher the ratio, the
coarser the grain size and vice versa
their units and interpretation are given in Table 1. For the sake of
interpretation, each soil profile is divided into Zone-A (top) and Zone-B
(bottom) based on the prominent variation in the values of magnetic
for the investigation. Sandy soil of Doddabathi was relatively dry and parameters. These zones are different from soil-horizons, demarcated for
hard to scoop out from the ground compared to the moist, clayey soil of differentiating dissimilar trends of magnetic parameters within soil
Elimale. However, the usage of a metallic pickaxe in both locations was profile.
inevitable to dig out profiles of about a meter deep for the purpose of
sampling subsoils. The probable metal-contamination of profiles were 2.2.2. Particle size analysis
cleared off using non-magnetic brush and made ready for depth-wise Particle size analysis was carried out for three representative samples
sampling. Again, to avoid contamination from metallic tools, soil pro­ each from the hill-top and hill-bottom profiles of the two hills (Carver,
file samples from the top and bottom parts of the hills were scooped out 1971). The samples were chosen based on their magnetic properties.
using a wooden knife and plastic tray-collector. Wooden-stick markers About 5 g each of the samples was treated with 50 ml of 10% glacial
were used to demarcate the depths of sample-collection and the soil acetic acid and allowed to react overnight to remove carbonate material.
profiles were sampled at every 2 cm interval from surface to 20 cm The acetic acid was decanted, and the samples were rinsed with double
depth, every 4 cm interval from 20 to 40 cm depth and every 8 cm in­ distilled, deionised water (Milli-Q) to remove the acid content
terval above 40 cm depths respectively. The shorter sampling interval at completely. Subsequently, organic matter was removed by treating the
the profile-top was maintained because the top of the profiles is rela­ samples with 20 ml of 30% hydrogen peroxide. The peroxide was dec­
tively more interactive towards the factors of soil formation. Non- anted on completion of the reaction and the samples were washed
magnetic tools were used for sampling to avoid contamination from thoroughly with Milli-Q water. Ten ml of 5% sodium hexametaphos­
iron/steel tools. Sampling was carried out using a wooden knife, plastic phate (Calgon) solution was added to the samples to deflocculate the
trays and needles for marking depths. The samples were packed in clay particles. After this, the sand (>63 µm) and ‘silt + clay’ (<63 µm)
labelled plastic covers. fractions were separated by wet-sieving through an ASTM sieve (mesh
All the soil samples were air-dried for five days in an air-conditioned no. 230). The dry weight of the sand content was measured and
environment. After sieving the samples passed through an ASTM sieve expressed as percentage. The weights of silt and clay fractions were
mesh no. 10, the <2 mm fraction was tightly packed in 8-cm3 non- estimated by pipette analysis and expressed as percentages.
magnetic plastic bottles for rock magnetic investigation.
2.2.3. Estimation of organic matter
2.2. Methodology The modified Walkley-Black method (Walkley and Black, 1934;
Trivedi and Goel, 1986) was used to estimate the organic matter content
2.2.1. Rock magnetic measurements in four representative samples each from the four soil profiles. Again, the
The following rock magnetic measurements were carried out at the representative samples were chosen based on magnetic properties.
Environmental Magnetism Laboratory, Mangalore University. Magnetic About 0.5–2 g each of the soil samples was treated with 10 ml of po­
susceptibility at low- and high-frequencies (0.465 and 4.65 kHz; χlf and tassium dichromate and 20 ml of concentrated sulphuric acid. The
χhf) were measured using a Bartington susceptibility meter (Model: sample could react for half an hour. After diluting the solution with 200
MS2B) after calibrating the instrument with the standard (1% Fe3O4)

3
B.G. Harshavardhana and R. Shankar Catena 198 (2021) 105013

Fig. 2. Down-profile variations of magnetic parameters and inter-parametric ratios for soil profiles from Doddabathi Hill-top (▴) and Hill-bottom (▾). Note: In both
the profiles, decreasing values of χlf, χfd, and χARM towards the profile-top indicate a decrease in the magnetic mineral concentration. The values of χARM/SIRM
decrease towards profile-top while SIRM/χlf shows opposite trend, indicating coarsening of magnetic grains.

ml of distilled water, 10 ml of concentrated phosphoric acid was added
and titrated against 0.4 N ferrous ammonium sulphate with diphenyl­
amine as indicator. Percentage organic matter was calculated using the
following equations (Schumacher, 2002; Batjes, 1996; Alban and Kel­
logg, 1959):
% C = (3.951/sample weight in g) × (1 − T/S)
Where
T = volume of the titrant (in ml); and
S = volume of the titrant (in ml) without the sample (blank reading).
% Organic matter = % C × 1.724 (4)
3. Results and discussion
(3)
Following is the explanation about the concentration, mineralogy
and grain size of the magnetic minerals present in the hill-top and hill-
bottom profiles of Doddabathi Siddeshwara and Elimale Hills.

4
B.G. Harshavardhana and R. Shankar
Fig. 3. Percentages of (a) particle-size and (b) average content of organic matter for the hill-top (T) and hill-bottom (B) profiles of Doddabathi Siddeshwara and
Elimale hills. NOTE: Both the hill-top profiles show high percentages of clay and average organic matter than corresponding hill-bottom profiles; both hill-bottom
profiles obtain high sand % compared to that of hill-top profiles.
Differences between the hill-top and hill-bottom profiles at both sites are
also brought out and discussed separately.
3.1. Doddabathi Siddeshwara soil profiles
3.1.1. Concentration-dependent magnetic parameters
Concentration-dependent magnetic parameters indicate the content
of magnetic minerals in soil samples studied. The higher their values the
higher would be the concentration of magnetic minerals and vice versa
(Thompson and Oldfield, 1986). All the concentration-dependent
parameter values appear to be high in the hill-top profile compared to
the hill-bottom profile (Fig. 2a and b). The average values for the hill-top
vs. hill-bottom profiles are: χlf = 261.67 vs. 67.70 × 10− 8 m3 kg− 1; χfd =
27.36 vs. 7.46 × 10− 8 m3 kg− 1; χARM = 1.88 vs. 0.5 × 10− 5 m3 kg− 1; and
HIRM = 93.19 vs. 36.44 × 10− 5 A m2 kg− 1. These data suggest the
presence of a relatively higher concentration of magnetic minerals in the
hill-top profile (Dearing et al., 1996; Walden, 1999). Besides, all the
parameters except HIRM (i.e., χlf, χfd and χARM) decrease towards the
profile-top, indicating a decreasing concentration of pedogenic/litho­
genic magnetic minerals as the profile-top is approached. This inter­
pretation is bolstered by the upwardly increasing values of χARM/χfd
ratio, as it is the ratio between SD to SP grains.
3.1.2. Mineralogy-dependent magnetic parameters
Mineralogy-dependent magnetic parameters indicate the presence of
magnetically-soft/-hard minerals. Magnetically-strong minerals are
considered to be the magnetically-soft minerals (example: magnetite) as
they are magnetised quicker than magnetically-hard ones; whereas, the
latter minerals are termed to be so due to their weak magnetism
(example: haematite). In other words, magnetically-hard minerals
require high magnitude of magnetic field to acquire magnetization
(Walden, 1999). The hill-top and hill-bottom profiles both have higher
average S-ratio values (0.95 and 0.92), indicating a high proportion of
magnetically “soft” minerals like magnetite or maghemite (Thompson
and Oldfield, 1986). The hill-top profile registers a relatively higher
average reduction index value (20.63 × 10− 3 mA− 1) compared to the
hill-bottom profile (14.32 × 10− 3 mA− 1), confirming the higher pro­
portion of magnetically “soft” minerals (Sangode and Bloemendal,
2004). Reduction index is the ratio between the concentration of
magnetically-soft minerals and -hard minerals (Sangode and Bloe­
mendal, 2004; Table 1).
Noteworthy is the upwardly decreasing trend of the reduction index
values in both the profiles. This suggests a decreasing proportion of
magnetically “soft” minerals towards the profile-top. The oxidation
5
Catena 198 (2021) 105013
index values logically exhibit the opposite trend (i.e., increasing towards
the profile-top), confirming the decrease in the magnetically “soft”
mineral content (Sangode et al., 2001).
3.1.3. Magnetic grain size-dependent parameters
Magnetic grain size-dependent parameters indicate the size range of
magnetic grains dominantly present in the soil sample. The values of χfd
% > 7 for both soil profiles indicate a notable proportion of pedogenic
formation of fine-grained SP magnetic minerals. Meanwhile, exhibiting
a decreasing trend, the parameter indicates lowering proportion of the
SP grains towards the profile-top. The χARM/SIRM values decrease to­
wards the profile-top in both the hill-top and -bottom profiles, sug­
gesting a coarsening of the magnetic grain size (Maher and Taylor, 1988;
Dearing et al., 1997). This feature is supported by the upwardly
increasing values of SIRM/χlf and χARM/χfd (Oldfield, 1999b; Hu et al.
2003). In addition, the hill-top profile having relatively low average
value of χARM/SIRM (94.09 × 10− 5 mA− 1), high χARM/χfd (72.12) and
SIRM/χlf (7.9 × 103 A m− 1) values compared to that of hill-bottom
profile (114.41 × 10− 5 mA− 1, 67.51 and 6.68 × 103 A m− 1 respec­
tively) suggest the presence of relatively coarse magnetic grains in the
hill-top profile than the latter.
3.1.4. Possible reasons for the observed magnetic behaviour/properties
The relatively high magnetic mineral and SP contents, and a
marginally high concentration of magnetically “soft” minerals in the
hill-top profile than that of hill-bottom suggest their pedogenic forma­
tion (Oldfield, 1999b). The hill-top profile having relatively higher
organic matter content than hill-bottom profile is suggestive of its
possible contribution to pedogenic magnetic enhancement (Fig. 3b).
Organic matter in soil when decomposed produces organic acids that
enhances chemical weathering and hence pedogenesis (Aswathanar­
ayana, 1999). A relatively higher clay content in the hill-top profile
(~30%, 40% and 45%; average ~38%) than hill-bottom profile (~23%,
30% and 54%; average ~36%) at similar depths respectively again
supports the effect of stronger soil genesis (Fig. 3a and b; Heller and Liu,
1986). It should be noted that the relatively less prominent downward-
increase of the clay % in hill-top profile than hill-bottom profile suggests
the relatively lower eluviation of clay particles in the former profile.
Meanwhile, an upward decrease in magnetic minerals in the soil profile,
mainly SP grain concentration, and a coarsening of magnetic grain size
may be understood as due to the erosion of fine grained magnetic
minerals from the upper part of this profile (Harshavardhana, 2012).
The steep slope at the hill-top region (~23◦ ) results in more water
run-off than infiltration, causing an unfavourable pedogenic condition
B.G. Harshavardhana and R. Shankar
Plate 1. Doddabathi Siddeshwara hill-top (a) and hill-bottom (b) soil profiles. NOTE: The former is studded with relatively coarse particles at shallow depth
compared to the latter.
(Hillel, 1992). Hence, eluviation/vertical movement of magnetic min­
erals from profile-top may be insignificant. Further, being located at the
hill-top, the possibility of addition of eroded materials from higher el­
evations to the profile site may also be negligibly. Consequently, hill-top
maintains a relatively less-developed soil profile with apparently large
rock masses at shallow horizons itself (Plate 1a).
Being at toe-slope location, having gentler slope (4◦ ) than hill-top
profile, the hill-bottom profile is characterised by relatively longer
availability of water for pedogenesis. This is apparent from the presence
of relatively well-developed soil profile than the hill-top profile as
shown in Plate 1b. However, the soil profile may also incorporate the
accumulation of soil particles eroded from higher elevations (Hamzah
et al., 2014). A relatively higher sand content of hill-bottom profile
(~57%, 52% and 33%; average ~47%) compared to that of hill-top
(~54%, 44% and 34%; average ~44%) at similar depths respectively
supports the result of reduced erosion of sand particles (Fig. 3a). In other
words, the lower difference in the downward variation of sand % of hill-
bottom profile than hill-top indicates the result of possible accumulation
of eroded materials. Hence, the magnetic dilution caused by the addition
of eroded materials (both magnetic and non-magnetic) from higher el­
evations may be attributed to the reduction in the values of
concentration-dependent magnetic parameters of the hill-bottom pro­
file, in spite of the in situ pedogenic enhancement due to favourable
pedogenic conditions. Therefore, the source of relatively fine magnetic
grains in the hill-bottom profile compared to the hill-top profile, as
indicated by their high average χARM/SIRM value of the former (114.41
× 10− 5 mA− 1) than the latter (94.09 × 10− 5 mA− 1) respectively, may be
attributed to both pedogenically formed finer magnetic grains and that
moved with sand particles as coating (Goulart et al., 1998) from rela­
tively higher elevations. These facts thus, corroborate the prominent
erosional characteristics of hill-top profile and accumulation of eroded
particles from higher elevations to the hill-bottom profile.
Further, the increasing χARM/χfd and SIRM/χlf, and decreasing χARM/
SIRM (Fig. 2) values towards the profile-top in both the profiles confirm
the coarsening of magnetic grains, which is in accordance with the
normal trend of soil erosion in hill topography.
6
Catena 198 (2021) 105013
3.2. Elimale soil profiles
3.2.1. Concentration-dependent magnetic parameters
The hill-top profile exhibits relatively higher values for
concentration-dependent parameters compared to the hill-bottom pro­
file (Fig. 4) as in the Doddabathi Siddeshwara site; only, the differences
are less pronounced in the Elimale profiles. The average values for the
hill-top vs. hill-bottom profiles are: χlf = 519.83 vs. 484.42 × 10− 8 m3
kg− 1; χfd = 45.48 vs. 43.17 × 10− 8 m3 kg− 1; χARM = 2.13 vs. 2.07 × 10− 5
m3 kg− 1; and HIRM = 172.69 vs. 132.85 × 10− 5 A m2 kg− 1.
Like Doddabathi Siddeshwara profiles, all the parameters, except
HIRM, decrease towards the profile-top for both profiles. The data
indicate an upward decrease in the magnetic mineral content.
3.2.2. Mineralogy-dependent magnetic parameters
The high S-ratio (>0.93) and the corresponding values of oxidation-
and reduction-indices (Fig. 4) suggest the presence of magnetically
“soft” minerals in both the hill-top and -bottom profiles. However, the
upward decrease/increase in the values are subdued in both the profiles,
in contrast to the Doddabathi Siddeshwara profiles.
3.2.3. Magnetic grain size-dependent parameters
The χfd % values are nearly constant in the hill-top and hill-bottom
profiles (average value 8.9), suggesting the significant proportion of
fine grained (SP) pedogenic magnetic minerals (Dearing, 1999). How­
ever, the average χARM/SIRM values for the hill-top profile are relatively
low (64.7 × 10− 5 mA− 1) compared to the hill-bottom profile (72.2 ×
10− 5 mA− 1), suggesting a relatively coarse magnetic grains in the former
profile (Fig. 4). In other words, the hill-bottom profile is characterised
by a relatively high content of finer SD grains than hill-top profile. The
correspondingly opposite trend exhibited by SIRM/χlf with average
values 6.3 × 103 A m− 1 and 5.9 × 103 A m− 1 respectively support the
mentioned.
In addition, the decreasing trends of grain size-dependent parame­
ters towards the surface in both the profiles, confirm the removal of fine
magnetic minerals (Oldfield, 1999b). However, nearly constant average
values of χARM/χfd for both the profiles (~47.5) suggest that both SD and
SP grains were eroded in almost equal proportions.
B.G. Harshavardhana and R. Shankar Catena 198 (2021) 105013

Fig. 4. Down-profile variations of magnetic parameters and inter-parametric ratios for soil profiles from Elimale Hill-top (▴) and Hill-bottom (▾). NOTE: In both the
profiles, decreasing values of concentration-dependent parameters towards the profile-top indicate a decrease in the magnetic mineral concentration. Values of HIRM
exhibit although a decreasing trend in the hill-top profile but show no specific trend in the hill-bottom profile.

3.2.4. Possible reasons for the observed magnetic behaviour/properties
Both the hill-top and hill-bottom profiles exhibit the presence of
pedogenic magnetic minerals (χfd % > 8; S-ratio >0.93; χARM > 1.5 ×
10− 5 m3 kg− 1). Both profiles also show evidence of top-soil erosion
(upward decrease in concentration-dependent parameters and χARM/
SIRM but an upward increase in SIRM/χlf). What is important is that the
hill-top profile has higher values of concentration-dependent parame­
ters in comparison with the hill-bottom profile as documented in the
Doddabathi Siddeshwara soil profiles. Also, the hill-top profile has
coarser magnetic grains (lower χARM/SIRM but higher SIRM/χlf values)
compared to the hill-bottom profile, confirming the effect of soil erosion
on the hill-top profile. The fact is further corroborated by the relatively
high sand content of hill-bottom profile (~40%, 34% and 29%; average
~34%) than hill-top (~32%, 31% and 32%; average ~31%) at similar
depths respectively, like Doddabathi profiles (Fig. 3a). Similarly, higher
average percent of organic matter in hill-top profile (9.7%) than hill-

7
B.G. Harshavardhana and R. Shankar
Fig. 5. Differences between the values of magnetic parameters of hill-top and -bottom soil profiles of Doddabathi Siddeshwara and Elimale Hills. Note: Doddabathi
profiles exhibit relatively high difference than Elimale profiles. (a), (b), (c) and (d) show the variations in concentration-dependent parameters; (e) and (f) pertain to
the grain size-dependent parameters.
bottom (9%) and corresponding average clay contents of the profiles
(49% and 43% respectively) confirm stronger pedogenesis in hill-top
(Fig. 3b); clay content of hill-top and hill-bottom profiles at similar
depths are ~49%, 50% and 46%, and ~38%, 48% and 42% respectively
support the effect of stronger pedogenesis in hill-top (Fig. 3b). This ex­
plains the reason for the high content of pedogenic magnetic minerals as
stated in Section 3.2.1.
3.2.5. Comparison of the magnetic signature of soil profiles from
Doddabathi Siddeshwara and Elimale hills
Considering the different conditions of rainfall, organic matter con­
tent and slope characteristics of Doddabathi and Elimale profiles, some
common interesting interpretations for the individual sites may be
drawn based on environmental magnetic characteristics. The hill-top
profiles of both locations exhibit similar variations of magnetic prop­
erties with respect to their corresponding hill-bottom profiles. The
stronger magnetic signature of Elimale soil profiles is attributed to the
pedogenic formation of magnetic minerals owing to the relatively sig­
nificant conditions of rainfall and organic matter content than that of
Doddabathi; as they are the active factors of soil formation and hence,
the production of magnetic mineral in soils (Maher et al., 2003; Balsam
8
Catena 198 (2021) 105013
et al., 2011). This is corroborated by an appreciably high content of SP
grains in Elimale profiles (average ~44 × 10− 8 m3 kg− 1; Fig. 4) than that
of Doddabathi profiles (average ~18 × 10− 8 m3 kg− 1; Fig. 2). The hill-
top profiles have higher magnetic concentration than hill-bottom pro­
files, while exhibiting their decreasing trend towards the profile-top.
This bears the characteristics of soil erosion. However, the magnetic
grain-size indicators behave differently than the normal particle size
parameters with respect to soil erosion. Relatively coarse magnetic
minerals are found associated with hill-top profiles with steep-slope
having higher clay content. Whereas gently sloping hill-bottom pro­
files retain the imprint of finer magnetic minerals with relatively high
sand content. In other words, irrespective of rainfall condition and
organic matter content the slope of the terrain has influenced the erosion
of finer magnetic minerals with sand particles as coating from hill-top
profiles. The explanation for the same may be as follows; during rainy
seasons, owing to the steep slope of hill-top profiles (~23◦ ), there would
be an appreciable erosion of soil particles, which may possibly contain
relatively higher proportion of sand-sized particles compared to that
with gentle slope conditions. This may result in the new set of particle-
size distribution, having a relatively higher proportion of clay-sized
particles within the hill-top profiles. Whereas, hill-bottom profiles,
B.G. Harshavardhana and R. Shankar
Fig. 6. Biplot of χfd % vs. χARM/SIRM (Dearing et al., 1997; Maher and Taylor, 1988), for magnetic grain size variations in (a) Doddabathi Siddeshwara and (b)
Elimale hill-top and hill-bottom soil profiles respectively. NOTE: Samples from Zone-A of both the profiles (filled circle and square) in (a) are coarser than that of
Zone-B (empty circle and square). The spread of samples in (b) is relatively less; all gathered in coarse SSD region.
owing to their relatively gentle slope (~4◦ and ~15◦ ), possibly allow
water infiltration more than hill-top profiles, which help in the relative
eluviation of preferably clay-sized particles to the deeper levels of the
profile, leaving the coarser sand grains. In addition, the relatively less
prominent, erosion of soil particles from hill-bottom profiles may also
contribute positively to the mentioned, even though the slope is gentle
(Washburn, 1980). These, upon the accumulation of eroded soil parti­
cles from higher elevations, may add to the enhanced content of sand
grains in the hill-bottom profiles.
Meanwhile, the finer magnetic grains in hill-bottom profiles are
attributed to both the addition of magnetic grains from higher elevation
as well as that formed in situ during soil formation, when the non-
magnetic/weakly magnetic iron compounds are inorganically trans­
formed to magnetic ones due to the changing redox conditions
(Thompson and Oldfield, 1986). In other words, presence of water
during rains transforms the weakly magnetic oxic forms of iron such as
haematite to strongly magnetic magnetite by reduction (Matthews,
1976). This upon subsequent evaporation of soil moisture oxidized to
maghemite and precipitated as a coating on soil particles (Fischer et al.,
2006). Thus, the availability of moisture due to rainfall and decay of soil
organic matter modifies the physico-chemical conditions of the soil
environment and allows the magnetic enhancement during pedogenesis
(Quijano et al., 2014; Hanesch et al, 2006). However, it should also be
noted that Elimale profile may possibly observe an increased erosion of
finer magnetic minerals owing to the higher rainfall in the location than
Doddabathi. Significant proportion of fine-grained (SP) pedogenic
magnetic minerals in hill-bottom profiles (χfd % > 7) confirms the same.
However, the influence of fire-borne magnetic minerals may be dis­
carded owing to the unavailability of evidences for fire incidences
around the study site as well as relatively weaker magnetic signature of
soil profiles in comparison to that with fire-induction (Chevalier et al.,
1976; Maher, 1998; Farwig et al., 2004). Further, the possibility of
contribution from biogenic formation of magnetic minerals may be
abandoned as the values of χARM/χfd are within the range of 100, which
should have been ~1000 for the evidence of the phenomenon (Dearing,
1999).
9
Catena 198 (2021) 105013
Fig. 5 depicting separately the general difference in magnetic prop­
erties between hill-top and hill-bottom profiles of Doddabathi and Eli­
male hills respectively explains the result of differing pedogenic
conditions. Although, the combined effect of high average annual
rainfall (~3600 mm) and organic matter content in Elimale soils have
produced significant amount of pedogenic magnetic minerals, the dif­
ference between values of concentration-dependent parameters (χlf, χfd,
χARM and HIRM) for hill-top and hill-bottom profiles is relatively low for
Elimale (Fig. 5a, b, c and d) than Doddabathi profiles. The stronger soil
removal characteristics in the Elimale hill-bottom profile due to steeper
slope angle (15◦ ) compared to the gentler slope at Doddabathi hill-
bottom profile (4◦ ) may be attributed to the above mentioned. In
other words, the eroded soil materials possibly accumulate at hill-
bottom having gentler slope like in Doddabathi. Thus, despite the
weaker pedogenic magnetic enhancement because of the lower average
annual rainfall (~800 mm) and organic matter content, Doddabathi
profiles obtain larger difference in their magnetic properties. Although
Elimale is associated with conditions of high rainfall and vegetation
cover, unavailability of plant roots within the sampled profiles implies
the insignificant possibility of soil-particles clogging with roots of
vegetation. However, as the sampling spots were mainly covered with
shed-leaves and sparsely spread grass, soil particles may be held weakly
that might have allowed their movement as indicated by the above-
mentioned particle size studies. Further, a smooth upward decreasing
trend of magnetic parameters in Elimale soil profiles evidences the
insignificant homogenization of soils because of pedoturbation.
Besides, the variation in the values of grain size-dependent param­
eters (χARM/SIRM and SIRM/χlf) between the hill-top and -bottom pro­
files of Doddabathi Siddeshwara is significantly high compared to
Elimale profiles (Fig. 5e and f). This suggests a greater variation in grain-
size of SD grains. In other words, Doddbathi hill profiles present a range
of magnetic grain-size variation, starting from the coarse to fine SD
grains; but it is comparable for Elimale profiles, having mainly coarse SD
grains as shown in Fig. 6.
Further, the lateral distance between the Doddabathi Siddeshwara
soil profiles was noted to be larger (~70–80 m) compared to that of
B.G. Harshavardhana and R. Shankar
Elimale (~16 m). The shorter distance between the hill-top and -bottom
profiles, might possibly lowered the change in the magnetic character­
istics of hill-profiles; as closer soil-profiles apparently have not-so-very
different magnetic imprints.
4. Conclusions
Both the hill-top profiles exhibit similar variations of magnetic
properties with respect to their corresponding hill-bottom profiles. The
hill-top profiles have higher concentration of magnetic minerals
compared to hill-bottom profiles, retaining their decreasing trend to­
wards the profile-top. The mentioned characteristics strongly support
the erosion of soil particles than eluviation owing to the steep slope
conditions (~23◦ ) at hill-top. The magnitude of erosion depends on the
rainfall; the higher the rainfall more would be the eroded materials and
vice versa. However, the magnetic grain-size indicators seem to behave
differently than the normal particle size parameters with respect to soil
erosion. Hill-top profiles with steep-slope, having high average clay
content, obtain the indication of the presence of coarser magnetic
minerals than hill-bottom profiles. This supports the effect of erosion of
finer magnetic grains. Whereas, hill-bottom profiles, having high pro­
portion of sand content, retain the imprint of finer magnetic minerals,
confirm the effect of relatively higher eluviation due to their relatively
gentle slope. In other words, irrespective of rainfall condition and
organic matter content (which are the active-factors of pedogenic
magnetic minerals) the slope of the terrain, being a particle distribution
factor, influenced the removal of finer magnetic minerals also with sand
particles as coating from hill-top profiles. Therefore, the presence of
finer magnetic grains in hill-bottom profiles may be attributed to both
the addition of magnetic minerals from higher elevation as well as that
formed in situ during pedogenesis; when further erosion of soil particles
from the profile may be relatively less. Further, the lateral-distance
between soil profiles at different elevations positively contribute to
the changes in magnetic mineral assemblage. Hence, prominent varia­
tions are observed in Doddabathi profiles than that of Elimale due to the
longer lateral-distance (~70–80 m).
Thus, the study has delineated the distribution pattern of magnetic
minerals (produced due to the action of rainfall and organic matter) that
may arise because of the slope characteristics of hill namely, slope-angle
and lateral-distance. In other words, the magnetic mineral assemblage in
terms of concentration, mineralogy and grain-size has brought out clear
and useful indication of the magnetic mineral distribution over hill
topography irrespective of the rainfall and content of organic matter.
Hence, the rock magnetic properties may be considered as a reliable
proxy for understanding influence of topography on hilly soils.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This study was financially assisted by the Department of Science and
Technology, Government of India, through a research project titled
“Magnetic studies of soils from Southern India” (Sanction No. SR/S4/ES-
48/2003 dated 29.01.2004) sanctioned to RS. The magnetic instruments
used in this study were procured from grants made available by the
erstwhile Department of Ocean Development (now Ministry of Earth
Sciences), Government of India, through a research project (DOD/11-
MRDF/1/48/P/94-ODII/dated 12-10-96) to RS. BGH thanks the Indian
Space Research Organization (ISRO), Government of India, for the
award of a Senior Research Fellowship. Dr. Sandeep, K offered help and
valuable discussion during field work.
10
Catena 198 (2021) 105013
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