Fluid Mechanics Kinematics of Fluid Flow

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FLUID MECHANICS
Kinematics of Fluid Flow
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KINEMATICS OF FLUID FLOW

Fluid kinematics refers to the features of a fluid in motion. It only deals
with the motion of fluid particles without taking into account the forces
causing the motion. Considerations of velocity, acceleration, flow rate,
nature of flow and flow visualization are taken up under fluid kinematics.
A fluid motion can be analyzed by one of the two alternative
approaches, called Lagrangian and Eulerian.
In Lagrangian approach, a particle or a fluid element is identified
and followed during the course of its motion with time as demonstrated in
Fig.1
Final time
Initial time
Fig. 1. Lagrangian Approach (Study of each particle with time)
Fig. 2. Eulerian Approach (Study at fixed station in space)

Eg: To know the attributes of a vehicle to be purchased, you can follow the
specific vehicle in the traffic flow all along its path over a period of time.
Difficulty in tracing a fluid particle (s) makes it nearly impossible to
apply the Lagrangian approach. The alternative approach, called Eulerian
approach consists of observing the fluid by setting up fixed stations
(sections) in the flow field (Fig. 2).
Motion of the fluid is specified by velocity components as functions
of space and time. This is considerably easier than the previous approach
and is followed in Fluid Mechanics.
Eg: Observing the variation of flow properties in a channel like velocity,
depth etc, at a section.
Classification of Flows:
1. Steady and unsteady flows :
A flow is said to be steady if the properties (P) of the fluid and flow do not
change with time (t) at any section or point in a fluid flow.
∂
(P ) = 0
∂t
A flow is said to be unsteady if the properties (P) of the fluid and flow
change with time (t) at any section or point in a fluid flow.
∂
(P ) ≠ 0
∂t
Eg: Flow observed at a dam section during rainy season, wherein, there
will be lot of inflow with which the flow properties like depth, velocity
etc.. will change at the dam section over a period of time representing it as
unsteady flow.
2. Uniform and non-uniform flows:

A flow is said to be uniform if the properties (P) of the fluid and flow do
not change (with direction) over a length of flow considered along the flow
∂
at any instant.
(P ) = 0
∂x
A flow is said to be non-uniform if the properties (P) of the fluid and flow
change (with direction) over a length of flow considered along the flow at
any instant.
∂
(P ) ≠ 0
∂x
Eg: Flow observed at any instant, at the dam section during rainy season,
wherein, the flow varies from the top of the overflow section to the foot of
the dam and the flow properties like depth, velocity etc., will change at the
dam section at any instant between two sections, representing it as non-
uniform flow.

1 2 3
y3 5
y1 y2
v1 v2 v3 4
y5 v5
vv44 y4
Fig. 3 Different types of fluid flow

Consider a fluid flow as shown above in a channel. The flow is said to be
steady at sections 1 and 2 as the flow does not change with respect to time
at the respective sections (y 1 =y 2 and v 1 =v 2 ).
The flow between sections 1 and 2 is said to be uniform as the properties
does not change between the sections at any instant (y 1 =y 2 and v 1 = v 2 ).
The flow between sections 2 and 3 is said to be non-uniform flow as the
properties vary over the length between the sections.
Non-uniform flow can be further classified as Gradually varied flow and
Rapidly varied flow. As the name itself indicates, Gradually varied flow is
a non-uniform flow wherein the flow/fluid properties vary gradually over a
long length (Eg: between sections 2 and 3).
Rapidly varied flow is a non-uniform flow wherein the flow/fluid
properties vary rapidly within a very short distance. (Eg: between sections
4 and 5).
Combination of steady and unsteady flows and uniform and non-uniform
flows can be classified as steady-uniform flow (Sections 1 and 2),
unsteady-uniform flow, steady-non-uniform flow (Sections 2 and 3) and
unsteady-non-uniform flow (Sections 4 and 5).
3. One, two and three dimensional flows:

Flow is said to be one-dimensional if the properties vary only along one
axis / direction and will be constant with respect to other two directions of
a three-dimensional axis system.
Flow is said to be two-dimensional if the properties vary only along two
axes / directions and will be constant with respect to other direction of a
three-dimensional axis system.
Flow is said to be three-dimensional if the properties vary along all the
axes / directions of a three-dimensional axis system.

s
Fig. 4 a) One dimensional flow
y
Fig. 4 b) Two dimensional flow
Fig. 4 c) Three dimensional flow

4. Laminar and Turbulent flows:

When the flow occurs like sheets or laminates and the fluid elements
flowing in a layer does not mix with other layers, then the flow is said to
be laminar. The Reynolds number (R e ) for the flow will be less than 2000.
ρvD
Re =
µ
Velocity
x
Fig. 5 Laminar flow
When the flow velocity increases, the sheet like flow gets mixed up and
the fluid elements mix with other layers there by causing turbulence. There
will be eddy currents generated and flow reversal takes place. This flow is
said to be Turbulent. The Reynolds number for the flow will be greater
than 4000.
For flows with Reynolds number between 2000 to 4000 is said to be
transition flow.
5. Compressible and Incompressible flows:

Flow is said to be Incompressible if the fluid density does not change
(constant) along the flow direction and is Compressible if the fluid density
varies along the flow direction
ρ = Constant (incompressible) and ρ ≠ Constant (compressible)
6. Rotational and Irrotational flows:

Flow is said to be Rotational if the fluid elements does not rotate about
their own axis as they move along the flow and is Rotational if the fluid
elements rotate along their axis as they move along the flow direction
Fluid
Motion
Fig. 6 a)Irrotational flow
Fluid
Motion
Fig.6 b)Rotational flow

Rate of flow or Discharge (Q):

Rate of flow or discharge is said to be the quantity of fluid flowing per
second across a section of a flow. Rate of flow can be expressed as mass
rate of flow or volume rate of flow. Accordingly
Mass rate of flow = Mass of fluid flowing across a section / time
Rate of flow = Volume of fluid flowing across a section / time
Types of lines
Path Line: It is the path traced by a fluid particle over a period of time
during its motion along the fluid flow.
t=0 P
t=t
P
Fig. 7 Path line

Eg: Path traced by an ant coming out from its dwelling
Stream Lines
It is an imaginary line such that when a tangent is drawn at any point it
gives the velocity of the fluid particle at that point and at that instant.
Fig. 8 Stream lines

Eg: Path traced by the flow when an obstruction like a sphere or a stick is
kept during its motion. The flow breaks up before the obstruction and joins
after it crosses it.
Streak lines
It is that imaginary line that connects all the fluid particles that has gone
through a point/section over a period of time in a fluid motion.
1 4
2 5 8
3
9
7
6
10
t = 10
Fig. 9 Streak lines
Stream tube:

It is an imaginary tube formed by stream line on its surface such that the
flow only enters the tube from one side and leaves it on the other side
only. No flow takes place across the stream tube. This concept will help in
the analysis of fluid motion.
Stream lines
Fig. 11 Stream tube

Variation of a Property along any given direction
If P is a Property at any point, then the property at any other location
along x direction at a distance dx is given by
∂
∂x  ∂ 
P +  (P ) dx
∂ x 
P x
dx
Fig. 12 Variation of a property along x direction
New Property = Old Property + slope x Old Property x distance

Continuity Equation
The derivation is based on the concept of Law of conservation of mass.
Statement: The flow of fluid in a continuous flow across a section is

always a constant.
Consider an enlarging section in a fluid flow of fluid density γ . Consider
two sections 1 and 2 as shown in Fig. Let the sectional properties be as
under
Fluid flow
2
1 x
dx
Fig. 13 Fluid flow through a control volume
A 1 and A 2 = Cross-sectional area, V 1 and V 2 = Average flow velocity and
ρ 1 and ρ 2 = Fluid density at Sec 1 and 2 respectively
dt is the time taken for the fluid to cover a distance dx
The mass of fluid flowing across section 1-1 is given by

m 1 = Density at section 1 x volume of fluid that has crossed section 1
ρ 1 x A 1 x dx
Mass rate of fluid flowing across section 1-1 is given by
m 1 /dt = (Density at sec 1 x volume of fluid that has crossed sec 1)/dt
ρ 1 x A 1 x dx/dt = ρ 1 A 1 V 1 …(01)
Similarly Mass rate of fluid flowing across section 2-2 is given by
m 2 /dt = ρ 2 x A 2 x dx/dt = ρ 2 A 2 V 2 …(02)
From law of conservation of mass, mass can neither be created nor
destroyed. Hence from Eqs. 1 and 2, we get
ρ1A1V1 = ρ2A2V2
If the density of the fluid is constant, then the equation reduces to
A1V1 = A2V2
The above equationis discharge continuity equation in one dimensional
form for an steady, incompressible fluid flow.

Continuity Equation in three dimensional or differential form
Consider a parallelepiped ABCDEFGH in a fluid flow of density γ as

shown in Fig. Let the dimensions of the parallelepiped be dx, dy and dz
along x, y and z directions respectively. Let the velocity components along
x, y and z be u, v and w respectively.
D H
A
E
v
dy
G
C u x
w dz
F
B
dx
z
Fig. 14 parallelepiped in a fluid flow
Mass rate of fluid flow entering the section ABCD along x direction is
given by ρ x Area x flow velocity
M x1 = ρ u dy dz …(01)
Similarly mass rate of fluid flow leaving the section EFGH along x
direction is given by
 ∂ 
M x 2 =  ρ u + (ρ u ) dx  dy dz …(02)
 ∂x 
Net gain in mass rate of the fluid along the x axis is given by the
difference between the mass rate of flow entering and leaving the control
volume. i.e. Eq. 1 – Eq. 2
 ∂ 
dM x = ρ u dy dz −  ρ u + (ρ u ) dx  dy dz
 ∂x 
∂
dM x = − (ρ u ) dx dy dz …(03)
∂x
Similarly net gain in mass rate of the fluid along the y and z axes are given
by

∂
dM y = − (ρ v ) dx dy dz …(04)
∂y
∂
dM z = − (ρ w ) dx dy dz …(05)
∂z
Net gain in mass rate of the fluid from all the three axes are given by
dM = −
∂
(ρ u ) dx dy dz − ∂ (ρ v ) dx dy dz − ∂ (ρ w ) dx dy dz
∂x ∂y ∂z
From law of conservation of Mass, the net gain in mass rate of flow should be zero and
hence
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
 ∂x (ρ u ) + ∂y (ρ v ) + ∂z (ρ w ) dx dy dz = 0
 
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
or  ∂x (ρ u ) + ∂y (ρ v ) + ∂z (ρ w ) = 0
 
This expression is known as the general Equation of Continuity in three dimensional form
or differential form.
If the fluid is incompressible then the density is constant and hence
 ∂u ∂ v ∂ w 
 ∂x + ∂y + ∂z  = 0
 
The continuity equation in two-dimensional form for compressible and incompressible
flows are respectively as below
 ∂ ∂ 
 ∂x (ρ u ) + ∂y (ρ v )  = 0
 
 ∂u ∂ v 
 ∂x + ∂y  = 0
 

Velocity
Velocity of a fluid along any direction can be defined as the rate of change
of displacement of the fluid along that direction.
u = dx / dt
Where dx is the distance traveled by the fluid in time dt.
Velocity of a fluid element is a vector, which is a function of space and
time.
Let V be the resultant velocity of a fluid along any direction and u, v and
w be the velocity components in x, y and z directions respectively.
Mathematically the velocity components can be written as
u = f ( x, y, z, t )
v = f ( x, y, z, t )
w = f ( x, y, z, t )
and V = ui + vj + wk = u 2 + v2 + w 2
Where u = (dx/dt), v = (dy/dt) and w = (dz/dt).
Acceleration
Acceleration of a fluid element along any direction can be defined as the
rate of change of velocity of the fluid along that direction.
If a x , a y and a z are the components of acceleration along x, y and z
directions respectively, they can be mathematically written as
a x = du/ dt.
But u = f (x, y, z, t) and hence by chain rule, we can write,
∂u dx ∂u dy ∂u dz ∂u
ax = + + +
∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt ∂t
Similarly
∂v dx ∂v dy ∂v dz ∂v
ay = + + +
∂w dx ∂w dy ∂w dz ∂w
and az = + + +
But u = (dx/dt), v = (dy/dt) and w = (dz/dt).

Hence
Local accln
Convective accln
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
ax = u +v +w +
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v
ay = u + v + w + Total accln
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂w ∂w ∂w ∂w
az = u +v +w +
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
If A is the resultant acceleration vector, it is given by A = axi + a y j + az k
For steady flow, the local acceleration will be zero
Problems = a x2 + a y2 + a z2
1. The velocity field in a fluid is given by

( )
Vs = (3 x + 2 y )i + 2 z + 3 x 2 j + (2t − 3 z )k
i. What are the velocity components u, v, and w ?
ii. Determine the speed at the point (1,1,1).
iii. Determine the speed at time t=2 s at point (0,0,2).
Solution: The velocity components at any point (x, y, z) are
( )
u = (3 x + 2 y ), v = 2 z + 3 x 2 , w = (2t − 3 z )k
Substitute x=1, y=1, z=1 in the above expression
u = (3*1+2*1) = 5, v = (2*1+3*1) = 5, w = (2t-3)
V2 = u2 + v2 + w2
= 52 + 52 + (2t-3)2
= 4 t 2 – 12 t + 59
V(1,1,1) = (4t 2
− 12t + 59 )
Substitute t = 2 s, x=0, y=0, z=2 in the above expression for u, v and w
u = 0, v = (4 + 0) = 4, w = (4 – 6) = -2
V 2 (0,0,2,2) = (0 + 15 + 4) = 20
V = 4.472 units
2. The velocity distribution in a three-dimensional flow is given by:
u = - x, v = 2y and w = (3-z). Find the equation of the stream line that passes through
point (1,1,1).
Solution: The stream line equation is given by
dx dy dz dx dy dz
= = or = =
u v w − x 2 y (3 − z )
dx dy
=
− x 2y
Integrating we get
1
− log e x = log e y + A,
2
Where A is an integral constant. Substituting x=1 & y=1, A = 0
−1 1
∴ log e x = log e y 2 or x =
y
Considering the x and z components,
dx dy
=
− x (3 − z )
Integrating we get
− log e x = − log e (3 − z ) + B,
Where B is an integral constant. Substituting x=1 & z=1, B = log e 2
 3− z 
∴ − log e x = − log e (3 - z ) + log e 2 = − log e  
 2 
 3− z 
or x =  
 2 

From Eqs. 1 and 2, the final equation of the stream line that passes through the point
(1,1,1) is
1  3− z 
x= = 
y  2 
3. A fluid particle moves in the following flow field starting from the points (2,1,0) at t=0.
t2 ty 2 z
u= ,v = ,w =
2x 18 2t
Determine the location of the fluid particle at t = 3 s
Solution
dx t 2
u= = or 2 xdx = t 2 dt
dt 2 x
Integrating we get
t3
x2 = +A
3
Where A is an integral constant. Substituting x=2, t=0, A = 4
t3
x2 = + 4
3
33
x 2 = + 4 = 13
3
dy ty 2 dy tdt
v= = or 2 =
dt 18 y 18
Integrating we get
1 t2
− = +B
y 36
Where B is an integral constant.

Substituting y=1, t=0, B = -1
1 t2
= 1−
y 36
At t = 3 s,
1 32 3 4
= 1− = or y =
y 36 4 3
dz z 2dz dt
w= = or =
dt 2t z t
Integrating we get
2 log e z = log e t + C
Where C is an integral constant.
Substituting z=0, t=0, C = 0 2 log e z = log e t or z 2 = t
At t = 3 s,
z 2 = 3 or z = 3
From Eqs. 1, 2 and 3, at the end of 3 seconds the particle is at a point
 4 
 13 , , 3 
 3 

4. The following cases represent the two velocity components, determine the third
component of velocity such that they satisfy the continuity equation:
(i) u = x2 + y2 + z2 ; v = xy2 - yz2 + xy; (ii) v = 2y2 ; w = 2xyz.
Solution:
The continuity equation for incompressible flow is given by
[(∂ u/∂ x)+(∂ v/∂ y) +(∂ w/∂ z)] = 0 …(01)
u = x2 + y2 + z2; (∂ u/∂ x) = 2x
v = xy2 - yz2 + xy; (∂ v/∂ y) = 2xy - z2 + x
Substituting in Eq. 1, we get
2x + 2xy – z2 + z + (∂ w/∂ z) = 0
Rearranging and integrating the above expression, we get
w = (-3xz – 2xyz + z3/3) + f(x,y)
Similarly, solution of the second problem
u = -4xy – x2y2 + f(y,z).
5. Find the convective acceleration at the middle of a pipe which converges uniformly
from 0.4 m to 0.2 m diameter over a length of
2 m. The rate of flow is 20 lps. If the rate of flow changes uniformly from 20 lps to 40 lps
in 30 seconds, find the total acceleration at the middle of the pipe at 15th second.
Solution:
D 1 = 0.4 m, D 2 = 0.2 m, L = 2 m, Q = 20 lps = 0.02 m3/s.
Q 1 = 0.02 m3/s and Q 2 = 0.04 m3/s
Case (i)
Flow is one dimensional and hence the velocity components v = w = 0
∴Convective acceleration = u( ∂u /∂x) 1
A1 = (π/4)(D 1 ) = 0.1257 m
2 2
A2 = (π/4)(D 2 2) = 0.0314 m2 2
u1 = Q/A1 = 0.02/0.1257 = 0.159 m/s 0.4 m 0.2 m
and u2 = Q/A2 = 0.02/0.0314 = 0.637 m/s A
As the diameter changes uniformly, the velocity will also
change uniformly. The velocity u at any distance x from
inlet is given by 2m
u = u 1 + (u 2 – u 1 )/(x/L) = 0.159 + 0.2388 x
( ∂u /∂x) = 0.2388
∴Convective acceleration = u( ∂u /∂x) = (0.159 + 0.2388 x) 0.2388
At A, x = 1 m and hence
(Convective accln) x = 1 = 94.99 mm/s2
Case (ii)
Total acceleration = (convective + local ) acceleration at t =15 seconds
Rate of flow Q t = 15 = Q 1 + (Q 2 – Q 1 )(15/30) = 0.03 m3/s.
u 1 = Q/A 1 = 0.03/0.1257 = 0.2386 m/s
and u 2 = Q/A 2 = 0.03/0.0314 = 0.9554 m/s
The velocity u at any distance x from inlet is given by
u = u 1 + (u 2 – u 1 )/(x/L) = 0.2386 + 0.3584 x
( ∂u /∂x) = 0.3584
∴Convective acceleration = u( ∂u /∂x) = (0.2386 + 0.3584 x) 0.3584
At A, x = 1 m and hence
(Convective accln) x = 1 = 0.2139 m/s 2
Local acceleration

Diameter at A is given by D = D 1 + (D 1 – D 2 )/(x/L) = 0.3 m

and A = (π/4)(D2) = 0.0707 m2
When Q 1 = 0.02 m3/s, u 1 = 0.02/0.0707 = 0.2829 m/s
When Q 2 = 0.04 m3/s, u 2 = 0.02/0.0707 = 0.5659 m/s
Rate of change of velocity = Change in velocity/time
= (0.5629-0.2829)/30 = 9.43 x 10 -3m/s 2
∴Total acceleration = 0.2139 + 9.43 x 10 -3 = 0.2233 m/s2
Velocity Potential (φ )
Velocity Potential φ is a scalar function of space and time such that its negative derivative
with respect to any direction gives the velocity component in that direction
Thus φ = φ (x,y,z,t) and flow is steady then,
u = -(∂ φ /∂ x); v = -(∂ φ /∂ y) ; w = -(∂ φ /∂ z)
Continuity equation for a three dimensional fluid flow is given by

[(∂ u/∂ x)+(∂ v/∂ y) +(∂ w/∂ z)] = 0
Substituting for u, v and w, we get
[(∂ /∂ x)(-∂ φ /∂ x)+(∂ /∂ y)(-∂ φ /∂ y) +(∂ /∂ z) (-∂ φ /∂ z)] = 0
i.e. [(∂ 2φ /∂ x2)+(∂ 2φ/∂ y2)+(∂ 2φ /∂ z2)] = 0
The above equation is known as Laplace equation in φ
For a 2 D flow the above equation reduces to
[(∂ 2φ /∂ x2)+(∂ 2φ/∂ y2)] = 0
We know that for an irrotational two dimensional fluid flow, the rotational fluid elements
about z axis must be zero.
i.e. ω z = ½ [(∂ v/∂ x) - (∂ u/∂ y)]
Substituting for u and v, we get
W z = ½ [(∂ /∂ x)(-∂ φ /∂ y) - (∂ /∂ y)(-∂ φ /∂ x)]
For the flow to be irrotational, the above component must be zero
ω z = ½ [ (-∂ 2φ /∂ x ∂ y) - (-∂ 2φ / ∂ y ∂ x)] = 0
i.e. (-∂ 2φ /∂ x ∂ y) = (-∂ 2φ / ∂ y ∂ x)
This is true only when φ is a continuous function and exists.
Thus the properties of a velocity potential are:
1. If the velocity potential φ exists, then the flow should be irrotational.
2. If the velocity potential φ satisfies the Laplace Equation, then it represents a
possible case of a fluid flow.
Stream Function (ψ )
Stream Function ψ is a scalar function of space and time such that its partial derivative
with respect to any direction gives the velocity component at right angles to that direction.
Thus ψ = ψ (x,y,z,t) and flow is steady then,
u = -(∂ ψ /∂ y); v = (∂ ψ /∂ x)
Continuity equation for a two dimensional fluid flow is given by

[(∂ u/∂ x)+(∂ v/∂ y)] = 0
[(∂ /∂ x)(-∂ ψ /∂ y)+(∂ /∂ y)(∂ ψ /∂ x)] = 0
i.e. [ (-∂ 2ψ /∂ x ∂ y) + (∂ 2ψ / ∂ y ∂ x)] = 0
or (∂ 2ψ /∂ x ∂ y) = (∂ 2ψ / ∂ y ∂ x)

This is true only when ψ is a continuous function.
We know that for an irrotational two dimensional fluid flow, the rotational fluid elements
about z axis must be zero.
i.e. ω z = ½ [(∂ v/∂ x) - (∂ u/∂ y)]
ω z = ½ [(∂ /∂ x)(∂ ψ /∂ x) - (∂ /∂ y)(-∂ ψ /∂ y)]
For the flow to be irrotational, the above component must be zero
i.e. [(∂ 2φ /∂ x2)+(∂ 2φ/∂ y2)] = 0
The above equation is known as Laplace equation in ψ
Thus the properties of a Stream function are:
1. If the Stream function ψ exists, then it represents a possible case of a fluid flow.
2. If the Stream function ψ satisfies the Laplace Equation, then the flow should be
irrotational.
Equi-potential lines:
It is an imaginary line along which the velocity potential φ is a constant
i.e. φ = Constant
∴ dφ = 0
But φ = f (x,y) for a two dimensional steady flow
∴ dφ = (∂ φ /∂ x)dx + (∂ φ /∂ y)dy
Substituting the values of u and v, we get
dφ = – u dx – v dy ⇒ 0
or u dx = – v dy
or (dy/dx) = – u/v … (01)
Where dy/dx is the slope of the equi-potential line.
Line of constant stream function or stream line

It is an imaginary line along which the stream function ψ is a constant
i.e. ψ = Constant
∴ dψ=0
But ψ = f (x,y) for a two dimensional steady flow
∴ d ψ = (∂ ψ /∂ x)dx + (∂ ψ /∂ y)dy
Substituting the values of u and v, we get
d ψ = v dx – u dy ⇒ 0
or v dx = u dy
or (dy/dx) = v/u … (02)
Where dy/dx is the slope of the Stream line.
From Eqs. 1 and 2, we get that the product of the slopes of equi-potential line and stream
line is given by -1. Thus, the equi-potential lines and stream lines are orthogonal to each
other at all the points of intersection.
Flow net
A grid obtained by drawing a series of equi-potential lines and stream lines is called a
Flow net. The flow net is an important tool in analysing two dimensional flow irrotational
flow problems.
Relationship between Stream function (ψ) and Velocity potential (φ)

We know that the velocity components are given by

u = - (∂ φ /∂ x) v = -(∂ φ /∂ y)
and u = - (∂ ψ /∂ y) v = (∂ ψ /∂ x)
Thus u = - (∂ φ /∂ x) = - (∂ ψ /∂ y) and v = -(∂ φ /∂ y) = (∂ ψ /∂ x)
Hence (∂ φ /∂ x) = (∂ ψ /∂ y)
and (∂ φ /∂ y) = - (∂ ψ /∂ x)
Problems
Jan/Feb 2003
6. In a two dimensional incompressible flow the fluid velocity components are given by
u = x – 4y and v = -y – 4x
Where u and v are x and y components of velocity of flow. Show that the flow satisfies
the continuity equation and obtain the expression for stream function. If the flow is
potential, obtain also the expression for the velocity potential. (07)
Solution:
u = x – 4y and v = -y – 4x
(∂ u /∂ x) = 1 and (∂ v /∂ y) = -1
(∂ u /∂ x)+ (∂ v /∂ y) = 1-1 = 0.
Hence it satisfies continuity equation and the flow is continuous and velocity potential
exists.
Let φ be the velocity potential.
Then (∂ φ /∂ x) = -u = - (x – 4y) = -x + 4y (1)
and (∂ φ /∂ y) = -v = - (-y – 4x) = y + 4x (2)
Integrating Eq. 1, we get
φ = (-x2/2) + 4xy + C (3)
Where C is an integral constant, which is independent of x and can be a function of y.
Differentiating Eq. 3 w.r.t. y, we get
(∂ φ /∂ y) = 0 + 4x + (∂ C /∂ y) ⇒ y + 4x
Hence, we get (∂ C /∂ y) = y
Integrating the above expression, we get C = y2/2
Substituting the value of C in Eq. 3, we get the general expression as
φ = (-x2/2) + 4xy + y2/2
Stream Function
Let ψ be the velocity potential.
Then (∂ ψ /∂ x) = v = (-y – 4x) = -y - 4x (4)
and (∂ ψ /∂ y) = u = -(x – 4y) = -x + 4y (5)
Integrating Eq. 4, we get
ψ = - y x - 4 (x2/2) + K (6)
Where K is an integral constant, which is independent of x and can be a function of y.
(∂ ψ /∂ y) = - x – 0 + (∂ K /∂ y) ⇒ -x + 4 y
Hence, we get (∂ K /∂ y) = 4 y
Integrating the above expression, we get C = 4 y2/2 = 2 y2
Substituting the value of K in Eq. 6, we get the general expression as
ψ = - y x - 2 x2 + 2 y2
July/Aug 2003
7. The components of velocity for a two dimensional flow are given by

u = x y; v = x2 – y2/2
Check whether (i) they represent the possible case of flow
and (ii) the flow is irrotational. (6)
Solution:
u = x y; and v = x2 – y2/2
(∂ u /∂ x) = y (∂ v /∂ y) = -y
(∂ u /∂ y) = x (∂ v /∂ x) = 2x
For a possible case of flow the velocity components
should satisfy the equation of continuity.
i.e. [(∂ u/∂ x)+(∂ v/∂ y)] = 0
Substituting, we get y – y = 0.
Hence it is a possible case of a fluid flow.
For flow to be irrotational in a two dimensional fluid flow, the rotational component in z
direction (ωz) must be zero, where
ω z = ½ [(∂ v/∂ x) - (∂ u/∂ y)]=½ (2x - x) ≠ 0
Hence, the flow is not irrotational.
July/Aug 2003
8. Find the components of velocity along x and y for the velocity potential φ = a Cos xy.
Also calculate the corresponding stream function. (8)
Solution:
φ = a Cos xy.
(∂ φ /∂ x) = -u = - ay Sin xy (1)
and (∂ φ /∂ y) = -v = - ax Sin xy (2)
Hence u = ay Sin xy and v = ax Sin xy.
Jan/Feb 2004
9. The stream function and velocity potential for a flow are given by
ψ = 2xy and φ = x2 – y2
Show that the conditions for continuity and irrotational flow are satisfied
(8)
Solution:
From the properties of Stream function, the existence of stream function shows the
possible case of flow and if it satisfies Laplace equation, then the flow is irrotational.
(i) ψ = 2xy
(∂ ψ /∂ x) = 2 y and (∂ ψ /∂ y) = 2 x
(∂ ψ /∂ x ) = 0
2 2
and (∂ 2ψ /∂ y2) = 0
(∂ 2ψ /∂ x ∂ y) = 2 and (∂ 2ψ /∂ y ∂ x) = 2
(∂ 2ψ /∂ x ∂ y) = (∂ 2ψ /∂ y ∂ x)
Hence the flow is Continuous.
(∂ 2ψ /∂ x2) + (∂ 2ψ /∂ y2) = 0
As it satisfies the Laplace equation, the flow is irrotational.
From the properties of Velocity potential,
the existence of Velocity potential shows the flow is irrotational and if it satisfies Laplace
equation, then it is a possible case of flow
(ii) φ = x2 – y2
(∂ φ /∂ x) = 2 x and (∂ φ /∂ y) = -2 y
(∂ φ /∂ x ) = 2
2 2
and (∂ 2φ /∂ y2) = -2

(∂ 2φ /∂ x ∂ y) = 0 and (∂ 2φ/∂ y ∂ x) = 0
(∂ 2 φ /∂ x ∂ y) = (∂ 2 φ /∂ y ∂ x)
Hence the flow is irrotational
(∂ 2 φ /∂ x2) + (∂ 2 φ /∂ y2) = 0
As it satisfies the Laplace equation, the flow is Continuous.
10. In a 2-D flow, the velocity components are u = 4y and v = -4x

i. is the flow possible ?
ii. if so, determine the stream function
iii. What is the pattern of stream lines ?
Solution:
For a possible case of fluid flow, it has to satisfy continuity equation.
i.e. [(∂ u/∂ x)+(∂ v/∂ y)] = 0 (1)
u = 4y and v = -4x
(∂ u /∂ x) = 0 (∂ v /∂ y) = 0
Substituting in Eq. 1, we get 0.
Hence the flow is possible.
Stream function
We know that (∂ ψ /∂ x) = v = - 4x (2)
and (∂ ψ /∂ y) = - u = - 4y (3)
ψ = - 2x + C(y)
2
(4)
Where C is an integral constant and a function of y.
Differentiating Eq. 4, w.r.t. y, we get
(∂ ψ /∂ y) = 0 + ∂ C(y) /∂ y = - u = - 4y
Integrating the above expression w.r.t. y we get
C(y) = -2y2.
Substituting the above value in Eq. 4, we get the general expression as
ψ = - 2x2 – 2y2 = - 2 (x2+ y2)
The above equation is an expression of concentric circles and hence the stream function
is concentric circles.

Jan/Feb 2005
11. A 250 mm diameter pipe carries oil of specific gravity 0.9 at a velocity of 3 m/s. At
another section the diameter is 200 mm. Find the velocity at this section and the mass rate
of flow of oil. (6)
Solution:
D 1 = 0.25 m; D 2 = 0.2 m; S o = 0.9; V 1 = 3 m/s; ρ = 1000 kg/m3(assumed);
V2 = ?; Mass rate of flow = ?
From discharge continuity equation for steady incompressible flow, we have

Q = A1V1 = A2V2 (01)
A 1 = (π/4)D 1 2 = (π/4)0.25 2 = 0.0499 m2
A 2 = (π/4)D 2 2 = (π/4)0.20 2 = 0.0314 m2
Q = 0.0499 x 3 = 0.1473 m3/s
Mass rate of flow = ρ Q = 0.1479 x 1000 = 147.9 kg/m3 (Ans)
V 2 = (A 1 / A 2 ) x V 1 = (D 1 / D 2 )2 x V 1 = (0.25/0.2)2 x 3 = 4.6875 m/s (Ans)
12. A stream function in a two dimensional flow is ψ = 2 x y. Show that the flow is
irrotational and determine the corresponding velocity potential. (8)
Solution:
For first part see Prob. 9.
Given ψ = 2 x y.
u = - (∂ φ/∂ x) = -(∂ ψ/∂ y) = - 2 x (01)
v = - (∂ φ/∂ y) = (∂ ψ/∂ x) = 2 y (02)
Integrating Eq. 1, w.r.t. x, we get
φ = 2 x2/2 + C = x2 + C(y) (03)
Where C(y) is an integral constant independent of x
(∂ φ/∂ y) = 0 + (∂ C(y) /∂ y) = - 2 y
Integrating the above expression w.r.t. y, we get
C(y) = -y2
Substituting for C(y) in Eq. 3, we get the general expression for φ as
φ = x2 + C = x2 - y2 (Ans)
July / Aug 2005
13. The velocity potential for a flow is given by the function φ = x2 - y2. Verify that the
flow is incompressible and determine the stream function.
Solution:
From the properties of velocity potential, we have that if φ satisfies Laplace equation, then
the flow is steady incompressible continuous fluid flow. (10)
Given φ=x -y2 2
(∂ φ /∂ x) = 2 x (∂ φ /∂ y) = -2 y
(∂ 2φ /∂ x2) = 2 (∂ 2φ /∂ 2y) = -2
From Laplace Equation, we have (∂ 2φ /∂ x2) + (∂ 2φ /∂ 2y) = 2 – 2 = 0.

Finding out the stream function for the above velocity potential is reverse procedure of
Prob. 12 and the answer is ψ = 2 x y.
Dynamics of Fluid Flow
2005 Jan/Feb
5 c) A horizontal venturimeter with inlet diameter 200 mm diameter and
throat diameter 100 mm is used to measure the flow of oil of specific
gravity 0.8. The discharge of oil through venturimeter is 60 lps. Find
the reading of the oil-mercury differential manometer. Take
C d = 0.98. (08)
Solution:
d 1 = 0.2 m; d 2 = 0.1 m; Q = 0.06 m 3 /s; C d = 0.98; S m = 13.6 (assumed)
x = ?
π π
a1 = d12 = × 0.2 2 = 0.03142 m 2
4 4
π π
a2 = d 22 = × 0.12 = 0.007854 m 2
4 4
a1a2
Q = Cd × 2 gh
a12 − a22
0.03142 × 0.007854
0.06 = 0.98 × 2 × 10 × h x
0.03142 2 − 0.007854 2
h = 2.849 m of oil
But
S   13.6 
h = x  m − 1 ⇒ 2.849 = x  − 1
 So   0.8 
∴ x =17.81 mm

2003 July/Aug
5 c) A venturimeter is to be fit in a 200 mm diameter horizontal pipe
line. The inlet pressure is 100 kPa. If the maximum flow of oil
(s=0.85) is 200 Lps, calculate the least diameter of the throat, so that
the pressure does not fall below 250 mm mercury (vacuum). Assume
that 3% of the differential head is lost between the inlet and the
throat. (08)
Solution:
D 1 = 0.2 m; p 1 = 100 kPa; Q = 0.2 m 3 /s; s = 0.85; p 2 ≥ - 0.25 m Hg;
h L = 3% h;
Assume ρ = 1000 kg/m 3 ; g = 10 m/s 2 .
Pressure head at inlet = p 1 / ρ g = 100 x 10 3 /(0.85 x 1000 x 10) = 11.765 m
of liquid
Pressure head at outlet = p 2 / ρ g = - 0.25 m of Hg = - 0.25 x 13.6/0.85 = - 4
m of liquid
Differential head = 11.765 – (-4) = 15.765 m of liquid
h L = 3% of 15.765 = 0.473 m of liquid.
 h − hL  15.765 − 0.473
Cd =   = = 0.985
 h  15.765
The discharge through the venturimeter is given by
a1a2
Q = Cd × 2 gh
a12 − a22
π π
a1 = d12 = × 0.2 2 = 0.03142 m 2
4 4
0.03142 a2
0.2 = 0.985 × 2 ×10 ×15.765
0.03142 2 − a22
Solving the above equation, we get =d 2 = 12.13 mm.

Note: Due to mistake in DATA, the result is not compatible (may be in
discharge).

July/Aug 2004
4 b) A vertical venturimeter carries a liquid of relative density 0.8 and
has inlet and throat diameters of 150 mm and 75 mm respectively.
The pressure connection at the throat is 150 mm above that at the
inlet. If the actual rate of flow is 40 Lps and the C d = 0.96, calculate
the pressure difference between the inlet and throat in kN/m 2 .
Solution:
S o = 0.8; Q = 40 x 10 - 3 m 3 /s; d 1 = 0.15 m; d 2 = 0.075 m; Z 2 –Z 1 = 0.15
m
C d = 0.96; p 1 – p 2 = ?
π π
a1 = d12 = × 0.15 2 = 0.01767 m 2
4 4
π π
a2 = d 22 = × 0.075 2 = 0.004418 m 2
4 4
The discharge through the venturimeter is given by
a1a2 x
Q = Cd × 2 gh
a −a
2
1
2
2
0.01767 × 0.004418
0.04 = 0.96 × 2 × 10 × h
0.01767 2 − 0.004418 2
h = 4.17 m
 p   p2 
But for a vertical venturimeter, h =  1 + z1  −  + z 2 
 So ρ g   So ρ g 
 p − p2 
h =  1  − ( z 2 − z1 )
 So ρ g 
 p − p2 
4.17 =  1  − 0.15
 So ρ g 
p1 − p 2 = S o ρ g (4.17 + 0.15)
p 1 - p 2 = 34.56 kN/m 2 (Ans).

The differential manometer reading x
S   13.6 
h = x m − 1 ⇒ 4.17 = x − 1
 So   0.8 
∴ x = 0.26 m

2005 July/Aug
5 b) Water flows upward a vertical 300 mm x 500 mm venturimeter with
a C d = 0.98. The deflection of manometer, filled with a liquid of S =
1.25 is 1.18 m. Determine the discharge if the distance between the
two pressure tapings is 457 mm. Work the problem from the first
principles. (10)
Solution:
d 1 = 0.5 m; d 2 = 0.3 m; C d = 0.98; S m = 1.25; x = 1.18 m;
Z 2 – Z 1 = Z = 0.457 m; Q = ?
 h − hL 
Cd =   = 0.98
 h 
Squaring both sides, we get 2
C d 2 h = h – h L and
h L = h (1 – C d 2 ) = 0.0396 h 1
where x
 p − p2 
h =  1  + (Z 1 − Z 2 )
 ρg 
Also
S   1.25 
h = x m − 1 ⇒ 1.18  − 1
 So   1.0 
∴ h = 0.295 m
Applying Modified Bernoulli’s equation between sections 1 and 2, we get
p1 v12 p 2 v 22
+ + Z1 = + + Z 2 + hL
ρ g 2g ρ g 2g
v 22 − v12 p1 − p 2
= + (Z 1 − Z 2 ) + hL … (01)
2g ρg
But from discharge continuity equation, we have
Q = a1v1 = a 2 v 2 or d 1 2 v 1 = d 2 2 v 2
v 22   d 2 
4
  = h + 0.0396 h
1−  
2g   d1  
 

v 22   0.3  
4
1−    = 1.0396 × 0.295
2g   0.5  

v 2 = 2.655 m/s
Q = a 2 v 2 = ( π /4)d 2 2 v 2 = 0.1876 m 3 /s (Ans)
PITOT TUBE
It is a device used for measuring the velocity of flow at any section in a
pipe or a channel. It is mainly based on the principle of stagnation
pressure. Stagnation pressure is that pressure when the kinetic energy of a
fluid is converted pressure energy as the velocity of flow is brought to
sudden rest.
Pitot tube consists of a L shaped glass tube, bent at right angles as shown.
The lower end, which is bent 90 o is
directed against flow direction as h
shown. The liquid rises up in the
H
tube due to conversion of kinetic 1 2
energy into pressure energy. Due

to the stagnation pressure
developed at section 2, the liquid rises in the vertical bent pipe by a height
h above the surrounding surface.
Applying the Bernoulli’s equation between the two sections 1 and 2, we
have,
p1 v12 p 2 v 22
+ + Z1 = + + Z2 …01
ρ g 2g ρ g 2g
But Z 1 = Z 2 as points 1 and 2 are at the same level and v 2 = 0
The static pressure heads at sections 1 and 2 respectively are given by
p1 p2
= H; and = (H + h )
ρg ρg
v12
H+ = H +h
2g
Hence in general v = C v 2 g h

Where C v is the coefficient of velocity which is the ratio of the actual velocity of flow to
the theoretical velocity.
Velocity of flow in a pipe line
h
h
x x
The manometer reading depends on the difference of pressure between the hydrostatic
pressure head shown by piezometer or tube perpendicular to the flow direction and
stagnation pressure shown by pipe placed parallel to the flow direction. The pressure head
difference is computed in the same way as that of venturimeter. If x is the manometer
reading, then depending on the manometer whether it is differential manometer or inverted
U-tube manometer, the differential head h is respectively computed as
S   S 
h = x  m − 1 or h = x 1 − m 
 So   So 
Where S m and S o is the specific gravities of the manometric fluid and pipe fluid
respectively. The velocity is computed as Hence in general v = C v 2 g h
A submarine moves horizontally in a sea and has its axis 15 m below the surface of water.
A pitot-tube properly placed just in front of the sub-marine and along its axis is connected
to the two limbs of U-tube manometer containing mercury which reads 170 mm. Find the

speed of the sub-marine knowing that the specific gravity of sea water as 1.026 with
respect to fresh water.
Solution:
x = 0.17 m, S o = 1.026, Assume S m = 13.6 and C v = 1
S   13.6 
We know that h = x  m − 1 = 0.17  − 1 = 2.0834 m
 So   1.026 
V = Cv 2 g h = 2 × 10 × 2.0834 = 6.455 m/s = 23.24 kmph (Ans)
A pitot-tube is inserted in a pipe of 300 mm diameter. The static pressure is 100 mm of

mercury (vacuum). The stagnation pressure at the centre of pipe recorded by the pitot-tube
is 10 kPa. Calculate the rate of flow of water through the pipe, if the mean velocity of flow
is 0.85 times the central velocity. Take C v = 0.98.
Solution:
D = 0.3 m, Static pressure head = 100 mm Hg (vacuum) = - 0.1 x 13.6 = -1.36 m of water
Stagnation pressure = 10 kPa = 10 x 10 3/ (1000 x 10) = 1 m.
assume g = 10 m/s2, ρ = 1000 kg/m3 and S Hg = 13.6
h = Stagnation pressure – Static pressure = 1 – (-1.36) = 2.36 m of water.
V = Cv 2 g h = 2 × 10 × 2.36 = 6.87 m/s.
Mean velocity = V = 0.85 x 6.87 = 5.8395 m/s.

From discharge continuity equation,
π π
Q = AV = × D2 × V = × 0.32 × 5.8395 = 0.4128 m3/s (Ans).
4 4

Momentum equation
It is based on the law of conservation of momentum or on momentum principle, which
states that the net force acting on a fluid mass is equal to the rate of change of momentum
of flow in that direction. If the force acting on a mass of fluid m is F x along x direction,
the net force along the direction is given by Newton’s second law of motion as
Fx = m ax
Where a x is the acceleration produced due to the force F x along the same direction.
du
But ax =
dt
du d (mu )
Hence Fx = max = m = (as m is constant for incompressible flow)
dt dt
The above equation is called momentum principle. The same equation can also be written
as Fx dt = d (mu ) which is known as impulse momentum principle and can be stated as
“The impulse of a force acting on a fluid of mass m in a short interval of time dt along any
direction is given by the rate of change of momentum d(mu) along the same direction.
Force exerted by a Flowing fluid on a pipe Bend
V2Sinθ
Fy
2 V2
p2A2
V2Cosθ
θ
1
p1A1 Fx
p2A2 Sin θ
p2A2
θ
p2A2 Cos θ
Consider a flow occurring in a pipe bend which is changing its cross sectional area along
the bend as shown in the Fig. Let θ be the angle of bend and F x and F y be the force
exerted by the fluid on the bend along the x and y directions respectively. The force
exerted by the bend on the mass of fluid is --F x and --F y . The other forces acting on the
mass of fluid are hydrostatic pressure forces at the two sections 1 and 2 p 1 A 1 along the
flow direction and p 2 A 2 against the flow direction respectively. From the momentum
equation, the net force acting on the fluid mass along x direction is given by the rate of
change of momentum in x direction.

i.e. p 1 A 1 – p 2 A 2 cos θ - F x = (Mass of fluid per second) (change in velocity)

= ρ Q (Final velocity – initial velocity) along x
= ρ Q (V 2 cos θ – V 1 )
Fx = ρ Q (V 1 – V 2 cos θ) + p 1 A 1 – p 2 A 2 cos θ …(01)
Similarly the momentum equation in y direction gives
0 – p 2 A 2 sin θ - F y = ρ Q (V 2 Sin θ – 0)
Fy = ρ Q (– V 2 Sin θ ) – p 2 A 2 sin θ
…(02)
The resultant force F acting on the bend is given by F = Fx2 + Fy2 and the angle made by
Fy
it with x axis is given by tan α =
Fx
Problems
A 45 o degree bend is connected in a pipe line, the diameters at the inlet
and outlet of the bend being 600 mm and 300 mm respectively. Find the
force exerted by water on the bend if intensity of pressure at inlet to bend
is 88.29 kPa and rate of flow of water is 600 lps.
Solution:
θ = 450, D 1 = 0.6 m, D 2 = 0.3 m
p 1 = 88.29 kPa, Q = 0.6 m3/s
Assume g = 10 m/s2 and ρ = 1000 kg/m3
2 V2
p2A2
45o
1
p1A1
π D12 π × 0.6 2
A1 = = = 0.2827 m2
4 4
π D22 π × 0.3 2
A2 = = = 0.07068 m2
4 4

From discharge continuity equation, we have Q = A V

Q Q
V1 = = 2.122 m/s and V2 = = 8.488 m/s
A1 A2
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between Sections 1 and 2, we get
p1 v12 p v2
+ + Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z 2
ρ g 2g ρ g 2g
But Z 1 = Z 2
Substituting and solving for p 2 = 54.5 kPa Fx
F x = ρ Q [V 1 – V 2 cos θ ] + p 1 A 1 – p 2 A 2 cos θ = 19911.4 N α
F y = ρ Q [ – V 2 sin θ ] – p 2 A 2 sin θ = -- 6322.2 N Fy F
F = Fx2 + Fy2 = 19911.42 + 6322.22 = 20891 N
F   6322.2 
Acting at α = tan −1  y  = tan −1   = 17.616o with horizontal.
 Fx  19911.4 
July/Aug 2005
6 b) Water flows up a reducing bend of weight 80 kN place in a vertical plane. For the
bend, the inlet diameter is 2 m, outlet diameter is 1.3 m, angle of deflection is 120 o
and vertical height (distance between the inlet and the outlet) is 3 m. If the discharge
is 8.5 m3/s, pressure at the inlet is 280 kPa and the head loss is half the kinetic head
at the exit, determine the force on the bend (12)
Solution:
W = Weight of the reducing bend acting downwards = 80 kN (↓), d 1 = 2 m,
V22
d 2 = 1.3 m, θ = 120o, Z = 3 m, Q = 2.5 m3/s, p 1 = 280 kPa. h L = 0.5
2g
Assume g = 10 m/s2, ρ = 1000 kg/m3, F x = ? and F y = ?

π d12 π × 22 π d 22 π ×1.32
A1 = = = 3.142 m2 and A2 = = = 1.327 m2
4 4 4 4
Applying discharge continuity equation we have Q = A 1 V 1 = A 2 V 2

V2sin60
V2
V2
p2A2sin60 V2cos60 60o

p2A2 p2A2
2
p2A2cos60 60o
3m
120o
p1A1
4 Q 4 × 2.5 4Q 4 × 2.5
V1 = = = 0.7958 m/s and V2 = = = 1.8835 m/s
π d1 π × 2
2 2
π d 2 π ×1.32
2
Applying Modified Bernoulli’s equation between the two sections of the bend shown
in Fig. we get Fx
p1 v 2
p v 2
α
+ + Z1 = 2 +
1
+ Z 2 + hL
2
ρ g 2g ρ g 2g Fy F
Substituting the values, we get
280 × 103 0.79582 p2 1.88352 1.88352
+ +0= + + 3 + 0.5 ×
1000 ×10 2 × 10 1000 ×10 2 × 10 2 × 10
p 2 = 247.656 kPa
Forces acting on the bend in x and y direction respectively are
F x = ρ Q [V 1 – V 2 cos θ ] + p 1 A 1 – p 2 A 2 cos θ = 1,048,423.63 N
F y =– W+ ρ Q [ – V 2 sin θ ] – p 2 A 2 sin θ = – 288,688.06+80,000 = – 368,688.06
N 02
F = Fx2 + Fy2 = 1048423.632 + 368688.06 2 = 1,111,360.87 N
 Fy   288688.06 
Acting at α = tan −1   = tan −1   = 19.375o with horizontal.
 Fx  1048423.63 

Hydrostatics
In this chapter, only forces acting on fluid or acted up on the fluid at rest
are considered. The forces considered are pressure forces and gravity
forces.
Pressure or Pressure intensity (p): It is the Fluid pressure force per unit
p
area of application. Mathematically, P = . Units are Pascal or N/m 2 .
A
Total Pressure (P): This is that force exerted by the fluid on the contact
surface (of the submerged surfaces), when the fluid comes in contact with
the surface always acting normal to the contact surface. Units are N.
Centre of Pressure: It is defined as the point of application of the total
pressure on the contact surface.
The submerged surface may be either plane or curved. In case of plane
surface, it may be vertical, horizontal or inclined. Hence, the above four
cases may be studied for obtaining the total pressure and centre of
pressure.
Horizontal Plane surface submerged in liquid
Consider a horizontal surface immersed in a static fluid as shown in Fig.
As all the points on the plane are at equal depth from the free surface of
the liquid, the pressure intensity will be equal on the entire surface and
given by p = ρ g y , where y is the depth
of the fluid surface
Let A = Area of the immersed surface y P h
The total pressure force acting on the
immersed surface is P G
P = p x Area of the surface = ρ g y A
P = ρ gA y
Where y is the centroidal distance immersed surface from the free surface
of the liquid and h is the centre of pressure.

Vertical Plane surface submerged in liquid

Consider a vertical plane surface of some arbitrary shape immersed in a
liquid of mass density ρ as shown in Fig.
h y
y
b
G
C
P dy
Let
A = Total area of the surface
y = Depth of Centroid of the surface from the free surface
G = Centroid of the immersed surface
C = Centre of pressure
h = Depth of centre of pressure
Consider a rectangular strip of breadth b and depth dy at a depth y from the
free surface.
Total Pressure:
The pressure intensity at a depth y acting on the strip is
p = ρ gy
Total pressure force on the strip = dP = ( ρ gy)dA
∴ The Total pressure force on the entire area is given by integrating the
above expression over the entire area
P = ∫ dP = ∫ ( ρ gy)dA= ρ g ∫ y dA ..(01)
But ∫ y dA is the Moment of the entire area about the free surface of the
liquid given by
∫ y dA = A y
P = ρg A y = γ A y ..(02)
Where γ is the specific weight of water.

For water, ρ=1000 kg/m 3 and g = 10 m/s 2 . The force will be expressed in
Newtons (N).
Centre of Pressure:
This is computed on the principle of Theorem of moments.
The moment of the pressure force about the free surface is given by
M = P x h = ρg A y h ...(03)
Similarly, the moment of the differential pressure force about the free
surface is given by
dM = dPxy = ( ρ gy)dAxy = ρ gy 2 dA
integrating the above expression over the entire area A
M = ∫ ρ gy 2 dA= ρ g ∫ y 2 dA
But ∫ y 2 dA is the Moment of Inertial of the entire submerged area about the
free surface given by I o
Hence M = ρ gI o …(04)
From Eqs. 03 and 04, we get
ρ g A y h = ρ gI o
Io
h=
Ay
But from parallel axis theorem of Moment of inertia, the moment of inertia
of the given area about any axis is sum of the moment of inertia of the area
about its centroidal axis and product of area and square of the distance
between the two axes. Mathematically
Io = Ig + A y 2
Substituting we get
Ig
h= y+
Ay
Where y is the centroidal depth and h is the centre of pressure.

Inclined Plane surface submerged in liquid

Consider a vertical plane surface of some arbitrary shape immersed in a
liquid of mass density ρ, in such a way that the plane is making an angle θ
with the free surface as shown in Fig.
O O
θ
y y
h h*
dP θ
y * y*
y
P y*
y
h
dy
y*
h*
G
C
Let
A = Total area of the surface
y = Depth of Centroid of the surface from the free surface
y ∗ = Depth of Centroid of the surface from the free surface along the plane
G = Centroid of the immersed surface
C = Centre of pressure
h = Depth of centre of pressure from the free surface
h ∗ = Depth of centre of pressure from the free surface along the plane
Consider a rectangular strip of breadth b and depth dy at a depth y from the
free surface.
From the triangle, we have
y y h
sin θ = ∗
= = …(1)
y y ∗ h∗

Total Pressure:
The pressure intensity at a depth y acting normal to the plane on the strip
is p = ρ gy
Total pressure force on the strip = dP = ( ρ gy)dA
∴ The Total pressure force on the entire area is given by integrating the
above expression over the entire area along the plane
P = ∫ dP = ∫ ( ρ gy)dA= ρ g ∫ y dA
But y and dA are on different planes and hence substituting for y from Eq.
1, we get
P= ρ g ∫ y* sin θ dA = ρ g sin θ ∫ y* dA …(2)
But ∫ y* dA is the Moment of the entire area about the free surface of the
liquid given by
∫ y* dA = A y ∗ sin θ = A y
P = ρg A y = γ A y … (3)
Where γ is the specific weight of water.

Centre of Pressure:
This is computed on the principle of Theorem of moments.
M = P x h ∗ = ρ g A y ( h /sin θ ) ...(4)
Similarly, the moment of the differential pressure force about the free
surface is given by
dM = dPxy* = ( ρ gy)dAxy* = ρ g(y* sin θ ) y*dA= ρ g y* 2 sin θ dA
integrating the above expression over the entire area A
M = ∫ ρ g y* 2 sin θ dA = ρ g sin θ ∫ y* 2 dA
But ∫ y* 2 dA is the Moment of Inertial of the entire submerged area about
the free surface given by I o
Hence M = ρ gI o sin θ …(5)
From Eqs. 4 and 5, we get
ρ g A y ( h /sin θ ) = ρ gI o sin θ

Io
h=
A y sin θ
2
But from parallel axis theorem of Moment of inertia, the moment of inertia
of the given area about any axis is sum of the moment of inertia of the area
about its centroidal axis and product of area and square of the distance
between the two axes. Mathematically
2
Ay
Io = Ig + A y ∗ = Ig +
2
sin 2 θ
Substituting we get
Ig
h= y+ sin 2 θ
Ay
Where y is the centroidal depth, h is the centre of pressure and θ is the

angle of inclination of the plane with the free surface.
From the above equation it is seen that h is always either equal to or
greater than y , which means that the in general for a plane surface
immersed in a liquid, the Centre of pressure always lies below the
centroid.
Curved surface submerged in liquid
Consider a curved surface AB immersed in a liquid of mass density ρ as
shown in Fig. Let dA be a differential area located on the curved surface at
a depth y from the free surface such that it makes an angle θ with the
horizontal.
C
dA sinθ
dA
y O dFy A θ
dF
θ dA cosθ
θ
dFx
dA
B

The pressure intensity p acting on the differential area dA is given by

p = ρ g y
The total differential pressure force dF acting normal to dA is given by
dF = p x Area = ρ g y dA
As can be seen from the Fig. this dF goes on changing its inclination and
is not acting constantly at a particular angle. Hence, let us resolve dF into
horizontal and vertical directions as dF x and dF y as shown in Fig. where
dF x = dF sin θ
= ρ g y dA sin θ
dF y = dF cos θ
= ρ g y dA cos θ
dF x acts on the vertically projected area of dA = dA sin θ = dA y and dF y
acts on the horizontally projected area of dA = dA cos θ = dA x .
Hence
dF x = ρ g y dA y and dF y = ρ g y dA x
Integrating we get
∫ dF x = F x = ∫ρ g y dA y = ρ g ∫ y dA y = ρ gA y y
Where A y is the projected area of the curved surface on vertical plane
equivalent to the vertical plane surface and y is the centroidal distance of
the projected area from the free surface.
Similarly, its location can be obtained by
Ig
h= y+
Ay
Where I g is the moment of inertia of the projected area about its centroidal
axis.
∫ dF y = ∫ ρ g y dA x = ρ g ∫ y dA x
Fy = ρ g x volume of fluid present above the curved surface
= Weight of fluid present above the curved surface
This force acts vertically downwards at the centre of gravity of the volume
of the fluid. The resultant hydrostatic pressure force acting on the curved
surface can be obtained by composing the two components.
F = Fx2 + Fy2 and its inclination is given by Fx

α
Fy F
 Fy 
α = tan −1  
 Fx 
In case, the curved surface is
not supporting any fluid above
the same and instead
supporting on the sides as
shown, the vertical component
of the force acting on the A
curved surface F y is acting

Fy
upwards as the upward thrust
equivalent to the imaginary
B
weight of the fluid present
above the curved surface.
Problems
July/Aug 2004
1. A square tank with 2 m sides and 1.5 m high contains water to a depth
of 1 m and a liquid of specific gravity 0.8 on the water to a depth of 0.5 m.
Find the magnitude and location of hydrostatic pressure on one face of
tank. 8
Solution:
The problem can be solved by
considering hydrostatic pressure
distribution diagram for water as shown
in Fig. S = 1.00
yw = 1.5 m
From hydrostatic law, the pressure
Pw
intensity p at any depth y w is given by yw /3
p = So ρ g yw
where ρ is the mass density of the ρ g S yw
liquid
Pressure force P = p x Area
P w = 1000 x 10 x 2.0 x 1.5 x 1.5 = 45 kN ( → )
Acting at 1.5/3=0.5 m from the base
Jan/Feb 2004

2. A rectangular tank 10 m x 5 m and 3.25 m deep is divided by a partition

wall parallel to the shorter wall of the tank. One of the compartments
contains water to a depth of 3.25 m and the other oil of specific gravity
0.85 to a depth of 2 m. Find the resultant pressure on the partition.
Solution:
S = 1.00
yw = 3.25 m
Pw So=0.85
yw /3 Po yo = 2 m
yo/3
ρ g So yo
ρ g S yw
The problem can be solved by considering hydrostatic pressure distribution

diagram for both water and oil as shown in Fig.
From hydrostatic law, the pressure intensity p at any depth y w is given by
p = So ρ g yw
where ρ is the mass density of the liquid
Pressure force P = p x Area
P w = 1000 x 10 x 3.25 x 5 x 3.25 = 528.125 kN ( → )
Acting at 3.25/3 m from the base
P o = 0.85 x 1000 x 10 x 2.0 x 5 x 2.0 = 200 kN ( ← )
Acting at 2/3 m from the base.
Net Force P = P w – P o = 528.125 – 200.0 = 328.125 kN ( → )
Location:
Let P act at a distance y from the base. Taking moments of P w , P o and P
about the base, we get
P x y = P w x y w /3 – P o x y o /3
328.125 y = 528.125 x (3.25/3) – 200 x (2/3) or y = 1.337 m.
Jan/Feb 2005

3. Determine the total force and location of centre of pressure for a

circular plate of 2 m dia immersed vertically in water with its top edge 1.0
m below the water surface
Solution:
π × D2 π × 22 1.0 m
A = = = 3.142 m h y=2m
4 4
Assume G
ρ = 1000 kg/m and g = 10 m/s 3 2
2.0 m C
We know that the total pressure force B is given
by
P = S o ρ gA y = 1000 x 10 x 3.142 x 2 = 62.83 kN
Centre of Pressure
The Centre of pressure is given by
Ig
h= y+
Ay
π R4 π × 14
Ig = = = 0.785 m 4
4 4
0.785
h = 2+ = 2.125 m
3.142 × 2
4. A rectangular plate 2 m x 3 m is immersed in oil of specific gravity 0.85
such that its ends are at depths 1.5 m and 3 m respectively. Determine the
total pressure acting on the plate and locate it. C1 G1
Solution: θ
1.5 m
A = 2 x 3 = 6 m2 3m A1 A
S o = 0.85
G
Assume
C
ρ = 1000 kg/m 3 B
g = 10 m/s 2
y = GG 1 2m
h = CC 1
Sin θ = 1.5 / 3 = 0.5
θ = 30 o
GG 1 = G 1 A 1 + A 1 G = G 1 A 1 + AG Sin θ

GG 1 = 1.5 + (3/2) Sin 30 = 2.25 m

We know that the total pressure force is given by
P = S o ρ gA y = 0.85 x 1000 x 10 x 6 x 2.25 = 114.75 kN
Centre of Pressure
Ig
h= y+ sin 2 θ
Ay
b d 3 2 × 33
Ig = = = 4.5 m 4
12 12
4.5
h = 2.25 + sin 2 30 = 2.33 m
6 × 2.25
5. A Circular plate with a concentric hole is immersed in water in such a
way that its greatest and least depth below water surface are 4 m and 1.5 m
respectively. Determine the total pressure on the plate and locate it if the
diameter of the plate and hole are 3 m and 1.5 m respectively.
Solution: C1 G1
Assume 1.5 m θ
ρ = 1000 kg/m and g = 10 m/s
3 2
A1
A
4m
π π
A=
4
(D 2
−d2 =) 4
(3 2
)
− 1.52 = 5.3014 m 2
G
y = GG 1 C
B
h = CC 1
Sin θ = 2.5 / 3 = 0.833 and θ = 30 o
GG 1 = G 1 A 1 + A 1 G = G 1 A 1 + AG Sin θ
GG 1 = 1.5 + (3/2) 0.833 = 2.75 m
P = S o ρ gA y = 1000 x 10 x5.3014 x 2.75 = 144.7885 kN
Centre of Pressure
Ig
h= y+ sin 2 θ
Ay
π π
Ig =
4
(R 4
)
− r4 =
4
(1.5 4
)
− 0.754 = 3.728 m 4

3.728
h = 2.75 + sin 2 30 = 2.814 m
5.3014 × 2.75
Jan/Feb 2003
6. A circular plate of dia 0.75 m is immersed in a liquid of relative density
of 0.8 with its plane making an angle of 30 o with the horizontal. The centre
of the plate is at a depth of 1.5 m below the free surface. Calculate the
total force on one side of the plate and location of centre of pressure. 8
Solution: C1 G1
Assume 30o
1.5 m A1 A
ρ = 1000 kg/m 3 and g = 10 m/s 2
S o = 0.80
G
π D2 π × 1.52 1.5 m
A= = = 1.767 m 2 C
4 4 B
y = GG 1
h = CC 1
θ = 30 o
GG 1 = G 1 A 1 + A 1 G = G 1 A 1 + AG Sin θ
GG 1 = 1.5 + (3/2) 0.833 = 2.75 m
P = S o ρ gA y = 0.8 x 1000 x 10 x 1.767 x 2.75 = 38.874 kN
Centre of Pressure
Ig
h= y+ sin 2 θ
Ay
π R4 π × 0.754
Ig = = = 0.2485 m 4
4 4
0.2485
h = 2.75 + sin 2 30 = 2.763 m
1.767 × 2.75
7. A vertical gate closes a circular tunnel of 5 m diameter running full of
water, the pressure at the bottom of the gate is 0.5 MPa. Determine the
hydrostatic force and the position of centre of pressure. 8
Solution:

Assume ρ = 1000 kg/m 3 and g = 10 m/s 2
50 m
5m G
Pressure intensity at the bottom of the gate is = p = S o ρ gy

Where y is the depth of point from the free surface.
0.5 x 10 6 = 1000 x 10 x y
y = 50 m
Hence the free surface of water is at 50 m from the bottom of the gate
π D2 π × 52
A= = = 19.635 m 2
4 4
y = OG= 50 - 2.5 = 47.5 m
P = S o ρ gA y = 1000 x 10 x 19.635 x 47.5 =9326.625 kN
Centre of Pressure
Ig
h= y+
Ay
π R4 π × 2.54
Ig = = = 30.68 m 4
4 4
30.68
h = 47.5 + = 47.533 m
19.635 × 47.5
i.e. 50.0 – 47.533 = 2.677 m from the bottom of the gate or tunnel.
Jan/Feb 2005
8. Find the horizontal and vertical component of force and its point of
application due to water per meter length of the gate AB having a quadrant
shape of radius 2 m shown in Fig. Find also the resultant force in
magnitude and direction. 8

Solution:
A O
Assume
R=2m
ρ = 1000 kg/m 3 and g = 10 m/s 2
R = 2 m, Width of gate = 1 m
B
Horizontal force F x
F x = Force on the projected area of the curved
surface on the vertical plane
= Force on BO = P = S o ρ gA y
A = 2 x 1 = 2 m2
2
y= =1m
2
F x = 1000 x 10 x 2 x 1 = 20 kN
2 4
This will act at a distance h = × 2 = m from the free surface of liquid
3 3
Vertical Force F y
F y = Weight of water (imaginary) supported by AB
= S o ρ g x Area of AOB x Length of gate
π × 22
= 1000 x 10 x x 1= 31.416 kN
4
4× 2
This will act at a distance x = = 0.848 m from OB
3π

Resultant force F = Fx2 + Fy2 = 20 2 + 31.426 2 = 37.25 kN Fx

α
and its inclination is given by
Fy F
 Fy  −1  31.426 
α = tan −1   = tan   = 57.527 o
 x
F  20 
July/Aug 2005
9. A cylinder holds water in a channel as shown in Fig. Determine the
weight of 1 m length of the cylinder.
Solution: C Radius of
cylinder=2 m
Radius of Cylinder = R = 2m
D O A
Length of cylinder = 1 m Fx W
Weight of Cylinder = W Water in a
channel Fy
Horizontal force exerted by water= F x B
F x = Force on vertical area BOC

= S o ρ g A y = 1000 x 10 x (4 x 1) x (2/2) = 40 kN ( → )
The vertical force exerted by water = F y = Weight of water enclosed in
BDCOB
π ×2 
2
F y = S o ρ g   xL=1000x10x3.142=31.416 kN ( ↑ )
 4 
For equilibrium of the cylinder the weight of the cylinder must be equal to
the force exerted by the water on the cylinder. Hence, the weight of the
cylinder is 31.416 kN per meter length.
10. Fig. shows the cross section of a tank full of water under pressure. The
length of the tank is 2 m. An empty cylinder lies along the length of the
tank on one of its corner as shown. Find the resultant force acting on the
curved surface of the cylinder.
20kPa
Solution: A
R=1m
R = 1 m 1.5m B
C
L = 2 m
p = ρ gh = 1000 x 10 x h = 20 x 10 3
h = 2 m
For this pressure, the free surface should be 2 m
above A

Horizontal component of force F x F E D

Fx = Soρ g A y
2m 2.5 m
A = 1.5 x 2.0 = 3 m 2
G A
1.5
y = 2+ = 2.75 m B Hθ
2 1.5m O
C
F x = 1000 x 10 x 3.0 x 2.75 = 82.5 kN ( → )
The vertical force exerted by water = F y
F y = Weight of water enclosed in ABC
= Weight of water enclosed in CODEABC
= Weight of water enclosed in (CODFBC – AEFB)
But Weight of water enclosed in CODFBC

= Weight of water enclosed in (COB+ODFBO)
 πR 2   π × 12 
= ρg + BO × OD  × 2 = 1000 × 10  + 1 × 2.5 × 2 = 65.708 kN
 4   4 
Weight of water in AEFB = S o ρ g[Area of AEFB] x 2.0
= S o ρ g[Area of (AEFG+AGBH-AHB] x 2.0
sin θ = AH/AO = 0.5/1.0 = 0.5. ∴ θ = 30 o
BH = BO – HO = 1.0 – AO cos θ = 1.0 – 1 x cos 30 o = 0.134
Area ABH = Area ABO – Area AHO
30 AH × HO 1 0.5 × 0.866
= πR 2 × − = π × 12 × − = 0.0453
360 2.0 12 2.0
∴Weight of water in AEFB = 1000x10[AExAG+AGxAH–0.0453]x0.2
= 1000x10[2.0x0.134+0.134x0.5–0.0453]x0.2
= 5794 N
F y =65708 – 5794 = 59914 N (Ans)
11. Calculate the resultant water pressure on the tainter gate of radius 8 m
and width unity as shown in Fig.
Solution: R=8m
Horizontal component of force F x C D O
30o
Fx = Soρ g A y
B
DB = OB sin 30 = 8 x 0.5 = 4.0 m
A = 4 x 1.0 = 4 m 2

4
y= = 2m
2
F x = 1000 x 10 x 4.0 x 2.0 = 80.0 kN ( → )
The vertical force exerted by water = F y
F y = Weight of water enclosed in CDBC
= Weight of water enclosed in (CDOBC – DOB)
 30 BD × DO   1 4.0 × 8.8 cos 30 
= S o ρ g πR 2 × − π × 8 × 12 −
= 1000 × 10
2
 = 15.13 kN
 360 2.0   2.0 
Resultant force F = Fx + Fy = 80 + 15.13 = 81.418 kN
2 2 2 2
Fx
α
kN and its inclination is given by
Fy F
 Fy  −1 15.13 
α = tan −1   = tan   = 10.71o
 x
F  80 
12. A 3.6 m x 1.5 m wide rectangular gate MN is vertical and is hinged at

point 150 mm below the centre of gravity of the gate. The total depth of
water is 6 m. What horizontal force must be applied at the bottom of the
gate to keep the gate closed?
Solution:
Total pressure acting on the gate is F x
Fx = Soρ g A y
= 1000 x 10 x (3.6 x 1.5) x (6-3.6/2) y
= 226.8 kN h
6m
Acting at
Ig 3.6m
h= y+
Ay
Fx
b d 3 1.5 × 3.63 0.15m
Ig = = = 5.832 m 4
12 12
F
5.832
h = 4.2 + = 4.457 m
5.4 × 4.2
Let F be the force applied at the bottom of the gate required to retain the
gate in equilibrium.
From the conditions of equilibrium, taking moments about the hinge, we
get

F (1.8 – 0.15) = F x [4.457-(4.2+0.15)]

F = 14.707 kN (Ans).

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com | VTU NEWS | VTU NOTES | QUESTION PAPERS | FORUMS | RESULTS

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KINEMATICS OF FLUID FLOW

Fig. 1. Lagrangian Approach (Study of each particle with time)

Fig. 2. Eulerian Approach (Study at fixed station in space)

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2. Uniform and non-uniform flows:

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Fig. 3 Different types of fluid flow

3. One, two and three dimensional flows:

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Fig. 4 b) Two dimensional flow

Fig. 4 c) Three dimensional flow

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4. Laminar and Turbulent flows:

5. Compressible and Incompressible flows:

6. Rotational and Irrotational flows:

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Rate of flow or Discharge (Q):

Fig. 7 Path line

Fig. 8 Stream lines

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Fig. 11 Stream tube

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Statement: The flow of fluid in a continuous flow across a section is

The mass of fluid flowing across section 1-1 is given by

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Continuity Equation in three dimensional or differential form

Consider a parallelepiped ABCDEFGH in a fluid flow of density γ as

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But u = (dx/dt), v = (dy/dt) and w = (dz/dt).

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Where B is an integral constant.

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Diameter at A is given by D = D 1 + (D 1 – D 2 )/(x/L) = 0.3 m

Continuity equation for a three dimensional fluid flow is given by

Continuity equation for a two dimensional fluid flow is given by

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This is true only when ψ is a continuous function.

Line of constant stream function or stream line

Relationship between Stream function (ψ) and Velocity potential (φ)

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10. In a 2-D flow, the velocity components are u = 4y and v = -4x

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From discharge continuity equation for steady incompressible flow, we have

July / Aug 2005

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Dynamics of Fluid Flow

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Solving the above equation, we get =d 2 = 12.13 mm.

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p 1 - p 2 = 34.56 kN/m 2 (Ans).

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energy into pressure energy. Due

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