An I n t rod u c t ; 0 n t 0

Frozen Ground
Engineering
 An I n t rod u c t 1 0 n t 0

Frozen Ground
Eng; neerlng
•

Orlando B. And e r s l and

M; chi 9 a n S tat e Un; v e r s ; t y

Branko Ladany;

E coL e PoL y tee h n ; que 0 f the Un; v e r s ; t e d e M0 n t rea L

SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.v.

© 1994 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
Originally published by Chapman & Hall, Inc. in 1994

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in
any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or by an information storage or retrieval
system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

An Introduction to frozen ground engineering / editors, Orlando B.

Andersland & Branko Ladanyi.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4757-2292-5 ISBN 978-1-4757-2290-1 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4757-2290-1
1. Frozen ground. 2. Civil engineering-Cold weather conditions.
I. Andersland, Orlando B. II. Ladanyi, Branko.
TA713.16 1994
94-15967
624.1'5136-dc20
CIP
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data available
Contents

PREFACE

CHAPTER 1. FROZEN GROUND 1

1.1 Frozen ground support systems 1

Frozen earlh wall, 1; Design considerations, 3
1.2 Seasonally and perennially frozen ground 4
Cold regions: definition, 4; Subswface temperatures, 4; Active layer, 7;
Permafrost, 8
1.3 Terrain features in permafrost areas 10
Ground ice features, 10; Patterned ground, 14
1.4 Engineering considerations 16
Freezing process, 16; Thawing of frozen ground, 17; Frost action, 18; Useful
aspects of frozen ground, 19; Ice as a construction material, 20
Problems 22

CHAPTER 2. PHYSICAL AND THERMAL PROPERTIES 23

2.1 Composition and structure of frozen ground 23

Soil types, 23; Phase relationships, 24; Ice phase, 27; Parlicle size and size
distribution, 28; Consistency of cohesive soils, 30
2.2 Soil classification 31
Unified soil classification system, 31; Frozen soil classification, 35
2.3 Water-ice phase relationships 40
Unfrozen water in frozen soil, 40; Effect of solutes on freezing, 42
2.4 Soil frost action 43
Frost action process, 43; Frost susceptibility of soils, 45; Frost-heave forces, 50;
Freeze-thaw effects on permeability, 51

v
vi Contents

2.5 Thermal properties 52

Thermal conductivity, 52; Heat capacity, 57; Thermal diffusiuity, 59; Latent
heat of fusion, 60; Thennal expansion (or contraction), 60
Problems 62

CHAPTER 3. HEAT FLOW IN SOILS 64

3.1 Heat transfer at the ground surface 64

Climatic factors, 64; Freezing (or thawing) indices, 66; Surface n-factor, 67
3.2 Seasonal ground freezing (or thawing) 69
Frost depth, 69; Thawing of frozen soil, 72; Design implications, 76
3.3 Temperature below cooled (or heated) areas 82
Steady state heat flow, 82; Transient temperatures, 90; Periodic heat flow, 90
3.4 Thermal analysis: frozen ground support systems 93
Single freeze pipe, 93; Wall formation, 97; Multiple rows of freeze pipes, 98
Problems 98

CHAPTER 4. THAW BEHAVIOR OF FROZEN GROUND 102

4.1 Thaw settlement 102

4.2 Consolidation of thawing soils 105

Thaw consolidation, 105; Residual stress in thawing soils, 108
4.3 Thaw-consolidation in some layered systems 113
Two layer soil problems, 113; Compressible soil ouer discrete ice layers, 115
Problems 119

CHAPTER 5. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FROZEN SOILS 121

5.1 Stress-strain-time and strength behavior 121

Hydrostatic pressure effect on frozen soil behavior, 121; Shear stress effect on frozen
soil behavior, 122
5.2 Factors influencing creep and strength 123
Creep of frozen soil under constant stress, 123; Stress-strain behavior under
constant strain rate, 125; Ice content effect on strength, 126; Normal pressure effect
on strength, 127; Strain rate effect on strength, 128; Temperature effect on strength,
130; Frozen soil behauior at cryogenic temperatures, 132
5.3 Analytical representation of creep and strength data 132
General creep equation, 133; Strength of frozen soils, 137; Comparison with
Vyalou's creep and strength equations, 139; Normal pressure effect on creep and
strength, 139; Salinity effect on frozen soil creep and strength, 143
5.4 Frozen soil behavior in uniaxial tension 144
5.5 Deformability of frozen soils 146
5.6 Compressibility of frozen soils 148
Problems 148
 Contents vii

CHAPTER 6. CONSTRUCTION GROUND FREEZING 151

6.1 Design considerations 151

Ground freezing applications, lSI; Soil conditions, 152; Groundwater flow, 155;
Ground movement, ISS
6.2 Freezing methods and system installation 157
Primary plant and pumped loop secondary coolant, 158; Expendable liquid
refrigerant, 158; Installation of the cooling system, 159
6.3 Structural design of frozen earth walls 163
Curved walls, 163; Straight walls and combinations, 170; Tunnels, 170; Finite-
element method, 171
6.4 Monitoring requirements 173
Freeze hole deviation, 173; Temperature, 175; Frost boundary location and wall
thickness, 178
6.5 Other construction considerations 179
Protection of exposed frozen earth, 179; Concrete placement against frozen
earth, 180
Problems 181

CHAPTER 7. FOUNDATIONS IN FROZEN SOILS 182

7.1 General considerations 182

Foundations in seasonally frozen ground, 182; Foundations in permafrost, 183
7.2 Shallow foundations 187
Selection of foundation method, 187; Design of shallow foundations, 190; Bearing
capacity, 191; Settlement considerations, 195
7.3 Pile foundations 201
Pile types, 201; Pile placement, 201; Pile freezeback, 202; Axially loaded piles, 209;
Laterally loaded piles, 219; Anchors in frozen ground, 220
7.4 Frost-heave forces on foundations 222
Tangential forces on a vertical surface, 222; Design for frost heave, 223
Problems 223

CHAPTER 8. STABILITY OF SOIL MASSES IN COLD REGIONS 225

8.1 Landslides in permafrost: classification 225

8.2 Slopes in thawing permafrost 227
Low-angle planar flows, 227; Slides, 228
8.3 Slopes in frozen soils 230
8.4 Slope stabilization methods 231
Construction and design techniques, 232; Stabilization of planar slides, 232;
Stabilization of cut slopes, 232
Problems 236

CHAPTER 9. EARTHWORK IN COLD REGIONS 237

9.1 Site considerations 237

Drainage, 237; Thermal and frost action factors, 239; Subsurface conditions, 240;
Material sources, 240
viii Contents

9.2 Excavation and transport 242

Mechanical excavation, 243; Drilling and blasting, 248; Thawing frozen soil, 249;
Hydraulic dredging, 254
9.3 Field placement 254
Compaction, 255; Placement in water, 256
9.4 Water-retaining embankments on permafrost 257
Unfrozen embankments, 258; Frozen embankments, 259; Maintaining the frozen
state, 259; Thermal and stability considerations, 260
9.5 Embankment performance 261
Frost heave, 261; Settlement, 262; Stability, 263; Artificial islands, 264

CHAPTER 10. FIELD INVESTIGATIONS 266

10.1. Sampling frozen ground 266

Sampling methods, 267; Sample protection, 268
10.2 Ground-temperature measurement 269
Temperature sensors and measuring equipment, 270
10.3 Field testing of frozen soils 271
Field test methods, 271; Pressuremeter test, 272; Deep static cone penetration
test, 282; Other types of field tests, 284
10.4 Geophysical methods 284
Seismic velocities in frozen ground, 287; Electrical properties of frozen ground,
288; Geophysical techniques used in frozen ground, 288; High-frequency electrical
methods, 292; Borehole logging in permafrost, 294

APPENDIX A. SYMBOLS 298

APPENDIX B. SI UNITS 304

APPENDIX C LABORATORY AND FIELD TESTS ON FROZEN SOILS 307

C1 Handling, storage, and machining of specimens prior to testing 307

C2 Uniaxial compression test 310
C3 Uniaxial tensile test 311
C.4 Salinity of soil pore water 313
C5 Thermosiphon 316
C6 Pile load test in permafrost 319

REFERENCES 325

AUTHOR INDEX 343

SUBJECT INDEX 347

Preface

Frozen Ground Engineering first introduces the reader to the frozen environment and the behavior of frozen soil as
an engineering material. In subsequent chapters this information is used in the analysis and design of ground
support systems, foundations, and embankments. These and other topics make this book suitable for use by civil
engineering students in a one-semester course on frozen ground engineering at the senior or first-year-graduate
level. Students are assumed to have a working knowledge of undergraduate mechanics (statics and mechanics of
materials) and geotechnical engineering (usual two-course sequence). A knowledge of basic geology would be helpful
but is not essential. This book will also be useful to advanced students in other disciplines and to engineers who
desire an introduction to frozen ground engineering or references to selected technical publications in the field.

BACKGROUND

Frozen ground engineering has developed rapidly in the past several decades under the pressure of necessity. As
practical problems involving frozen soils broadened in scope, the inadequacy of earlier methods for coping became
increasingly apparent. The application of ground freezing to geotechnical projects throughout the world continues to
grow as significant advances have been made in ground freezing technology. Freezing is a useful and versatile
technique for temporary earth support, groundwater control in difficult soil or rock strata, and the formation of
subsurface containment barriers suitable for use in groundwater remediation projects.
The development of energy resources and the need for constructed facilities in the cold regions of the world have
greatly increased interest relative to frozen ground engineering. This interest has helped stimulate research on many
frozen soil problems. An impressive array of useful information has been presented in a variety of professional
publications. This research which involves physical and thermal properties of soil materials, has been applied to the
design of foundations and earth structures in permafrost regions as well as to the design of temporary frozen earth
support systems. Many of the analytical techniques required for stability and deformation analysis are applicable to
both construction ground freezing and cold region engineering problems.

ORGANIZATION

After defining frozen ground the reader is first introduced to frozen ground support systems as used on projects
requiring temporary earth support, including construction of shafts, tunnels, and deep excavations. The next major
area of application involves seasonally and perennially frozen ground located in the world's cold regions. In Chapter
2 we continue with a review of physical and thermal properties, including soil composition, ice formation and
occurrence, unfrozen water in frozen soil, and soil frost action. A classification system for frozen soils is described.

ix
x Preface

Heat flow in soils (Chapter 3) involves heat transfer at the ground surface, seasonal freezing of the active layer, and
temperature changes below cooled or heated areas. In the final section in Chapter 3 we describe the thermal
analysis required for construction freezing projects.
An introduction to frozen ground thaw behavior (Chapter 4) includes thaw settlement and one-dimensional thaw
consolidation along with implications for thaw consolidation of layered frozen soil systems. Chapter 5 continues with
mechanical properties of frozen soil, including stress-strain-time (creep) behavior, analytical representation of
creep and strength data, and uniaxial tension behavior. Compressibility of confined soil layers involves elastic
behavior and consolidation of warm frozen soils. The temperature effect on mechanical properties is conveniently
described by several empirical relationships.
The remaining book chapters are directed to engineering design problems beginning with construction ground
freezing. Design considerations, freezing methods, and structural design of frozen earth walls are described in detail
in Chapter 6. Monitoring requirements and other construction considerations for these walls are included. Chapter 7
provides information on foundations to be placed on or in permafrost. Both shallow and pile foundations are
described. Laterally loaded piles and anchors in frozen ground are included.
The stability of soil masses (Chapter 8) involves natural slopes in thawing permafrost and new slopes in frozen soil
at construction sites. For both cases, slope stabilization includes various methods for control of surface disturbance.
Earthwork construction (Chapter 9) involves embankment design, soil excavation, and transport and placement of
the soil in a cold environment. Most field projects require information on soil conditions and ground temperatures at
the site. In Chapter 10 we describe how frozen soil samples are obtained, measurement of insitu temperatures, and
methods for field testing. Geophysical methods may be used to further delineate limits of permafrost and ice masses
at a construction site.

LEARNING AIDS

Many fully worked example problems are provided throughout the book, together with problems at the end of most
chapters. The instructor's solution manual supplies full documentation to all chapter problems. For convenience to
the reader, engineering properties for a wide variety of soils, rock, and building materials are included in the text. A
complete list of symbols is given in appendix A. The international system of units has been used throughout the
book. Appendix B provides a conversion guide, including base units, SI prefixes, SI derived units, and conversion
factors listed alphabetically. Because some topics in the text require a general understanding of field and laboratory
tests, a brief description of some new methods is given in appendix C. To facilitate access to the numerous sources
cited, a complete reference list and author index are provided. The subject index at the end of the book helps locate
various topics quickly.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors are grateful to the many colleagues and students who have contributed significantly to their
understanding of frozen ground engineering. Thanks are expressed to all those authors and publishers who have
given permission to reproduce tables and figures from their publications. The source of photographs is indicated in
each case. The authors appreciate the helpful comments provided by Francis H. Sayles for chapters 6 and 9. J. F.
(Derrick) Nixon reviewed chapters 2 and 4, providing many useful suggestions. John P. Zarling contributed material
and comments on the operation and use of thermosiphons. Richard Fortier reviewed and contributed material for
the geophysics section of chapter 10. Phyllis Andersland verified the references and prepared both the reference list
and author index.

Orlando B. Andersland
Branko Ladanyi
January 1994
 An I n t rod u c t ; 0 n t 0

Frozen Ground
Engineering