Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Automobile Electronics Repair Guide PDF
Automobile Electronics Repair Guide PDF
4-stroke engines
Radovan MARIN
W
"A
Author M
Radovan Marin
General Automobile Engineer au
British Institute of Engineering Technology
pr
Aldermaston College
Reading, England se
bo
ne
co
Reviewer au
Dr. sc. Darko Biljaković co
va
Editor pr
and
graphic design ne
Radovan Marin as
m
is
an
Publisher be
an
d.o.o. am
ZAGREB
Kamaufova 2
www.auto-mart.hr
Print
E-book
5
A
pr
ele
U
m
pa
bu
tro
D
gin
kn
O
op
de
to
di
ev
re
de
wh
T
kn
of
6
FOREWORD
Author
7
Content:
th
m
ics
co
en
th
am
tio
etc
tro
10
ENGINE CONTROL UNIT
(ECU, ECM)
and
ENGINE SENSORS
KNOCK sensor
CKP senzor
Crankshaft Position Sensor
A
th
pe
rim
co
of
th
to
lar
I
we
sp
in
so
sk
flo
ne
wi
flo
it,
VANE MAF sensor
cr
will turn into a mass of air g / s higher value in volts and so dose sis
(grams per second). the greater amount of fuel. Surely, Pe
Such sensors have proved to be this will cause a rich mixture and flo
impractical for several reasons. higher fuel consumption, as well as ul
Since they were made from quite a loss of engine power. These were na
few mechanical parts, they are the reasons for MAF modification. EC
24
HOT WIRE MAF sensors oper- Unlike VANE sensors, this sen-
ate on the principle of heated wire, sor will recognize the air density.
which is cooled by air flow. The Namely, denser air cools the wire
difference in the wire resistance at more than thin air. In case of
different temperatures will cause denser air, sensor will send
differences in the analog signal stronger signal, just like that
whose value varies between 0 and greater volume of air flows trough
5V. the sensor.
Today's sensors are increasingly
Wire
using alloy metal plates instead of
Sensor wire, and built-in modules in-
stantly converting analog signals
to digital.
Housing
Sensor Connector
Wire
Air
In the upper section of the sketch Above photograph shows the typi-
we see MAF sensor with all its cal modern car sensor with visible
specificities. Air enters the engine electronic plate and module. The
intake manifold through the sen- presented sensor works on the
sor housing. As can be seen on the principle of thermal membrane. At
sketch, a small amount of air is the plastic plate, which is located
flowing through a separate chan- in the middle of the housing, the
nel in the casing. In this section is a membrane is imprinted with the
wire over which air flows. Current metal foil on the bottom and top.
flows through the wire and heats Membrane warms foil plates,
it, while airflow cools it down. In- which react in the same way as the
creasing wire temperature, the re- wire, but far more precise.
sistance increases, and vice versa. Today are also increasingly pre-
Permanent changes in current sent sensors with the so-called cold
flow through the sensor wire, mod- wire. With these sensors, due to air
ule will convert it into Voltage sig- flow induces a voltage, which goes
nals 0-5 V and forward them to the to the ECU in the form of digital
ECU. signals.
25
On newer generation vehicles,
we will see more often air flow sen-
sors like this one on above photo, MAF Sport A
than ones previously described. EC
This sensor usually pr
works on the cold in
wire and sends ca
digital signals to ter
the ECU. Incorrect wi
readings of sensors, ca
which have re-
sulted in loss of en- so
gine performance, lev
we can usually han- wi
dle only by cleaning pr
the sensor surface. de
Over the time, sen- cu
sor can accumulate in
dirt and read less tu
airflow. fro
26
MAP senzor
Manifold Absolute Pressure
Air pressure sensor supplies the Thanks to the air sensor, the
ECU with information about air ECU will recognize the difference
pressure in the intake system. This in air density in these two cases
information will be needed for the and be able to accurately deter-
calculation of air density and de- mine the required amount of fuel
termine the mass flow rate, which to achieve the ideal mixture of air
will ultimately be crucial for the and fuel in relation to 14,7:1.
calculation of the mixture. As in previous cases, the sensor
A simple example of MAP sen- operates in a similar way. ECU
sor function: driving a car at sea powers sensor with voltage of 5V.
level at a certain speed, the sensor Silicon crystals implanted in the
will send information about air sensor changes resistance depend-
pressure, which depends on the ing on the input air pressure.
density of air and used for the cal- Changing resistance changes the
culation of air-fuel mixture. Driv- output voltage from the sensor to
ing at the same speed at high alti- the ECU. This signal can be analog
tude level, sensors data will differ or digital, depending on the type of
from previous. sensors. As can be seen in the next
27
sketch, some sensors in its casing voltage in relation to vacuum fluc-
have an opening for measuring the tuations.
intake manifold vacuum. The
lower the vacuum, the air pressure
is higher. In this situation, sensor Different types of MAP sensors
resistance falls and output voltage
signal increases, and vice versa.
The typical value of the sensor
signal ranges from 0.5 to 4.5 V. On
the so-called idle throttle, with a
strong vacuum and low pressure,
the sensor signal will oscillate be-
tween 0.5 and 1.5 V. In the middle
position of throttle and the average
values of vacuum and pressure,
the signal voltage will be between
1.5 and 3 V and at full throttle, low
vacuum and high pressure, the sig-
nal will be 4.5 V.
Outgoing signal
Voltage
High
Low
I
Strong Weak
Vacuum M
se
In above graph, we can see pro- of
portional growth and decrease of As
m
tit
Vacuum
en
ra
tu
de
fu
m
em
m
Minus Signal +5V or
28
IAT, MAT senzor
Intake Air Temperature
31
LAMBDA PROBE T
O2
OXYGEN SENSOR
co
It
tio
an
O
It is hard to say that one of the Therefore, its use is far broader
engine sensors is less important than the use in car-industry.
than any other. However, this sen- In automotive engines, the oxy-
sor is certainly one of the most im- gen sensor is located on the engine
portant and integral element of exhaust manifold or just in front er
electronic systems in the most ba- of the catalyst. Its function is to sta
sic engine designs. measure the concentration of oxy- m
Lambda sensor or Oxygen sen- gen in the engine exhaust gases. By ce
sor (02) was first appeared on the measuring the concentration of co
market in mid seventies and has oxygen in the exhaust gases, po
been developed in the Enterprise reaches the saturation data of fuel- pl
car manufacturer Volvo. air mixture. That is, finding out in
The sensor is made of zirconium whether the air-fuel mixture is too In
(Zr) ceramics, coated with a thin rich or too poor. Information is
layer of platinum. The purpose of about the concentration of oxygen sc
this sensor is to measure the pro- in the exhaust gases are sent to the se
portion of oxygen in gases and liq- engine ECU, which adjusts dispen- ha
uids. sing fuel. to
32
This drawing shows the most while the outer part is exposed to
atmospheric air. The probe will
respond to the difference of oxygen
concentration in the exhaust gases
and atmospheric air by generating
the voltage. The greater the differ-
ence is between the concentration
of oxygen in the exhaust gases and
atmospheric air, the generated
voltage is higher. For example, if it
is a poor fuel mixture, the concen-
tration of oxygen in the exhaust
gases will be high, and generated
common position of oxygen sensor. voltage will be approximately 0.2
It also shows the circle of informa- V. If the mixture is too rich, the
tion from the sensor to the ECU oxygen concentration will be small,
and farther to fuel injectors. and the generated voltage will be
Oxygen sensor is a chemical gen- approximately 0.8 V. Such voltage
fluctuations vary in milliseconds.
ECU will, on the basis of received
information about the differences
in voltage, adjust the fuel mixture
correct dosage. With the exact dos-
age of fuel, the ECU will maintain
the average voltage of 0.45 V,
which should be the ideal air / fuel
Atmospheric air
ratio 14,7:1.
Exhaust gases
Zirconia sensor
erator. As already Gasket
Exhaust
stated, sensor ele- Shell
ment is made of
ceramic and
coated with a thin
porous film of
platinum from the Atm. air
inside and outside.
Housing
In the drawings it
is evident that the Platinum electrodes
screwed part of the
sensor is in the ex-
Exhaust pipe
haust pipe exposed Platinum electrodes
to exhaust gases,
33
Oxygen sensor is not in opera- Vehicle manufacturers who pro-
tion while the engine is cold. Dur- vided the ground on the exhaust
ing this time, the ECU will dose pipe shall incorporate the probe
fuel by installed program and will with three wires. Black wire will
take in consideration sensors val- be the standard for signal and two
ues like: coolant temperature, air white are connected to the plus C
mass etc. Lambda probe will not and minus and activate the heater Te
generate voltage until heated to to the required temperature. Last ur
about 200 ° C, and the proper option is four-wire probe. These tu
functioning of the sensor will be probes will be incorporated in C
possible only at 350 ° C. For that manufacturer’s vehicles who want us
reason, the probe is often placed at sta
ECU
the top of the exhaust manifold. of
Positioned in such way, a probe Heater
te
heats up very quickly and has only Signal am
one output wire from the sensor. in
Since the exhaust manifold is EC
firmly tied to the engine, the same op
is used for ground (-) of lambda co
probe. In other words, the single lat
output wire from the sensor is sig- th
Sensor with three wires
nal wire (generated voltage), and tu
body of sensor is a ground, or
negative pole.
Due to the different accommoda-
tion of O2 sensor in the exhaust
system, we will meet up with sen-
sors which have from 1 to 4 wires.
Namely, if the sensor is placed on
the exhaust pipes away from the
engine, the device is equipped with
heater. Heater will accelerate
warming and thus accelerate its
activation. So, the sensor with one
wire (usually black) has a closed
electrical circuit through the body. th
Some vehicle manufacturers want S
to ensure proper electrical circuit Four-wire sensor he
of the sensor with installation of in
two wires, black for signal and to fully ensure the electrical cir- ra
grey for ground. Sensors with in- cuit. In this case, the black will be S
stalled heaters are used, when ac- signal, grey ground and two white th
commodated away from engine. sensor heater. Se
34
CTS
Coolant Temperature Sensor
th
I
ty
co
Throttle Position Sensor is lo- pl
cated at the end of the butterfly ce
shaft (shown in right photo). The is
central moving part of the sensor By
sits on a square or notched end of tu
the shaft. The sensor is designed as tra
a sliding potentiometer and with m
variable resistance in various posi- ov
tions decreases or increases the sta
voltage to the ECU. As in previous or
cases, ECU powers this sensor T
with 5V voltage. In the closed posi- di
tion, the sensor resistance will be fu
36
the highest, and the voltage to the
ECU the lowest. When butterfly
openness completely, or how we
usually say, full throttle, the resis-
tance will be minimized and the
value of the output voltage will be
th
Actuators are the next important CKP sensor will transmit data of
elements of engine management. engine RPM to the ECU, which
Unlike the engine sensors, which will control the valve to maintain a
send information to the ECU, ac- constant programmed engine
tuators receive commands from RPM. Surely, the engine could op-
the ECU and do some work. One erate without this regulator, but
of them is the ISC actuator. only at programmed RPM in the
ISCV (Idle Speed Control idle throttle. However, this RPM
Valve), regulates the air pass aside would vary the same way as it does
the throttle butterfly on the engine on the engine with carburetor, de-
inlet manifold. This control valve pends of engine load. Namely, us-
is essential for proper regulation of ing lights and other electrical con-
the engine RPM at idle. ECU regu- sumers on the vehicle, alternator
lates the valve opening and closing will load the engine, in which case
on the basis of data obtained from the idle RPM will be reduced.
the engine sensors. In this case, the However, ECU registers the drop
47
of RPM and automatically regu- valve operates on the principle of lef
lates the valve to increase RPM as two-way electro-motor, which qu
defined. The same situation will when needed turns to the left, or se
occur when switching on air condi- right. Valve shaft has a thread cut or
tioning, engine radiator cooling on it and twisted in the rotor. By no
fan etc. This control valve is im- turning the rotor to the left or cr
mensely useful on vehicles with right side, the valve shaft will be ne
automatic transmission, where will raised or lowered, and thus regu- tro
avoid unpleasant twitches when late the amount of air flow. th
shifting into gear, what was the Another type of valve, shown in th
case on cars with carburetors. Of the following drawing and photo, air
course the ECU uses this valve to works on the principle of the sole- ou
increase the RPM during cold en- noid. The power of electromag- T
gine operation. netic fields will withdraw the valve wh
On today's cars we will find sev- shaft more or less, and close or bo
eral types of control valves. How- open channels for air flow to regu- th
ever, they all function the same late its volume. In first and the sec- br
way, regulating air flow trough ond case, the ECU is the one who wa
throttle by-pass. The lower photo gives orders of the air flow bu
shows one of the most common amount. flu
valves in today's vehicles. It is also In the first case, the poles will Th
known as the step motor. This change and rotate the motor to the clu
ad
ca
ar
48
left or right, to maintain the re- fly. After cleaning the valve and
quired amount of air intake. In the throttle housing, the smoothness
second case, the ECU will reduce and completeness of valve and
or increase the voltage at the sole- throttle butterfly openings and
noids and thus increase or de- closing, have to be checked.
crease the strength of electromag-
netic fields. The power of the elec-
tromagnetic field will determine
the openness of the valve and
thereby ensure the proper flow of
air in order to maintain continu-
ous programmed engine RPM.
The most common problem
which causes erratic idling is car-
bon deposit inside the valve and
throttle caused by the engine
breather. This deposit will not al-
ways allow proper closing of the
butterfly throttle, and there will be
fluctuations in engine RPM.
Therefore, before making a con-
clusion about defective valve, it is
advisable to check if there is any
carbon deposit inside the valve or
around and on the throttle butter-
49
EGR wa
re
Exhaust Gas Recirculation ce
Coolant ECU
EGR radiator
EGR valve
Inlet
Cylinder head
um
re
wh
Exhaust
ne
Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) co
is the reduction techniques of NOx ve
(nitrogen oxide and dioxide) gases led
in most vehicles with gasoline and dr
diesel engines. re
EGR system operates on the va
principle of recirculation of ch
exhaust gases. Returning an amo- str
unt of exhaust gases into the engi- se
ne intake manifold, intake gas led
mixture is diluted with inert gases th
from the exhaust and thus reduces
the mixture burning temperature, th
on which the NOx is formed in the pe
largest quantities. pe
In older vehicle models, the up
1. EGR valve 5. Diaphragm
EGR valve in gasoline engines is 2. Exhaust 6. Breather ex
controlled by vacuum. Such regu- 3. Inlet 7. Spring fo
lation of valve opening and closing 4. Vacuum 8. Spring co
50
was quite inaccurate and this was is medium-loaded. The valve is clo-
reflected on the engine performan- sed at engine idling, the accelerati-
ces. Today we can also find vacu- on and load, due to the need for
greater engine power. In addition
to using this system in order to
suppress the emission of harmful
gases, it contributes to a considera-
ble saving of fuel at a moderate
speed.
53
shafts and springs of different resi-
stance will allow blocking rockers
on request at a given engine oil
pressure.
For
i-VTEC
The catalyst is not exactly an e- These are the three most dangero-
lectronic vehicle element, but it is a us and most harmful gasses, which
chemical converter and an integral are subject to legal regulations of
part of today's cars. Since it is vehicles emissions, a catalyst is in-
closely related to the engine and its corporated for their reduction.
electronics, it is inevitable to A newer generation of cars is
explain its function in this book. mainly equipped with the so-called
The role of catalyst is the reduc- "Three-Way" (triple) catalysts.
tion of hazardous emissions from This term refers to the reduction
petrol and diesel engines. As a pro- of these gases molecules: CO, HC
duct of air-fuel mixture combusti- and NOx.
on, a dangerous and harmful gases As can be seen on the upper
are created: CO carbon monoxide, drawing, the catalyst is divided
HC hydrocarbons and NO and into two parts, and consists of two
NO2 nitrogen monoxide and ceramic elements. First is called
dioxide, together termed NOx. reduction and second oxidizing
55
element. Both elements have a ce- combustion and oxidation process H
ramic or metal structure coated when they come in contact with all
with precious metals which have the catalyst, which is in this case a to
the catalysts properties: platinum, thin layer of platinum and palladi- ca
rhodium and palladium. um. This catalyst helps the chemi- wa
The biggest problem in catalyst cal reaction of carbon monoxide C.
designing was constructing the CO and hydrocarbons HC with m
oxygen in the exhaust gases and ca
oxygen released from the NOx in th
the first part of the catalyst. By (p
binding of carbon monoxide with of
oxygen, results in carbon dioxide ra
CO2. Binding hydrocarbons HC
with oxygen, results in carbon
dioxide CO2 and water H2O. Die-
sel engines are mostly built with
the catalyst oxidation section only.
The catalyst is usually found lo-
cated at the front of the exhaust
Ceramic and metal structures system under the vehicle.
cy
sk
th
ca
ov
po
Having in mind that this book is technology. on
also intended for those who are of
engaged in automotive as a hobby, cy
the next few pages will be discus- fo
sed on the basis of four-stroke en- de
gine. The concept of the previous pi
text is generally comprehensible to ce
those who have good knowledge wi
and experience in the maintenance m
of motor vehicles. However, those th
whose knowledge of automotive is or
poor, will find difficulties to follow fla
this book. This category of readers sio
is targeted in this part of the book, to
to help them understand the fun- fin
damentals of four-stroke engines co
58
In the previous section we can tion. This ignition order dictates
see a sketch of a modern four- camshaft with exact lobe positions
stroke Otto-engine (petrol engine for each cylinder, and ignition dis-
with two overhead camshafts. tributor which distributes the
Such engines are usually marked spark plugs at a specific time (in
as "DOHC" what stands for newer vehicles ECU "Engine Con-
"Double Overhead Camshaft" or trol Unit", or commonly known,
two camshafts on the cylinder he- the engine computer). But, let’s get
ad. This section shows only one back to the first sketch of a single
engine cylinder, but it applies to all cylinder. On the cylinder head we
see two camshafts and its lobes,
which are associated with the engi-
ne crankshaft by toothed belt or
chain. The eccentric parts of the
camshaft (lobes) are placed against
the valve lifters (in this case,
hydraulic). Under each of them
are the springs to return valve in
the closed position. By turning the
camshafts during engine operati-
on, the eccentric parts (lobes) are
cylinders in the engine. The upper opening, and closing valves with
sketch shows the cross section of the help of springs. On the right
the entire four-cylinder engine. It side of the drawing we see the inta-
can be seen that the crank lobes ke valve, through which port en-
over which piston rods revolve are ters the air-fuel mixture into the
positioned opposite (180°) from engine cylinder. On the left side
one another in relation to the axis are the exhaust valve and its port
of the crankshaft. So, on four- to ensure the evacuation of exhaust
cylinder engine, when the first and gases into exhaust system. Four-
fourth pistons are at the TDC (top stroke engines have four strokes
dead center), the second and third for each cylinder during one engi-
pistons are at BDC (bottom dead ne cycle, and therefore they are
center). In this concept, the engine named "four-stroke engines". On
will have firing order 1-3-4-2. This the next sketch, we can monitor all
means that the air-fuel mixture in four piston strokes in one engine
the cylinders will be ignited by this cylinder during one cycle. Durati-
order moving with a mixture in- on of one engine cycle takes two
flammation at the end of compres- full rotations of the cranckshaft, or
sion stroke from the first cylinder 720°. In the first or suction stroke,
to the third, then the second and the piston is in the downward path
finally to the fourth. This order is from its top dead center (TDC),
constant during the engine opera- and the intake valve is open. The
59
1. Suction 2. Compressing 3. Expansion 4. Exhaust
valve remains open until piston drawing which shows connection
reaches bottom dead center between camshaft and crankshaft
(BDC), during which time, due to by toothed belt.
the under pressure, fuel-air
mixture is sucked into the
cylinder.
In second or compression stroke,
the piston is in its upward
trajectory from the bottom dead
center and compresses sucked fu-
el-air mixture. During this time, T
both valves are closed. all
In the third or expansion stroke, gin
the piston is located at the top de- so
ad center, where compressed Su
mixture is ignited and presses the in
piston down. In this stroke both se
valves remain closed too until pis- th
ton reaches bottom dead center. as
In the fourth or exhaust stroke, fo
the exhaust valve opens and the en
piston in its upward trajectory dis- he
places burnt gases from the ju
cylinder through the exhaust port pl
in the exhaust system (see illustra- fla
tion at the beginning of this text). A
In the next photo we see the cam- ne
shaft with precisely defined positi- ne
ons of cams for each valve and a en
60
1. "Flat Head" engine 2. "OHV" engine
Adjusting screew
Contacts
Anvil
Hammer lifter
Shaft lobe
Capacitor
Plate
Housing
Weights
77
Zrak the fuel supply pipe (1), will mix wo
with air and atomize into a fine cu
spray of fuel and air, and get into tw
the venture. un
Fuel On explained way, the carbura- to
tor works when driving the car. lem
However, carburator is far more nj
complicated than it initially appe- m
ars. When we stop the vehicle and bu
release accelerator pedal, we shall ra
almost completely close the carbu- an
rator butterfly. In this case, there an
will be not enough under pressure nj
in the venturi to suck the fuel from pr
RPM, what would otherwise be feed pipe (1). For this purpose, in th
impossible. So, the air flows throu- the venturi casing special passage sh
gh the venturi creating under pres- is bored to provide air fuel Fi
sure, under which fuel is sucked mixture to the engine at idle. This dr
from carburator reservoir. When passage is drilled exactly on clo- el.
the air flow is faster, the sucked sing position of the butterfly, and O
amount of fuel is greater, and vice with reason. Through the small ch
versa. To control the amount of air gap between butterfly and casing, is
and automatically amount of fuel when butterfly is partially open, to
entering into the engine, at the bot- air is sucked. Again, the under ted
tom of the venturi butterfly is in- pressure which is created in this be
stalled. With butterfly, whose shaft section sucks mixture of fuel and au
is connected to the accelerator pe- air through these passage. Unlike M
dal via cable, we are controlling in previous case, where we had not ca
opening or closing air flow throu- possibility to adjust the mixture as ch
gh the venturi. If we get back to it was pre-defined by carburator to
the sketch, we will see that the pipe design, the mixture for engine id- wi
(1) is not directly immersed in the ling is adjustable. m
fuel reservoir. Namely, in such ca- The third basic function of a sim- sp
se there will be an uncontrolled ple carburator is preventing engi- sh
suction of liquid fuel from the re- ne dead spot when accelerating te
servoir, causing overflow. That is rapidly. During rapid acceleration, ex
why a blender nozzle is made and butterfly in venturi will open us
connected with pipe (1). Built-in suddenly too. At that moment, un- ele
blender nozzle has an opening to der pressure in venturi drops and m
atmospheric air and series of fuel can not be sucked from the bu
precisely calculated bores, through feed pipe. Certainly, as only air is op
which air mixes with fuel in pipe sucked into the engine at that spe- C
(1). Thus, the fuel sucked through cific moment, the engine will stop in
78
working for a second. Such an oc- allows the entry of a richer
currence will cause hesitation or mixture, which is essential for a
twitching of the vehicle, until the cold engine. It is also mechanically
under pressure increases enough connected to the throttle shaft, so
to suck the fuel again. This prob- that in a closed position in propor-
lem is solved by installing the i- tion increases RPM at idle.
njection pump, which is On the photo below clearly are
mechanically connected to the visible choke butterflies in closed
butterfly shaft. Pressing the accele- position, as well as bimetallic
rator, injection pump is activated, assembly on the right side of car-
and when butterfly suddenly opens burator.
an extra amount of fuel will be i- Apart from a single carburator,
njected in venturi and solve the vehicles can be equipped with dou-
problem of engine dead spot. All ble throttle or multi-carburators.
three described operations are Double throttle carburator will
shown in the previous drawing. have two venturis. Such carbura-
First, operation at idle. Second, tor is working as a single, while the
driving mode. Third, injecting fu- second venturi is just starting to
el. open after about 3000 RPM. Mul-
On drawings, we can also see ti-carburators are carburators
choke marks. The simplest option which feed separately each engine
is choke butterfly, almost identical cylinder with air-fuel mixture.
to already described, which is loca- Such carburattors do not always
ted above the venturi. Choke can have to be separate devices, but in
be controlled manually or pairs of two or even four in one for
automatically. engine in V formation. Carburator
Manual adjustment is solved by "two in one" is shown below. The-
cable which is associated with a se are two carburators in one case,
choke puller inside the vehicle. Au- and butterflies are mechanically
tomatic choke is usually associated linked.
with bimetallic regulator. Bi-
metal is made in the form of
spring which stretches or
shrinks due to difference in
temperature to which is
exposed. This assembly is
usually heated by water or
electricity. In the cold, the bi-
metal is holding a choke
butterfly closed, and it slowly
opens up, as bimetal warms up.
Choke partially closes the air
inlet in the venturi and thus
79
When mentioning membrane su
carburator, we shall most often att
fal
clo
As
bu
en
the
the
the
hr
tio
This carburator "four in one" W
apparently looks very complicated. sin
However, it is about four single pis
carburators, located in same hou- tio
cil
sing. This concept is made for
ins
very practical reason: instead of
setting four individual carburators meet above presented Stromberg pe
and a good deal of the mechanics carburator with a diaphragm dia- pis
associated with them. The con- meter of 175 mm. wh
structor has merged four venturis, On the schematic representation ra
which use the same fuel reservoir. pis
If we fully understand the basic ca
Diaphragm
principle of the carburator, we can the
easily deal with a lot more compli- Piston tio
cated carburator. All modificati-
ons in various types of carburators no
Needle ca
are relatively easy recognized since Butterfly
they are made to improve the engi-
ne performances in various condi-
tions, as well as fuel consumption.
Vacuum Carburators:
81
wo
pa
let
Inl
Va
Di
Inlet
Valve
Diaphragm
Anchor
Valve
Coil Protective covering
Brushes
Contact breaker
Valve
Outlet Izlaz
Valve Motor
Valve
Ventil
Turbine
Sensors
E C U
F
TPS CTS OTS O2 IAT
Air filter
Fuel filter
Injectors
85
injector works exactly the same D
way as the multi-port system. The
only difference is in the number of
injectors. Of course, with this sim-
plified injection system a high per-
formances are lost. However, such
vehicles are primarily designed for
city driving, where drivers are not
so demanding.
K-Jetronic:
En
Mechanical fuel injection system blo
Solenoid injctor is very rarely seen these days. This
system operates mechanically and
Mono-Jetronic: it is not controlled by ECU. High
pressure pump supplies injectors
Vehicles with smaller engine with fuel through distributor.
capacity are equipped with Mono- Mechanical injectors open fuel
Jetronic fuel injection system in- flow due to pressure which com- T
stead of Multi-port fuel injection press the spring inside injector. alm
systems (lower sketch). Fuel injec- The principle of operation is simi- di
tion engine with only one central lar to Diesel injectors. to
tio
Mono injector
wh
by
di
air
di
ke
un
tem
Ju
ign
di
In
ECU air
ex
do
in
ele
86
Diesel-engine
Valve Injector
Piston
Engine
block
Oil
1. Pump 2. Injector 3. Glow plug
Injector
In a constant effort to simplify
engines with the aim of reducing
production costs, manufacturers
invented injectors with build-in Glow plug
high pressure pump (upper
sketch). However, unlike
previously described, this system is
Head
rarely used.
In order to eliminate very Block
expensive and complicated high-
pressure pump from system and Piston
replace it with simpler high pres-
sure pump, manufacturers have ted into the pre-combustion cham-
transferred the task of fuel oppres- ber. Compressed air in the cham-
sion to the fuel injector. As can be ber creates a swirl. During injecti-
seen in the sketch, camshaft lifts on, the fuel will be evenly mixed
the rocker at a specific time. The with compressed air. Engines in
rocker depresses piston which op- which the expansion takes place in
pressive fuel, and comes to the i- pre-ignition chambers, work a lot
njection. Certainly, it was very quieter and smoother than engines
complicated to adjust injector for with direct fuel injection.
proper dosage of fuel at different Engines with direct fuel injecti-
engine RPM, so the further modi- on, achieving greater efficiency,
fication of this system is made by and therefore better fuel economy.
incorporating electronics in In direct injection system, the fuel
system. It was the forerunner of is injected directly into the engine
today's diesel fuel injection system, cylinder, or the expansion cham-
known as "Common Rail" or ber which can be positioned in the
freely translated, fuel supply by cylinder head or in the piston as
89
shown on this drawing. and cylinder head. To reach the
On the below drawing we see required temperature to ignite the
mixture, heaters are used. Unlike
the former diesel engines where
mixture heating was assisted on
several ways, today’s cars have
built-in heater timers which con-
trol the heating duration. They are
associated with the engine tempe-
rature sensor and so can
accurately determine the need for
mixture heating. Engines with di-
rect fuel injection, usually can be
started without the use of heaters,
since the concept of expansion
expansion chamber formed in the chamber, lowers the temperature
engine piston. When designing loss. Increased compression ratio,
compression chamber, the vortex higher fuel pressure on injectors
of compressed air which will and atomization of injected fuel O
evenly mix with injected fuel is ta- will also improve cold engine start co
ken in account. These types of en- without glow plugs. ca
gines are mainly installed in com- As already mentioned, today's wh
mercial vehicles, and rarely perso- diesel engines use common rail fuel Ho
nal. The reason is aforementioned injection system. Timing and dura- gin
noisy and hard working engine tion of injection determines the on
which makes unpleasant vibrati- ECU. Just like in the gasoline engi- fiv
ons. ne, the ECU will determine very sk
On the previous sketch we can precise injection timing, as well as
see marked mixture heater (glow the required amount of fuel, calcu-
plug). The heater is only used for lated on the basis of collected engi-
cold engine start. Namely, the tem- ne sensors data. Advantage of
perature, which is achieved by common rail system is elimination
compressing the air, is lost throu- of very complicated and expensive
gh the cold piston walls, cylinders high pressure pump. Now, much
simpler very high and constant
pressure pump is used (1200-2000
bars). Metal pipes from the pump
to the each injector are also elimi-
I
nated from system. Instead, a com- ex
mon rail, or common high- de
pressure single pipe is used. Com- the
mon rail connects all engine injec- vi
tors in series. ex
90
Pump
Distributor
Radiator
Injector
Common rail
Compressor rotor
Turbine rotor
Shaft housing
Shaft bearings
T
we
"t
ign
re
I
sh
hi
ex
co
cr
94
Mark
Mark
Valves
Oil
syringes
Crankshaft
Chain and
Valve tensioner
Balancer
Filter
By-pass Control valve
Oil
cooler
Oil filter Safety valve Oil pump
101
Upper hose
Plug
Cabin heater hoses Thermostat
Cabin heater
Radiator
Fan
Expansion tank
Water pump
ve
Lower hose ki
Oil cooler so
Na
Engine cooling: engine radiator. Circulating throu- us
gh the radiator cells and cooled by liq
Water-cooled engine is develo- air, chilled liquid is returned trou- wi
ped by closed system of cooling gh the lower hose back into the en- pr
fluid circulation through the engi- gine. Circulation of fluid allows he
ne block and head channels. The water pump, located on the front pr
circulation of fluid from the engine of the engine and usually driven by th
through the cooler is regulated by V-belt. The pump draws fluid re
a thermostat. During the engine from the engine radiator and pus- no
warm-up, the thermostat is closed hes it into the lower part of the en- co
and the water circulates inside the gine. On its way to the upper radi- po
engine. Heating the liquid to the ator hose, the liquid is heated, coo- in
upper limit of the engine operating ling the warmest part of the engi- wa
temperature, the thermostat will ne. po
open and leak the fluid into the At the top of the cooling system wh
circulation through engine radia- expansion tank is located. On this th
tor. Suppose that the engine opera- bo
ting temperature is 90 ° C, the m
thermostat will open at 92 ° C and th
close to 87 ° C. Continuously con- po
trolling the liquid flow through the of
cooler, the thermostat will mainta- lat
in a constant coolant temperature. ra
The drawings show how after the de
thermostat opening, heated fluid D
flows trough the upper hose to the tu
102
cells is sufficient to cool the circu-
lated fluid in the system. However,
during the rest of the vehicle or in
the city rush hour, the natural air
flow is almost nonexistent. In such
situations, the radiator would not
be able to cool the liquid, and this
would result with engine overhea-
ting. To assist the air flow a fan is
installed in front of the radiator.
This fan can be mounted on a
water pump driven by a belt.
However, this principle we will
vessel we shall always find mar- meet in older vehicles models. Di-
king for maximum coolant level sadvantage of this principle is
somewhere in the middle of it. slowing down the engine warming
Namely, the remaining space is to its operating temperature, since
used to absorb the expansion of the fan is constantly turning by the
liquid when heated. Therefore, we speed of water pump. The second
will find a warning: the system is and more common system is alike
pressurized, do not open. When the first one, but with the use of
heated, liquid expands and com- bimetal clutch called Visco fan. In
press the air in the upper part of this case, the heart of the fan spins
the vessel. By cooling, the liquid by speed of the water pump, while
reduces its volume and pressure the fan fins are almost stationary
normalizes. Pressurized liquid in and rotate just by inertia. During
cooling system has a specific pur- the heating bimetal expands and
pose. As we know, the boiling po- the fan heart will merge with fins
int of water is 100° C. However, if and block them if necessary. This
water is pressurized, its boiling system is far more convenient, be-
point rises. If we use antifreeze, cause it allows a faster engine
which has higher boiling point warm-up and achieving sooner o-
than water, we get a much higher perating temperature. The
boiling point than water has at at- cutaway of Visco fan is seen below.
mospheric pressure. By increasing
the boiling point we get the
possibility of reducing the amount
of coolant in the engine, and instal-
lation a smaller radiator. Small
radiator allows modern low front
design and other benefits.
During the driving, only the na-
tural air flow through the radiator
103
The lower part of the fan is attac- Thermostat
hed to the water pump, and its up-
per part to the plastic or alumini-
um fan fins. This system is also
known under the name bimetal
clutch.
But today the most commonly
used cooling fan is powered by an Volta
electric motor (bottom photo). To
Water
pump
Brush
Rotor
How the AC current is induced
in coils? Rotor which also consists
of metal core and coil rotates insi-
de the stator. Coil is connected to
sliding copper surfaces on which
brushes are skating. Bringing
electricity via brushes to rotor coil
107
a magnetic field is created. Alter- thus controls the battery charging.
nating magnetic fields from the By increasing or reducing current
rotating rotor will induce an AC supply to the rotor brush, the al-
voltage in the stator coils. Induced ternator output current is control-
voltage will depend of the strength led. Clu
of magnetic field, which is control- In the bottom left photo the most
led by electricity brought on the common voltage regulator is
rotor. shown. Such regulator is very Bu
practical as it has integrated brus-
hes and is easy replaceable because
it is fastened with only couple
screws at the rear of the alternator
(bottom photo).
Alternator cooling fan is fitted
on the outside or inside. Be
E
tri
wh
T
sta
ve
Stator w
Last alternator component is an Ho
internal or external electronic vol- th
tage regulator. This controller mo- su
nitors power consumption and A
Regulator
m
to
sk
fro
di
no
ho
S
tw
ar
co
na
br
dr
108
Solenoid anchor
Solenoid
Solenoid lever + Battery
+ Ignition switch
Bush
Bush
Brush
Rotor Magnet
Bendix gear Planetary gears
Starter motor
It is evident; as development of
technology improves day after day
we are finding new modifications
on vehicles. A large portion of the-
se modifications is focused on the
passenger’s safety in vehicles, and
those outside them. So in addition
to ABS, ESC and other safety
systems, a great attention is given
to good lighting on the road ahead.
Today more and more frequently
vehicles are fitted with lighting
system, popularly known as Xenon
lights or HID - High Intensity
Discharge. This system is
completely different from the ligh- Xenon bulb consists of two elec-
ting systems installed in cars trodes and two casings which are
previously. made of quartz glass. The first
Whether it is a regular or halo- layer is filled with a mixture of no-
gen bulb, we are always talking ble gases at high pressure, in
about glowing wire which emits which xenon is included. The se-
light. However, in the xenon bulb cond layer has protective nature.
glowing wire does not exist, and Compressed gas ignites due to
light is emitted by compressed gas the high-voltage arc occurrence
ignited by electric arc. between two electrodes. Arc volta-
111
ge at the initial stage igniting cold Inverter
bulb is about 21,000 V Xenon gas
will be first heated to a temperatu-
re of light radiation, and thus pro-
vide immediate illumination,
which is usually in the beginning, a
bluish colour. When gas is fully
heated, radiant light will take the
other gases with small additions of
mercury and metal salts. After a
full warm-up, the bulb will glow
white light, and the voltage on the
arc between the electrodes will In the above photo we see one
significantly drop and become con- such ballast-inverter, which has
stant. From this description of the built-in starter.
xenon bulb may be concluded that Due to the configuration of HID
it is not possible to test it by con- elements, a light bulbs have diffe-
necting it to the battery, as it is the rent tags. D1S will mean a clean or
case with regular or halogen bulbs. naked light bulb with an integra-
Therefore, before making any bulb ted starter. D2S label will bare pla-
defect conclusion, it is necessary to in bulb. D1R will have the same
pay attention to other elements of characteristics as the D2R, but will
the HID system. If only one bulb have an integrated starter. And
on the car does not work, the sim- finally, D2R is naked light bulb
plest is to switch the bulbs from with black shading for directing
one headlight to another, just for a the light beam.
test. If switched bulb does not HID lighting is characterized by T
work on the headlight which up to three times greater light ny
worked before, we can conclude intensity and lower power consum- tra
defective bulbs. If switched bulb ption in comparison with halogen in
does work, we can conclude a mal- lights. cle
function of the so-called ballast or When replacing the halogen at
starter. Starter can be incorpora- lighting with xenon lights, it is ad- A
ted into the ballast housing, or visable to change entire headlight wh
may be a separate element. for correct light direction. le
So we have come to the other wh
two components of the xenon tiv
lights. Starter will ensure high arc ac
on first gas ignition, while the bal- tiv
last, inverter at the same time, will le
convert DC to AC power and re- as
gulate the frequency, which ranges
from 250-400 Hz. XENON headlight with nverter ha
112
Safety Air Bags
Air Bag
Air Bag
Igniter
The airbag is made of very thin of the vehicle or on the side, will
nylon cloth and packed in the cen- close the circuit and thus give a
tral part of the steering wheel, and signal to module for activation of
in newer and more expensive vehi- certain air bag. The module will
cles we will find them in doors, se- trigger the airbag on the way that
ats, etc. it closes the circuit on the air bag
As before, the sensor is the one igniter, causing a spark occurren-
who will give a signal to the modu- ce. Spark will cause a chemical re-
le or control unit (computer) action of sodium azide (NaN3) and
which manages the system and ac- potassium nitrate (KNO3), which
tivates the airbags. Sensors which will transform in nitrogen gas, and
activate air bag will trigger the ac- will in one quarter of a second or
tivation of the airbag during vehic- with a speed of approximately 320
le collision in the solid object with kilometres per hour, fill the airbag
a speed of 15-25 km per hour. with gas. Immediately after air
In older types of vehicles, mec- bag activation, the filtered gas will
hanical switch located on the front exit from it trough porous cloth
113
I
lec
pl
se
ro
wh
cu
wi
Bag
of which it is made, to free the pas-
sengers and allow them to move Chemical ampule
out of the vehicle. Airbag activati- Sensor
on is usually accompanied by Nitrogen
white powder. It is a powder which
is used in air bag packaging, and
serves as a lubricant during bag
unwinding.
T
ele
ac
Nitrogen su
Chemical ampule Bag
Filter su
Sensor Sodium ste
azide as
ze
Igniter sh
de
etc
114
previously programmed to per-
form the various functions, will
recognize the impact and its
strength and send a signal to the
ABS Light
Cylinder
Pipes
Pedal Relays
Sensors
Caliper ABS
Computer
Sensor
Protective Hub
Disc to
plate
ag
Disc Toothed wheel
hi
co
tw
Function of the Anti-lock Bra- sing brakes in various situations. su
king System is to prevent wheels ABS system consists of a central m
from blocking during sudden bra- unit (computer), four sensors (one pu
king. Disabling brakes locking, car on each wheel) and two or more W
drivers will be able to steer and valves in the hydraulic circuit. fa
when braking strongly, without During driving, computer sid
drift. Just the possibility of sudden continuously records the rotation an
braking without fear of wheel of each wheel and calculates wheel oil
blocking, will shorten the stopping speed on the base on the sensor Sp
distance in relation to repeated pulses. If during the braking, dece- wh
braking, which was usually practi- leration occurs on the one of the ter
ced in such situations. In addition, wheels to such extent that there is dr
ABS also provides electronic con- a possibility of blocking, computer su
trol of vehicle stability. will through the valve reduce the ve
Disadvantage of ABS is longer oil pressure to that wheel and pre- Ho
braking distance in certain situati- vent blocking. When the same ve
ons, as well as driver’s over- wheel achieves greater speed in wh
confidence in this system when u- comparison with other wheels due Si
116
to a low oil pressure, computer will contact with the dry surface, try to
again let the oil to this wheel at stop the vehicle. However, on the
higher pressure. This operation slippery surface, in an effort to
computer is able to repeat up to stop the vehicle, the wheel will
twenty times per second. Oil pres- simply block, having not resistance
sure oscillation on wheels can be which tire has in contact with dry
manifested as slight brake pedal surface. Computers will also reco-
pulsation. gnize the nuances of the slower in-
When programming computer, ner wheels turning when vehicle
far more data will be taken in con- describes the circle entering a cur-
sideration than just a wheel speed, ve.
and will be used in calculations of
oil pressure on individual wheel.
Specifically, on a slippery surface
wheel speed is reduced much fas-
ter than on the dry surface. On a
dry surface, much greater oil pres-
sure will be required to stop the
vehicle or lock the brakes.
However, on a slippery surface,
very little pressure will cause
wheels blocking and skidding.
Simplified, the tire will in firm ABS sensor
117
what are the consequences of in- wh
correct computer calculations. De- on
scribed problem, we can see in the va
bottom photo. flo
br
wh
ve
tin
th
In
se
Ring
wh
S
Sensor
th
th
wh
lec
hy
re
br
de
T
By monitoring the sensor signals,
computer knows in every moment A
how the brakes work on each tro
wheel. After calculation, computer Co
ABS sensors are working as e- sends commands to electromagne- th
lectromagnetic generators, or on tic valves in the ABS hydraulic m
the same way as previously descri- controller unit. co
bed CKP crankshaft sensor. Toot- In hydraulic assembly, usually hi
hed rings are attached on the drive are built four valves, one for each ve
shaft or on the wheel discs, while ac
the sensor is attached to the wheel ro
hub (upper sketch). hi
Sensors and toothed rings are ve
constantly exposed to dirt from the loc
roadway, as well as to the metal sid
chips from brake discs. Deposits of re
dirt, mixed with fine metal partic- ta
les, will certainly affect the sensor pa
signals, and thus the computer cal- th
culations. It is needless to mention tra
118
wheel. The valve has three operati- two wheels before slipping or drift
onal stages. In the first stage, the occurs. Slowing down one or two
valve is open and enables the oil wheels brings us into close relati-
flow under the pressure from the onship with ABS. ATC computer
brake master cylinder to the is associated with the engine ECU
wheel. In the second stage, the val- and with ABS. In combination
ve blocks the oil passage, regula- with previously mentioned acts of
ting the oil pressure due to the fur- the engine computer, ATC will gi-
ther pressure on the brake pedal. ve the command to ABS computer
In the third stage, the valve relea- to increase the oil pressure at indi-
ses the pressurized oil from the vidual wheel, what will result in
wheel. slowing down particular wheel, or
Since the system is able to relieve synchronizing its speed of rotation
the oil pressure from each wheel, with the other drive wheel, or
there must be a way to get it back wheels on 4WD.
when needed. For this purpose e- Today, electronically controlled
lectric pump is installed in steering is developing faster than
hydraulic control unit. Pump will ever. Thus, on the newer and more
return pressurized oil in the wheel expensive vehicles we often meet
brake cylinder by computer’s or- the ESC (Electronic Stability Con-
der. trol). However, it always comes
down to a restrictions of engine
Traction control: performances at the right moment,
and the slowing effect of individual
ATC (Automatic Traction Con- wheel by ABS. Surely, the new
trol) and DTC (Dynamic Traction systems are using more sensors, to
Control) is one of the names for monitor various situations and ve-
the vehicle traction control, and is hicle behaviour on the road. Thus,
mainly linked to the ABS. Traction even gyroscopes are used today to
control is extremely important in measure the wheel tilt and strain.
high-performance vehicles, to pre- Computerisation of all vehicle
vent vehicle skidding by sudden systems mainly depends of sensor
acceleration and wheel slip on the data quantities.
road when rapidly starting the ve-
hicle. More expensive vehicles ha-
ve possibilities of electronically
locking clutch on one or the other
side of differential, automatically
reducing engine RPM, ignition re-
tarding, opening the turbine by-
pass valve, etc. However, one of
the cheaper solutions to control
tracking is slowing down one or
119
OBD II/SAE ACRONYMS EG
EI
EM
ABS Antilock brake system EP
A/C Air conditioning
AC Air cleaner EV
AIR Secondary air injection
A/T Automatic transmission FC
or transaxle FE
SAP Accelerator pedal
B+ Battery positive voltage
BARO Barometric pressure FF
CAC Charge air cooler FP
CFI Continuous fuel injection FP
CL Closed loop
CKP Crankshaft position sensor FT
CKP REF Crankshaft reference FT
CMP Camshaft position sensor GC
CMP REF Camshaft reference GE
CO Carbon monoxide GN
CO2 Carbon dioxide H2
CPP Clutch pedal position HO
CTOX Continuous trap oxidizer HO
CTP Closed throttle position
DEPS Digital engine position HO
sensor
DFCO Decel fuel cut-off mode HO
DFI Direct fuel injection
DLC Data link connector HC
DTC Diagnostic trouble code HV
DTM Diagnostic test mode HV
EBCM Electronic brake control
module IA
EBTCM Electronic brake traction IA
control module IA
EC Engine control IC
ECM Engine control module IC
ECL Engine coolant level IF
ECT Engine coolant temperature IF
EEPROM Electrically erasable I/M
programmable read only memory IP
EFE Early fuel evaporation IS
EGR Exhaust gas recirculation KO
120
EGRT EGR temperature
EI Electronic ignition
EM Engine modification
EPROM Erasable programmable
read only memory
EVAP Evaporative emission
system
FC Fan control
FEEPROM Flash electrically
erasable programmable
read only memory
FF Flexible fuel
FP Fuel pump
FPROM Flash erasable programmable
read only memory
FT Fuel trim
FTP Federal test procedure
GCM Governor control module
GEN Generator
GND Ground
H2O Water
HO2S Heated oxygen sensor
HO2S1 Upstream heated oxygen
sensor
HO2S2 Up or downstream heated
oxygen sensor
HO2S3 Downstream heated
oxygen sensor
HC Hydocarbon
HVS High voltage switch
HVAC Heating ventilation and
air conditioning system
IA Intake air
IAC Idle air control
IAT Intake air temperature
IC Ignition control circuit
ICM Ignition control module
IFI Indirect fuel injection
IFS Inertia fuel shutoff
I/M Inspection/maintenance
IPC Instrument panel cluster
ISC Idle speed control
KOEC Key on, engine cranking
121
KOEO Key on, engine off RP
KOER Key on, engine running SC
KS Knock sensor SC
KSM Knock sensor module SD
LTFT Long term fuel trim SF
MAF Mass airflow sensor SR
MAP Manifold absolute pressure SR
sensor ST
MC Mixture control TB
MDP Manifold differential TB
pressure TC
MFI Multiport fuel injection TC
MIL Malfunction indicator lamp TC
MPH Miles per hour
MST Manifold surface TF
temperature TP
MVZ Manifold vacuum zone TP
NVRAM Nonvolatile random TV
access memory TW
NOX Oxides of nitrogen TW
O2S Oxygen sensor
OBD Onboard diagnostics VA
OBD I Onboard diagnostics VC
generation one VR
OBD II Onboard diagnostics, VS
second generation VS
OC Oxidation catalyst W
ODM Output device monitor
OL Open loop W
OSC Oxygen sensor storage
PAIR Pulsed secondary air
injection
PCM Powertrain control module
PCV Positive crankcase ventilation
PNP Park/neutral switch
PROM Program read only
memory
PSA Pressure switch assembly
PSP Power steering pressure
PTOX Periodic trap oxidizer
RAM Random access memory
RM Relay module
ROM Read only memory
122
RPM Revolutions per minute
SC Supecharger
SCB Supercharger bypass
SDM Sensing diagnostic mode
SFI Sequential fuel injection
SRI Service reminder indicator
SRT System readiness test
STFT Short term fuel trim
TB Throttle body
TBI Throtle body injection
TC Turbocharger
TCC Torque converter clutch
TCM Transmission or transaxle
control module
TFP Throttle fluid pressure
TP Throttle position
TPS Throttle position sensor
TVV Thermal vacuum valve
TWC Three way caalyst
TWC+OC Three way + oxidation
catalytic converter
VAF Volume airflow
VCM Vehicle control module
VR Voltage regulator
VS Vehicle sensor
VSS Vehicle speed sensor
WU-TWC Warm up three way
catalytic converter
WOT Wide open throttle
123
DIAGNOSTIC ADVISOR m
re
pr
sh
do
sh
m
A
lig
po
This advisor is for beginners, terminals and cables connectors on at
hobbyists and enthusiasts, and I them. A common situation is that in
believe will be of benefit to profes- problem is not solved by cleaning po
sionals, as a reminder. Description oxidation on these elements as sw
of the potential problems related oxidation is hidden inside the ter- ou
to vehicle malfunctions is based on minal connectors where they are ne
the most common questions rela- joined with power cables. In such ted
ted to failures. case, it is advisable to use jump fro
First and most common question start cables and connect the nega- di
is related to problems with engine tive battery terminal with clean sta
starting. Considering that number metal engine part, and the positive to
of causes can be related to this terminal with a clean part of posi- lie
problem, a diagnostic sequence is tive battery cable. If the electric ha
necessary to be set up in order. So, circuit is achieved, battery termi- do
let's start with some examples, re- nals connectors have to be repla- do
ferring to the most banal possibili- ced. be
ties of engine breakdown. I
In the following chapter, engines ar
with carburettors will have a label Ignition lights on, but engine will en
(c), for carburator. Engines with not start so
direct fuel injection (i) for injecti- gin
on and diesel engines (d). There are two situations in this pr
case. In first situation we have all we
Lack of electric power control lights on when the ignition sw
is turned on, but the lights go off th
Empty battery due to the lights when we try to start the engine. ne
left on, or other electric customer Here we may have a problem with on
which is not automatically partially empty battery, or th
switched off by extracting ignition oxidation as previously described, th
key from steering wheel lock. but in lesser extent. In fact, now gin
Another possibility is broken e- we have a partial flow of current tio
lectrical circuit due to the accumu- through the oxidized terminals, tu
lated oxidation, between battery but not enough to run the starter be
124
motor. Let's do the same procedu- situation may be caused by defecti-
re of oxidation removal as in the ve glow plugs.
previous case, and the problem With described test we can check
should be solved. If this procedure the correctness of the circuit on
does not give a positive result, we starter and ignition switch in other
should look for problem in starter suspicious situations when starting
motor. the engine. Such situations can be
Another situation is; the control manifested by starter clicking in
lights are lit, starter does not res- attempt to start the engine or
pond to turning the key, but lights when starter turns engine with dif-
at that moment do not lose ficulties. In any case, before deci-
intensity. In this case, there is a ding to change the ignition switch
possibility of defective ignition or repair the starter, it is advisable
switch or starter motor. To find to perform described tests.
out what it is, we will make the
next check. With a piece of insula-
ted wire we will bring electricity
from positive battery terminal
directly to a small contact on the
starter solenoid. If the starter mo-
tor begins to rotate, the problem
lies is in the ignition switch, which
has the same task that we have just
done by jumping it. If the starter
does not respond to the test descri-
bed, it should be serviced.
In the third situation, the lights
are lit, starter motor turns but the
engine will not start. In these cases
some of us will try to start the en-
gine by pushing the car. If such a
process helps to start the engine,
we can conclude that ignition
switch is defective. How to check
the switch? Put the transmission in
neutral position. Switch on igniti-
on, and with a piece of wire repeat
the previous procedure connecting
the battery with starter. If the en- Accumulated oxidation is simply
gine starts, we have defective igni- melted with hot water. After such a
tion switch. Of course, this last si- quick and simple procedure, the
tuation applies to gasoline engines contacts need to be cleaned with
because on diesel vehicles a similar sandpaper and greased.
125
The engine turns but will not start. not lie in lack of spark on the spark to
plugs, we shall focus on fuel supply ap
Of course, in such a case we shall system. In this book we have also dis- ble
perform previously described test. cussed about the fuel supply, therefo- O
However, if test does not help, it is re let’s jump straight to the test. In (c) tin
necessary to take further steps. engine with mechanical fuel pump we fec
Surely, the easiest way is to connect can test the fuel pressure during the ca
the diagnostic device, allowing the engine starting attempt. If we do not so
computer to search for error. But have the pressure gauge, just chec- or
usually not all of us have such oppor- king the fuel pressure by finger on ma
tunities. Moreover, even this magic disconnected fuel pipe will give us a he
machine is not always helpful. Yet rough idea how good is the fuel en
this is just a machine with limited ca- supply to the carburator. tw
pabilities. So, sometimes we come ac- On (i) engine we shall find electric su
ross a situation that scanner shows no fuel pump. When ignition is switched bla
diagnostic error and engine will not on, we should hear a slight buzzing ne
start or running uneven. In such situ- for about 2-3 seconds. If we do not ne
ations, we need a person with quite a hear buzzing, electrical circuit on the no
lot of knowledge and experience. pump has to be checked. If the circuit ex
But let’s go back to our next step is broken problem may lie in the cri
where we are going to make quick test pump relay or fuse. Pump can be O
by eliminating possible problem cau- checked by connecting it directly to ne
ses. Firstly we shall check whether we battery with external wires. With the- po
have the spark on the spark plugs. se tests we'll see if we are talking abo- filt
Such test is done by pulling out the ut the problem of fuel supply, or lar
high tension lead from spark plug and whether we have a problem with ins
bringing its end close to engine metal electricity circuit on spark plugs and ca
part (ground). In attempt to start the what is the cause of it. These are the for
engine, spark should appear between most common problems associated cti
the lead and ground. If spark does not with the engine starting troubles. ca
appear, we should look for possible In the (i) engines we may have the ad
cause. In the case of ignition system case that there is no spark at the to
with contact breaker, the principle is spark plugs nor injectors are the
explained in this book. When transis- working. Although we previously filt
tor ignition is installed, malfunctio- check the fuel pump, spark plugs are ch
ning is mostly related to the Pick-up still dry. This case indicates a prob- ele
(coil) in the distributor or module. lem with the CKP sensor. Namely, if co
Some of us will be able to test these the sensor is faulty, the ECU has no on
components with instrument, others information of crankshaft position, we
will use scanner to locate the error. In and so can not determine the moment ma
any case, we should not neglect chec- of ignition and fuel injection. In such o
king ignition coil, distributor cap, ro- a case, it is necessary to check the re- sm
tor and spark plug cables, which are sistance of the sensor (about 300Ω). t
very often the cause of the loss of vol- What are the vehicles of newer pro- ch
tage on the spark plugs. duction, it is increasingly difficult to wh
If we have concluded by testing elec- find the fault without a diagnostic de- oft
trical components that problem does vice. However, these few tips related no
126
to engine starting problems are easily Increased fuel consumption
applicable and usually solve this pro-
blem in 80% of cases. Increased fuel consumption and
On diesel vehicles, the engine star- trembling engine does not necessarily
ting problem is usually related to de- indicate a worn out engine or other
fective glow plugs. In older types of elements. On the contrary, most often
cars we do not have glow plugs MIL, relatively simple actions solve the pro-
so we do not know whether they work blem.
or not. In parallel connected heaters In (c) engine, a common cause is
may happen that only two or three reduced contact breaker gap, which
heaters are in order. In such case the will cause a voltage drop across the
engine will start working with only spark plugs and incorrect ignition
two or three cylinders, which will re- timing. Incorect fuel level will cause
sult in severe engine vibration and fuel spill over in the carburator ven-
black smoke from exhaust. On engi- turi. Clogged diffuser will prevent air-
nes where heating elements are con- fuel mixing, causing too rich mixture.
nected in a series, will operate all or Thus, proper and skilful servicing will
none. Certainly in this case we can not bring the engine in harmony and pro-
expect to start the engine even as des- per functioning during its lifetime.
cribed in the first case. In (i) engine, it is necessary to take
One of banal causes related to engi- into account the irregularity of the
ne starting problem, loss of power, lambda probe, and worn out timing
poor acceleration, etc. is clogged fuel belt or chain. In addition, the greatest
filter. On some vehicle models, beside cause of increased consumption is a
large fuel filters, small net filters are poor condition of the air filter.
installed too and are mostly hidden in Specifically, the opinion about air
carburator or pump housings. There- filter condition is often made on the
fore, if we do not have certain malfun- basis of mileage, which is not reliable.
ctioning data of particular mechani- Namely, urban driving condition be-
cal or electronic engine element, it is hind other vehicles, whose exhaust
advisable
to replace
the fuel
filters and
check all
electrical
connecti-
ons as
well as
make the
o t h e r
small rou-
t i n e
check-ups
which are
often ig-
nored.
127
pipes are pointed directly at the Erratic idling cy
vehicle behind will clog the porous no
filter structure far earlier than it is Erratic idling may be the result di
scheduled by maintenance inter- of series failures in the engine elec- pl
vals. Furthermore, when checking tronic elements. However, such ca
the air filter condition, it is not un- problems are usually solved by di- ste
common to inspect filter from the agnostic device, but there are situ- pr
wrong side. Namely, taking the air ations where diagnostic scanner Th
filter cover off, clean filter structu- won’t help much. As already said, sa
re is usually found as we see the the diagnostic machine is very li- cy
side from which filtered air is suc- mited, and its diagnosis has been re
ked by engine. narrowed to the electronic part of On
In the lower photo we see the fil- the car. Although such a machine wi
ter from its clean side and clogging can perform in a few seconds more th
on the opposite side, where all dirt mathematical operations than the ca
remains. In addition, firs image human in his whole life, they are of
shows oily stain from engine breat- still not able to think. no
her which is connected to air filter. In other words, diagnostic mac- ter
This stain occupies about 20% of hine did not registered error in Th
filter surface and reduces air flow. engine electronic system, but we fre
are not satisfied with engine idling. to
So, let’s get started, as we say in pr
the jargon, by foot. va
Erratic operation at idle is af
usually a result of uneven com- sa
pression ratio in one engine as
cylinders. The lower compression so
ratio will result with a weaker pr
down force in the expansion stro- ve
ke, and thus disrupt the engine ba- W
lance. We will get the same effect if ne
one cylinder receives a weaker ted
mixture than others. But let's start en
from the first case, the lack of m
compression. The first part of test up
we will do by disconnecting T
cylinders one by one, in order to fa
determine which of them needs m
attention. When engine is at idle, du
we shall remove high-voltage lead um
and see if there is any difference in th
engine rhythm. The same procedu- ra
re we will repeat on other engine lu
128
cylinders. If we notice a slight or power at engine idling.
no change in engine idling with
disconnected HT lead from spark
plug on one cylinder, we found the
cause of the problem. The next
step will be to measure the com-
pression on all engine cylinders.
The measurement should show the
same compression value in all
cylinders except one which did not
respond to disconnected HT lead.
On this cylinder compression ratio
will be lower for 25-50% than on
the others. There are two possible
causes of poor compression in one
of the cylinders. First, too small or
no gap between the valve and lif-
ter. Second, burnt exhaust valve.
The first variant is more
frequently the case, and can refer
to more than one cylinder. The
problem is solved by adjusting the
valve clearance (not hydraulic). If
after adjustment we receive a
satisfactory compression ratio me-
asurement value, the problem is
solved. Otherwise, problem is most
probably related with burned val-
ve, which needs to be replaced.
When we have the case of the bur-
ned valve, fussy engine is manifes-
ted only at idle. With increased
engine RPM, valve omission is al-
most negligible, and engine picks
up the even operating rhythm.
The same effect we get due to the
failure of air intake to the engine
manifolds. This usually happens
due to the worn out hose of vacu-
um brake servo unit. Of course, in
this case, the value of compression Compression tester, one of the
ratio will be satisfactory, while di- cheaper and simpler but functional
luted mixture will cause loss of gauges.
129
Valve knocking - cold engine H
bu
Rattling or clanging valves sound of
is quite well known. On older vehi- ba
cles models that was handled by sk
adjusting the valve clearance, eit- clo
her by bolts and nuts or by repla- cy
cing the shims on the valve tap- sm
pets. However, the engine with wh
hydraulic valve tappets, rattling m
sound occurs only when engine is th
cold or if we leave it for a while, ne
say an hour or two. For those who du
just have not fully mastered the ba
principle of the hydraulic valve ar
lifter, the interpretation of this do
phenomenon is controversial. in
What exactly is this? se
pr
ca
ge
ted
ha
pr
wi
of
cu
co
R
th
po
ch
co
Hydraulic valve lifters replaced wh
old valve lifting systems, which of- po
ten had to be adjusted, either by th
unscrewing and screwing adjusters su
or exchanging the shims. In additi- m
on to simplification of maintenan- pi
ce, this modification eliminated the sy
least sound of valves that have oc- sm
curred due to improper clearance ve
between the valves and camshaft. B
130
Hydraulic lifter is very simple When engine is turned off, several
but very precise device. It consists camshaft lobes will be in position
of cup, piston, valve in the form of compressing the engine valves. Of
ball and spring. As shown in the course, in such a position compres-
sketch and photographs, a cup is sed oil from the piston chamber
closed on the bottom and has tries to escape in the tappet. When
cylindrical hole in the middle. The hydraulic tappet is in good conditi-
small piston is inserted in the hole, on that will not be possible because
which stroke is about three milli- the ball closes the passage.
metres. Through a small hole on However, if the ball or its seat is
the side of the cup enters the engi- damaged, the oil will escape over
ne oil under the pressure. Oil will, time from the piston chamber. Un-
due to the pressure, compress the til next engine start the clearance
ball valve and enter to the central will be formed between the cam-
area of the piston and push it shaft and tappet. This gap will de-
down. When pressure is equalized pend of the amount of escaped oil.
in both chambers, the ball will clo- So, after starting the engine, we'll
se the passage under the spring hear clanging one or more tappets,
pressure. The eccentric part of until the chamber is filled with oil
camshaft will push lifter down to- again. In addition to damaged ball
gether with valve which is suppor- valve, cause of oil leakage may be
ted by tappet piston. Ball which carbon deposit on ball or its seat as
has the role of the valve due to oil a consequence of poor oil quality.
pressure from the piston chamber, On sophisticated engines, where
will completely prevent the return changing tappets is complicated
of oil in the cup chamber, so the and expensive procedure, it is
cup and piston will become one worth trying to flash the engine
compact unit. with new oil about three times du-
Returning to its upper position, ring specified oil change interval in
the cup again encountering the oil order to wash out concentrated
port on cylinder head, and the carbon inside the tappets.
charging piston chamber with oil However, if special and cheaper
continues. In other words, flashing oils are used we have to be
whenever a cup comes in its upper aware of its inadequate lubrication
position, free from the thrust of capabilities and therefore special
the camshaft, the chamber will be care have to be taken when run-
supplemented with oil, until cup ning engine.
merges with camshaft and tappet
piston with valve. With this Increased oil consumption
system, we eliminated even the
smallest clearance between the val- When oil consumption is increa-
ves and camshaft. sed, the most common diagnose is:
But why tappets rattle? worn out engine. Such a diagnosis
131
can be justified and not. In any lack of its elasticity will cause the th
case, before making a final conclu- oil leakage from pistons to the di
sion, it is necessary to make a few compression chamber where it will rin
tests on the engine. burn causing exhaust smoke. In
The engine may have increased the same time, burn gasses will
oil consumption, due to two prob- leak to the engine block and burn
lems. The first is valve seals wear, the oil inside the block and engine
and a second worn out piston sump.
rings. In worse cases pistons and There are two ways to obtain a
pistons skirts can be worn out too more accurate diagnose of piston
what makes repair very expensive. rings condition. The first is simple
Therefore, it is necessary to set the and does not require any appara-
correct diagnose. In most cases, tus. With the engine running at its
technicians will come to the con- operating temperature, engine
clusion on the base of compression breather hose has to be disconnec-
ratio. Measuring the engine com- ted from air filter and amount of
pression is not relevant data about outgoing fumes have to be obser-
piston and piston rings condition. ved. Experienced mechanics will
Namely, oiled piston rings will seal conclude how bad or good piston
well enough to show higher com- rings are on the base of fumes
pression ratio than predicted for quantity. In fact, excessive evapo-
that engine. This fact is understan- ration shall indicate worn piston
dable. Suppose that engine valves rings.
are closing satisfactorily. By tur- Another method is blowing com-
ning the electric starter motor pressed air into the cylinder on
(starter), the pistons will act as a expansion stroke. Measuring the
compressor. With well oiled piston pressure drop will show the leaka-
rings, compression ratio will be ge trough piston rings. These are
more than satisfactory. However,
the situation changes when it co-
mes to the expansion of fuel-air
mixture. At this point, the pressure
of burning mixture, which pushes
the pistons, is far larger than com-
pressed air in the compression me-
asurements. At such high pressure
in expansion stroke, gasses will le-
ak between worn piston rings and
piston skirts to cylinder block. The
amount of leaked gasses will de-
pend of the piston rings conditions
and their elasticity. Simple diagnostic gauge with compres-
Certainly, worn piston rings and sor connection.
132
the two most reliable systems for In the first sketch we see a parti-
diagnosing the condition of piston al view of piston and piston rings.
rings. The rings are named by their fun-
ctions. That first is called compres-
sion ring. The main task of the
first ring is to prevent pressure
Piston
leakage during the compression
Oil layer and expansion strokes. We can see
that surfaces of the second ring is
slightly conical and it is called
sweeping ring. Its function is to
sweep the oil from the engine
cylinder walls. The third ring is
known as the oil ring. The function
of this ring is to lubricate the engi-
ne cylinder. Through the porous
central ring, engine oil lubricates
the cylinder walls. Sharp edges
will keep oil in its central part.
Thus, sharp edges of oil ring are
Back to sump also used to sweep excessive oil de-
posit from cylinder wall. The se-
Piston lubrication cond ring will sweep the rest and
very thin film of oil will remain for
lubricating the piston and the first
piston ring.
In order to stick firmly to the
engine cylinder, piston rings must
be very flexible. As we can see on
the left sketch, the rings have lar-
ger diameter than piston and
cylinder bore. During installation,
the rings are squeezed to the
cylinder diameter and hold its ten-
sion in an effort to return to its o-
riginal diameter. Due to the wear,
the rings will lose its tension and
will not stick well to the engine
cylinder. Certainly in such a situa-
tion comes to compression leakage
in the lower part of the engine, as
well as oil leakage to the compres-
sion chamber where it will burn
133
with air-fuel mixture. on the first ring. In fact, this ring wo
Worn piston rings are not the is directly exposed to a sudden vis
pressure in the expansion stroke. br
Such power thrust on the first ring ex
will result with grove widening. At br
the bottom left photo we see rein- to
forced slot of the first ring. Rein- in
forcement is performed by inser- sm
ting a steel ring in the piston. Such se
a piston modification is most sig
commonly encountered in turbo- oil
diesel engines. at
As we can conclude from the
previous text, worn rings will cau-
se the oil leakage in the upper part
of the cylinder, where it will burn.
The consequence: increased oil
consumption, bluish smoke from
the exhaust and smell of burned
oil. However, the same problem
does not have to be caused by
worn piston rings.
As explained in engine lubricati-
on chapter, oil lubricates the cam-
shaft, valve lifters and the valves,
which also cools. In order to pre-
vent the oil leakage down the val-
ves to expansion chamber, on the
valves guides seals are installed.
Seals have a function to sweep the
only reason for gasses and oil lea- oil from valves during operation,
kage between pistons and and to prevent the oil trickle down
cylinders. Worn piston rings groo- when engine is turned off. Over
ves will also significantly affect the years, exposed to high tempe-
leakage. Even if we change the ratures, seals get solid. It is not un-
rings on the worn piston (top pho- common for seals in such state to
to) desired effect will be not achie- get cracked. In this state, valve se-
ved. No matter what new rings ha- als lose their elasticity and descri-
ve good elasticity, compression and bed function. The consequence: oil
oil will find its way around the leak in the upper part of engine
rings, or between the grooves and cylinder, where it will burn with
rings. air-fuel mixture. In other words,
The greatest grooves wear occurs the same symptoms as with the
134
worn piston rings. Hence, it is ad-
visable to make test with engine
breather. In fact, if we notice
excessive evaporation from engine
breather we can conclude that pis-
ton rings are worn out. Thus, the
increased oil consumption and
smoke from the exhaust are pre-
sent. However, if the vent has no
significant evaporation, increased
oil consumption and smoke can be New valve seals installed
attributed to worn-out valve seals. Making a proper diagnose regar-
ding excessive oil consumption,
will greatly help in making decisi-
on of engine repairing viability.
Engine Oil