ELECTRIC CURRENT

AND OHMOS LAW

Modern Electron Theory of Electicity I ldea of Electric Potential I Resistancef

Unit of Resistance I Laws of Reststance lUnits of Resistivity N Conductance and
Conductivity I Efect of Temperature on Resistance l) Temperature Coef. of Resistance l
Value of a at Diferent Temperatures I Variations of
Resistivity With Temperature J
Ohm's Law I Resistances in Series I Resistances in Parallel l)Practical Resistors f,
r r"rr"rt ":::__
, "-rtr"r
1-1. Modern Electron Theory of Electricity
Modern research has established that all matter whether solid, liquid or gaseous,
consists of minute particles called molecules which a-re themselves made up of still minute
particles known as atoms. Those substances whose molecules consist of similar atoms are known
as elements and those whose molecules consist of dissimilar atoms are called compounds. The
number of stable elements so far discgvered is 106 wherea.s the number of compounds is
unlimited.
An atom is taken to consist of the following :
(i) It has a hard central core known as nucleus. It contains two types of particlesr :
one is known as proton and carries positive charge, the other is neutron (discovered
by Chadwick in 1932; which is electrically neutral i.e. it carcies no charge though
it is as heavy as proton. The protons and neutrons a.re very closely held togetler
with tremendous nuclear forces.
(ii) Revolving round the relatively massive nucleus, in more or less elliptical orbits (or
shellsl are infinitesimally small particles known as electrons. These electrons carry
. the smallest negative charge and ha.ve a negligible mass. The mass of an electron
is approximately l/1840 that of a proton.
Such aview of anatom, known as Bohr-Rutherford inodel, is shown in Fig. l-1. It
has been forrnd that an atom is like a" miniature solar system, a heavy positively-charged rucleus
taking the place of the Sun at the centre with orbital electrons E'.ECtRON5
acting like planets. The planetary electrons revolve at distances
which are much greater tha.n the size of nucleus or electrons
themselves, hence most of the space occupied by an atom is
empty ! In fact, a. solid may be thought of as a sponge-like
structure in wtiich nucleus and electrons occupy but little of the
space taken up by the solid.
It has also been found that the effective diameters of the
atoms are of the orderof I0-r0 metre and the diameters of their
nuclei of the orderof l0-16 metre. Hence, the diameter of an atom
NUcr tUs
is roughly 100,000 fimes greater than the diameter of the nucleus.
Some rough idea of the vast emptiness existing within an atom Fie. t-l
can be got by imagining that model of hydrogen atom may
consist of a cricket ball with a small soap bubble revolving round it at a distance of 3 km or so !
.In addition to protons and oeutrons, there havc been discovered other particlcs like mcsons aud
neutrino etc. and electrons inside the nucleur' All thcse particles within the nucleus are koown as nucleons.
The existence of only l7 fundamcntal particles is known, Three are called leptons, ove are called mesons
and nine are called barYons'
2 ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY

The particles discussed above form the fundamental bricks o[ wiich all matter is made.
Atoms of all substances corrsist of identical prorons, neutrons, electrons and mesons etc., the
only difference being in their number and relative configuration.
lt has been found that the positive charge on a proton is numerically equirl to the nega-
tive charge of an electron. Normally, an atom is electrically neutral because it consists of as many
protons as electrons. The number of protons in the nucleus of anatomgives th.' atomic number
of the substance whose atom it is. The total weight of a nucleus (i.e. pro!ons plus neutrons) is
called the alomic weight. T'he total number of piotons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atonr
gives its atomic mass number. If the number of protons in anucleus is changed, then transmu-
tation of one element into another can be achieved.
The simplest atom is that of hyd rogen. It consists of one positive proton and onq orbital
electron as shown in Fig. l-2 (a). !
Next is the helium atom which has two pla"netary electrons a.nd whose nucleus contains
two protons and two uncharged neutrons wlrich tend to 'bind' the two protons together [Fig. l-2
(r)1. Similarly, in Fig. l-2 (c) and (r/) ale shown a.toms of litbium and. beryllium. -IJnder
each figure is given the symbol used in nuclear Physics. The subscript is the atomic number and
the upper number represents the atomic mass number. Oxygen atum (sO16) has 8 orbital
electrons and its nucleus contains 8 protons and 8 neutrons. Heaviest atom is that of an elemenl
which is called Kurchatovium by Russians and Rutherfordium (luaRd2dol by Americans. It has
104 electrons, 104 protons and 156 neutrons.*

HVOROGEN HELIUM
,H' ,H3
(a) (bt (c) d)
Fig. r-2
The following important points about atomic structure should be understood clearly :
-
(i) The mass of a proton is 1'66X l0-2? kg and that of an electron 9'l x l0-rt kg.
Though the charge carried by an electron is the natural unit of electricity. yet it is
so extrenrely small -that to adopt it as a unit of electricity would be like adopting
thegrainasaunitformeasuringsa"nd. Theunitof charge orquantityof electiicity
is one coulomb which is equal to the charge of 6'242 x 1018 electrons. Hence, the
charge of a single electron is ll6'242x 1018 i.e. l'602x 10-le coulomb.
(ii) The orbits are more or less elliptical in shape and lie in all planes and not rn one,
though for convenience they are so shown in the figures to follow.
(iir) Themaximumnumber ofelectrons possible in oneextranuclear orbrt orshellis
fixed. Counting these orbits from nucleus outwards, the first orbit can have a
maximum number of 2 electrons, second orbit 8 electrons, third orbit l8 electrons,
fourth orbit 32 electrons and so on. For example, a copper atom has 29 electrons
which willbe distributed as follows (Fig. l-3) : .
lst orbit : 2electrons 2nd orbit : 8 electrons
3rd orbit : 18 electrons 4th orbit : I electron.
'Reccntly another element having Z - 105 and A - 262 has been discovered both by Russianr (whc
call it bohrium) and Americans (who call it hahnium). Latcst elemcnt that was discovercd in 1974bac
Z - lO6. The American 106-element has a half-life pcriod of 0'9 secood while Russian isotopc har e hatf-
lifc of less than l0 milliseconds.
 BLBCTNIC CUR,RBNT AND OHM'S LAW
3

similarly, silver atom has 47 eler;trons which will bc grouped as 2, g, lg, lg, l.
'orbits
. .(tv) .Thc centripetal. force necessary to keep etectrons rotating in elliptical round
the nuclcus is supplied by the force of attraction bttween their char[e, a, giuen by -oulomb's
ld'ws. It is obvious that nearer the electron is to the nucteus, g."it.rir the iorce wiitr wtri.t, lt i,
bound.to it. The glectrons in,the outermost orbit cxperiencii viry weak forcJoi atiraction for
two rcason_s : .(4) force varies inversely as the square bf tt e Oiri"n"i bei;;;; t*;;h;;g;, @1 the
presence of n_umber of electrons in the iniermediate orbiti acts as a partial
r".irln between
1]1rg,e
the nucleus and the outermost electrons. This screening or shielding actiin results in reduced
atlraction between the two. lt is found that in metals,ihe outermo;t electrons are veryloosciy

t
?
o@
I
Fir, 1.3
\v

EONVENTIO^JAL CUPR(NT
Fig. l.f Fig. l-j
attached to the atom. In fact,'they can be hardly said to be attached to one parent atom. They
freely qovc from one atom to another and behave very much like the molecules of a gas iir
a draught'frce room. They wander about with random motion between atorns, continriously
colliding with one ano-ther but not moving in any particular direction. These free-moving ani
unattached efectrons form what is known as electron gas. The condition of these electroni in a
copper wirc is shown diagrammatically in Fig. l-4. The atoms are arranged in a particutsr
patrcrn-cafled crystal lattice. The f signs indicatc that they are charged positively (because of
having lost.some electrons) i e. they are now ions. Although these ions can oscillaie about their
mean position, yet forthc present, they arc shown stationary. Theelectrons shown as blacl
dots with arrows, wandcr about in all sorts of manner and directions. Wheo this wire is joined
across the terminals of a battery, the electrons experience an attractive force due to the anode
and a repulsive force due to cathode, with the rCsult that they start drifting from cathode to
anode as shown in Fig. l-5. When some external force (i.e. potential differlnce) is applied to
these atoms, the outermost one or more electrons get easily dbtached from the pi.rent atbm and
-
start drifting along and so give rise to a flow of electrons.
This continuous flow of electrons constitutes an electric current. It is found tha.t those
substances whose atoms have their outermost orbits incomplete act as good conductors of
.elcctricity i.e. they permit'an qasy detachment of their outermost electrons-and offer very littlc
hindrance to their flow through their atoms. Such substa.nces are known as good conductois. But
substances whose electrons aie rigidty held to their atoms are termed x bad conductors.In their
c-lse, ? very large force (i.e. potential diference) is required to detacb their electrons a.nd even
then the number of electrons detachcd'and sct drifting is comparatively small. Materials like
gcrmanium, silic_on and silicon carbide etc. whose reiistances- at ordihary temperatures lie in-
betwecn those of typical metals and typical insulators are called semi-coniuctori.
Suppose that in a condutor, the number of free electrons available per m! of the conduc-
tor material is n and let their axial drift velocity be u metres/second. In tiine dr, distance travel-
lcd would be vy41. If I is aredof cross-section of the conductor, then the volume is oA dt tnd
the number of etectrons contained in thic volume is n uA dt, Obviously, all these etectrons will
 4 BLECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY

cross the conductor normal section in time dt. If e is the charge of each electron, then total
charge which crosses the section in time dl ls

since current is the ,^r!0";ull"JroJnurr,it is given as

i:4-nAeodt
dr dt
i : nAert
Current density J : ilA : neu amperes/metrer
.Assuminga_no^rmalcurrentdensityof ,/: I-55;leo Afmt,n -lQre foracopperconduc-
tor and e - l'6 X l0-ts coulomb, we get
1.55 x 106 : l0re X 1.6 X I0-rex o : 9'"1X l0-o m/s - 0.58 cm/min
"^
It is seen thatcontrarylo the common but mistakenview, the electron drift velocity is
rather very slow and is independent of the current flowing and the area of the conductor.
Example l-l' A conduclor material hgs afree-electron cienslty of I02Lelectrons pet metres.
ll/hen avoltage ls applied, a c.onstant drtft-yelgcity of I'5x10-z meirefsecond is atrai'necl by the
eleclrons. _lf the cross-sect.ional area-^of the maierial is I cm2l, calculate the magnitude oi the
current. Electronic charge is I.6X I0-1o coulontb. (Electrical Engg., Aligartr UiiveisityilZZy
Solution. The magnitude of the current js
i : nAev amperes
Here, fl:lQzt;A:lcm2:10-cm2
e : l'6X l0-1e C;v
- l.5X l0-z m/s
i : IOtaX I0-.x I.6X I0-Iex l.5x I0-2 : 0.24 A

1-2. The Idea of Electric Potential

- In Fig. l-6 is shown a simple voltaic cell. It consists of a copper platc lknown as anode)
and a zinc rod (i.e' cathode) immersed in dilute sulphuric acid (H,SO.)'contained in a suitab16

Fig. t-6 Fie. t-7

v-essel' The chemical action taking place within the celt causes the electrons lo bc rcnl()ve(l lronr
Cu plate and to be deposited o"n'the zinc rod a"i-irri grrii... This transt'er of elecrrons
is acco.mplished through ihe agency of the diluted H;s-Ct;;hi;il-ir tnotun as rhe elecrrotyte.
The
result is that zinc rod becomeJnegitive.du_e to the depoiition ot.lectrons on it tnd Cu plaie
bT.omes. positive due to the rJmovalof electrons'iio-it.- itre large numb.i'of
the
.t..r.on5,
collected on the zinc rod is being attracted by-anode but is prevented fr8m r.tu.*,rg
rn it by the
1".,:"-"::tup by the. chemical aition within rhe cell. But ii rhe rwo electrodes are' joined by a
:11:_^"I!!t"a,lly, then electrons rush to the anode, thereby equalizing the Charges'of rhe trvo
electrodes' However, due to the continuity of chenrical action, a con-iinuous diFerence in the
number of electrons on the two electrodei is maintainecJ which keeps up u flow of
current through the extcrnal circuit. The action of an electric cell-is similar to that of I wr[g1
"onil'iuous
ELECTRIC CURRENT AND OHM'S LAW 5

pump which, while working, maintains a continuous flow of water i.e. wat€r current througb
thc pipe (Fig. l-7).
It should be particularly noted that the direction of electronic current is from zinc to
copper in the external circuit. However, the d,rection of conventional current (which is given by
the direction of flow of positive charge) is from Cu to zinc. In thc present case, there is no flow
of positive charge as such from one- ilectrode to another. But we can look upon thc arrival
of electrons on copper plate (with subsequent decrease in its positive charge) as equivalent to an
actual departure ofpositive charge from lt.
When zinc is negatively charged, it is said to be at negative potential with respect to the
electrolyte, whercas anode is siid to 6e at positive potential relative tb the clectrqlyte. Betwcen
themselvcs, Cu plate is assumed to be at a higher potential than the zinc rdd. Thc difrerence in
potential is continuously maintained by the chemiial action going on in thc ccll which supplics
energy to establish this potential difference.

1-3 Resi.stance
It may -be defincd as the property of a substance due to which it opposes the flow of
clectricity (f.e. electrons) through it.
Metals. (as a class), acids_and salt solutions are good conductors of electricity. Amongst
pure metals-, silvcr, copper and aluminium are very good conductors in the givcn order.* Thr-s,
as discussed earlier, is due to the prerence of a large number of free or loosely-attachod electroni
in their atoms. These- vagrant clectrons asoume a directed motion on the application
of an electric -potential difference. These electrons while flowing pass through thc'niolecules
or the atoms of the conductor, collide with othcr atoms and electroni, thereby froducing heat.
Those substances which offer relatively grcater difficulty or. hindrance to the passage of
thesc electrons arc said.to.be relatively poor conductors of elcctricity like bakelitc, iica,!hss,
rubber, p.v.c. (polyvinyl chloride) and dry wood etc. Amongst good insulators can be incl-uded
fibrous substances such as paper and cotton when dry, mineral oils free from acids
and water, ceramics like hard porcelain and asbestos and many other plastics besidcs p.v.c.
It is helpful to remember that electric friction is similar to friction in Mcchanics.
l-4. The Unit of Resistance
The practica.l unit of resistance is ohm+. A conductor is said to have a resistance of onc
ohm_,if -it permits one ampere current to flowrtftrough it when one volt is impressed across its
terminals.
TABLE NO. I-I
Multiples and Submultiples of Ohm

Its meaning Abbreviatlon Equal to

Mega- One million MO 100 f)

One thousand ko 103 rl
Centi- One hundredth

Milli- One thousandth mO l0-3 f,)

Micro- One millionth pQ l0-r o

'However, fgr thc samc resistance per unit lcngth. cross-sectional arca of atuminium conductor has
tobel'6timerthatof thccopperconductorbutitwcighlonlyhatfasmuch. Hence,itisuscdwhcrcccouomy
of weight is more important than economy of space.
t Afler George Simon Ohm (17t7--1854) a German mathemalician who in about tt27 formulated thc
law koown after his namc as Ohm's Law. He made notable contributions to the dcvctopment of ottriiUaili
laws of electricity.
6 ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY

For insulators whose resistances are' very high, a much bigger unit is uied i.c. mega.
ohm: t06ohm-(theprefix'mega'ornregomeaninga-million)orkilohm:l0sohm(kilomeans.
thousa.nd). In the case of very small resistances, smaller units like milliohm : l0-r ohm or
microhm - l0 c ohm are used. The symbol for ohm is O.
1-5. Laws of Reistance
The resistance R offercd by a conductor depends on the following factors :-
(i) It varies directly as its length, /.
(tt) It varies inversely as the cross-section ,{ of the conductor.
(ttr) It depends on the nature of the material.
(iu) It also depends on the temperature of the conductor.
Neglecting the last factor for the time being, we can say that

R.j or ...(l)
^:r 1-
where / is the lcngth, Athe area oi'cross-section of the conductor and p is a constant depending
on the nature of the material of the conductor and is known as its specific resistancc or
resistivity.

SMALL€R } L ARGER t
TARGER A SMALLER A
LOW R C'REAIER R

(a) (t)
Fig' t-8 Fig. l-9
Itin Eq. (l), we put
l- lmetre, and A:l.metrez, then R:p (Fig. l-9)
Hence, specific resistance of a material may be defined as
the resistance between the opposite faces of a metre cube of that material .

l-6. Units of Resistivity

From Eq. (l), we have p : +
Now, in M.K.S.A. or,S,[. system of units,
, : J+x 9ha : lf onr-*
Hence, the unit of resistivity is ohm-metre (()-m).
It may, however, be noted that resistivity is sometimes exprcssed as so many ohms per mr.
Although, it is incorrect to say so, but it means the same thing as ohm-metre.
. lf I is in centimetres and A in cmz, then p is in ohm-centimetre (l)-cm).
Values of resistivity and temperature coefficierrts for various materials 4re given in
Table No. l-2. The resistivities of commercial materials may differ by several per cent due to
impurities etc.
ELECTRIC CURRENT AND OHM'S LAW

TABLE No. l-2

Rcsistivities and Temoersture Coefficients

Resistivity in Temperature
Material ohm-metre coeficient
at 20oC at 20"c

Aluminium 2'8 x l0-8 40'3 x l0-r

Brass 6-8 JO
Carbon 300^-7000 -5
Constantan or Eureka 49 10.1 to -0.4
Copper (annealed) t.72 393
German Silver 20.2 2.7
(84olo Cu ; 12% Ni ;4o/o Zn)
Iron 9.8 65
Manganin 44-48 0.1 5
$a% Cu ; t2% 41" Ni;
Mercury 95.8 8.9
Nichrome 108.5 1.5
(600/o Cu ;25o/, l5o/" Cr)
Nickel 7.8 54
Platinum 1s.5 36.7
Silver
9
r.64
- 38
Tungsten 5.5 47

Amber 5 x l01r
Bakelite l0r0
Glass 1010_ 1012
Mica 1015
Rubber 1016
Shellac 1014
Sulphur 1015

Example l-2. The resistance of a conductor I mmr in cross-section and 20 m long is

0.346 A. Determine the specifc resistance of the conducting material.
(Elect. Circuits-l, Bangalore Univ. Jan. 79)

- I mmz : lxl0-6 mr ; I : 20mi R : 0'3460.

Solution. A
NowR:pilA or p : ARll : 10-6x0'346/20 : 1'73x10-8 O*m.
Example 1-3. (a) A rectangular carbon block has dimensions l'0 cmxl'0cmx50 cm
(i) lhhat is the resistance tneasured between the two square ends ? (ii) between two opposing
rectangular faces ? Resistivity of carbon at 20'C tr J'5 x l0-5 dl-m.
(b) A current of 5 A exists in a I}-Q resistance for 4 minutet (i) How many coulombs
and (ii) how many electrons pass through any section pf the resistor in this time ? Charge of the
electron - l'6x10-rs C.
(8,8. 1Exam. M.S. Univ. Brroda, 1976,1

(a) (i) R: p llA

Here, A : lXl : I cmr : lQ-amr;/ : 0.5m
R .: 3'5X l0-5x0'5/10-4 : 0'175 O
(ii) Herc, / - I cm I A : tX50 : 50cmr : 5Xl0-3m2
R - 3.5x 10-6x t9-r/5X l0-8 : 7xl0-5 O
 ELECTRTCAL TECHNOI'GY
(b) (r) Q : It: 5x(4x60) : 1200 C
(rr) ,: 9:
e ,
t.6x I0-
'1?99,u
Jgytgzo -
Example 1-4. Cqlculate the reiistancc of I
.km_ Iong cable -. composed of t9 strands of
similar copPer conductorseach strandbeing I't2-,ilrrllo iioii7"i.'" eilyw so/6
t!r2^'lav) (t\ist) of each stand in com-preted cabte. i"ril'iiity of ,";;r;increase in lengthfor
I'72x l0-8 dl-m. ;;;- i, tokrn o,
Solution. Allowing for twist, the length of the strands
: 1000 m+5% of t000 m : 1050 m
Area of cross-section of I9 strands of copper conductors is
: l9X rxd2l4 - l9 nX (I.32xle-\zl4r m2
Now ft:p I l'72xlo-8xlo5ox4
-T: m:0'694f,,
Example l'5 piege of.silver wire has a resistance of I Q. llthat witl be rhe resistance
.
of a manganin^wire of-Aone'thir.d the length and one-third the diameter, if the specific restistance of
manganin is 30 times that of silver. (Electrical Engineiring-f, Oelni Univ. f976)
Solution. For silver wire : Rr : pr yo, manganin : *
!.- ; wire, R,
*
R, : F, ul, 1r_
Rr pr"lt" - At
Now, At : rdt2l4 and Az - *dz2l4 A1f A2: dr'ldr,

+" (*f
Ro Oo
^--: :
K1 -I-Y
Pr

R1 : I Q; Irllr: ll3; (dtld)z : (3ll), : 9 ; ?zlPr: 30

R2:1"*r30x9:90Q
- Example 1-6. The resistit'it.y'of aferric-chromium-aluminium alloy is 5lxl0'8 A-m. A
sheet of the material is I5 cm long,6 cm u,ide and A'014 cm thick. Deteritine resistance between
(a) opposite ends and (b) opposite sides. (Electrical Circuits, Allahabad Univ. 1979)
Solution. (al As seen from Fig. 1-10 (a) in this case,
/: l5cm : 0'15 m
.4 - 6x0'014 : 0'084 cmr
- 0'084x l0-. mr
^ I 5l x l0-8x 0'15
K - ?7 o.ot+x to=-
: 9'1x10 3O

(D) As seen from Fig. l-10 (D) here

/ : 0'014 crtr : l4y lQ-srn
1 - 15x6 :90 cm2:9y I0-3 m2
R : 5l x l0-8x l4x l0 619 x l}'t @) Fig. l-10 (b)
:79'3x 10-10 O
- - Example 1-?.. The. resistange of tle wirc used for telephone line is 35 Q per kilometre
ryh,e1 th9 weight of .the wire is 5 kg per kilometre. Ij the sp'ecifc resistance of tie material is
l'95x10'a dl'nr, what is the cross-sect[onal qr-eaof the'wirei Wttot will be tie resistance of a
I-oop to a subscribe,r I km from the exchange if wiie of the same material but weighing 20 kgier
kilometre is used ?
 BLECTRIC CURRENT AND OHM'S LAW

Solution. Here R:35Q;l: I km: 1000mip: l.95xl0-aO-m

Now - ,* o, e: $ ;. A: J4$:af99q:55'zxr0-Bm'
^
In the second case, if the wire is of the same material but weighs 20 kg/km, then its
cross-section must be greater than that in the first case.

Cross-section in the seconci clrS€ : {xSS.Zx lo-a - 222.8x10 8 m3

Length of wire : 2x8:16 km:16000 m ... R - ,!f'gsx l0-'8x 16000

A ffi:140.1o
Tutorial Problems No. l-1
l. Calculate the resistance of 100 m length of a wire havinc a uniform cross-sectionat area of 0'l mmr
the wire is made of manganin having a resistivir-yof 50x10-8 O-;.- - -
-
if
If the wire is drawn out to three times its original length, by how many times would you-expcct its
rcsislance to be increased ? tS00 O ;9 timesl
2. A cube ofa material ofside I cm has a resistance of 0'001 0 between its opposite flaces. If the
samevolumcofthematerial hasalengthof Scmandauniformcross-section,whatwill biiheresistanceof this
length ? t0'064 IU
3.
A lcad wire and an iron wire are connected in parallel. Their respective specific resistaoccs are in
the ratio 49 :24. The former carries E0 per cent more current than the latter aird the latler is 47 per cent longer
than the former. Determine the ratio of their cross-sectional areas. [2'5 : l]

l-7. Conductance and Conductivitv

I

Conductance (G) is reciprocal of resistance*. Whereas' resistance of a conductor

measures the opposition which jt offers to the flow of current, the conductance measures the in'
ducement which it offers to its flow.
. From Eq.(l),
^ | "l A ,rA
R_-?7 or G- - i.., I
where o is called the conducti't,it.v or specific conductance of a conductor. The unit of conduct-
ance is mho (i.e. ohm-read backwards;.
It is seen from the above equation that the conductivit,v of a material is given b-""

I
o:G Z::irrrr G mhox/metre ^ I
:Ci
mho;metre
Hence, the unit of conductivity is mho/metre.

l-8. Effect of Temperature on Resistance

The effect of rise in temperature is :
(i)- to increa.re the resistance of pure metals. The increase is large and fairly regular
for normal fanges of temperature. The temperature/resistancJ graph is a straight
line(Fig. l-ll). As would be presently clarified, metals have.a positive temperature'
coefficient of resistance.
(ii) to increase the resistance of alloys, though, in their case, the increase is relatively
l4all and irregular. For some high-reslstance alloys like Eureka 160o/oCu and 40o/o
Ni) and manganin, the increase in resistance it (oi can be made) negligible over a
considerable range of temperature.
(iii) to decrease the resistance of electrolytes, insulators (such as paper, rubber, glasi,
mica etc.) and partial conductors such as carbon. Hence, insulators are said to
possess a negative temperature-coefficient of resistance.

*In a,c. circuits, it has a slightly different meaning.

 ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY

1-9. Temperature-coefficieqt of Resilstance

Let a metallic conductor having a resistance of Rq at OoC be heated to foC and let its
at this temperature be R7. .Then considering normal ranges of terhperature, it is
resistan-ce
found that the increase in resistance AR : R,-& depEnds
(i) directly on its initial resistance
(fi) directly on the rise in temperature
(iii) on the nature of the material of the conductor.
Rr-Ro c ReXl or Rr-Ro - aRr/ ...(21
where a (alpha) is a constant and is known as the tenrperature coeficient of resistance of the
conductor.

Rearranging Eq. (2),we get .. : :

H #,
If & : I o, t: l'C, then a : [R - xr-rRo
Hence, the temperature-coefficient of a maferial may be defined as :
the increqse in resistenee per ohm originat retistance per "C rise in tcuperature,
From Eq. (2), we find that R, : Re (l*al) ...(3)
It should be remembered that the above eqdation holds good for both rise and fa.ll in
temperature. As temperatdre of a conductor is decreased, its resistauce is also decreased. In

c,
(,
c
o
.9
o
(tol

Actuot

n
v
- 234'50C
-toC * -.+teg
Fig. l-ll
Fig. l-l I is shown the temperature/resistance graph for copper and is practically a straight line.
If this line is extended backwards, it would cut the temperature axis at a point where tempets'
ture is (a number quite easy to remember). It means that theoretigqlly, th.e resistance
-234.5"C
of copperconductbr*;tl bero-" zeroatthispointtfioughas shownby solidline,.in practice,
thc cuive departs from a straight line at very'low tempeiatures. Froni the two similar triangles
of Fig. l-ll it is seen that:

#:'I?f'I:(r*xa-r)
R1
- Rq ( t*#r) or R1 - R6 (lf c,r)

where a: 11234'5 for copper.

BLECTRIC CURREIIT AND OHM'S LAW
ll

l-10. Vdue of cr at Difrerent Temperatures

So far we did not make any distinction between values of a at different tempcratures.
But it is found that value of a itseli is not constant but depends on the initial temperature on
;hi"li the incr.m.nt in r:sistance is basecl. When the in-crement is based on the resistance
value of c is
;;;;;A ".i-0'C, then a has the valuc of a.o. At any other initial temperature loC,
;;;; ; on. ft should be remembered that, for any conductor, ao hCs the maximum value.
SuDposeaconductor of resistance Roai0'C (point ,{ inFig. l-12) is heated to toC
\r-- 81.'its resistance Rr after heating is given by
(point
' Rt: Ro (l1aor; ...(4) F, ,". Ia
where q is the temperature'coeficient at 0'C' '
"r ' ' '
l-
Now, suppose that we have a conductor of resistartce R, at tempera' t -
ture toC. t-it ttiii conductor be <'ooled from toC to 0'C. Obviously,:lJ",l:
initial point is Eand the final point is,l. ihe final'resistance R;t;i";;in I tI t
J
terms of the initial resislance by thc' fcrllowing equ:rtion gl I gl

{5, S;
t F
li
From Eq. (5) above, we have ", - *-"T' F
Substituting the value of Rr from Eq. (4), we get f
'':'ff###:'r?",,i ": 'l1:#l; lloC"'(6) ar
no'o'c
f
In general, let a, - temp-coeff. at lroC ternpt'coeff' at Fig. t-12
Then from Eq.(61 above, we get

o,' : -=jL or
I _ I +ahtr
I +dott dl d6

Similarly,
l- : l-ti4
d2 do

Subtracting one from the other, we get

I
(rr-t,) o. | : -!-11rr-r1) or Gt : -,nir.-l;
C1 *:
Values of cr for copper at different temperatures are givetr in Table No. l-3.

TABLE No. l-3

Different values of a for copper

Ti:mpt in 50
"c

0.00427 0'00352

In view of the dependence of cr on theinitial temperttture, we may define t_he temperature

coefficient of resistance ai a given tcntperolure as the change in resistoilce pcr ohm per degree
cefiigrade ihang, in ternperature front the given tet'tPeralure'
In c&se, Ro is not given, the relation between thc known resistance R1 at l1"C and the
unknown rciistance R, at rz"C can bc found as folluws :
.R1 : Rq(l*dolr) and .Rr : &(l*aotr)
 t2 BI,ECTRICAI TBCHNOL@Y

& lfa3fi
E:I-F%t' ...(7)
The above expression can be simplified by a little approximation as follows :

#.rl - (llc/1) (l*ao4)-t

: 11 aaorl) (r-csr1)
.l,H'it?,3ii,l?,,1',,I[:.;:,t {?;n?Pfi'";l
of laorr) l
: I *co(tz-lr) [Neglecting product (nczt{r)l
R2 - R1[f a6(t2-11)
]
Foranore accurate calculations, Eq. (7) should, however, be used.
1-11. Variations of Resistivity with Temperature
Not only resistance but specific resistance or resistivity of metallic conductors also
increases with rise in temperature and vice versa,
As seen from Fig. l-13, the
resistivities of metals vary linearly
with temperature over a significant
range of temperature-the variation
becoming non-linear both at very
high and at very low temperatures.
Let, for any metallic conductor,

:-
p1 resrstivity at troC
p, resistivity at tr"C
n, : slope of the linear part
' of the curve
Then, it is seen.that
9r-9r
tn - ','--'i
.z-.r or p3 - h+m(tz-t'..r _-i-200 0 200
_l_
400
l-. m (tt-trl -'l
or pr - pr I I -1- roc *.*--.-
LiJIJ ^ I
Fig. l-13
The ratio of mf is called
pl
the t-empe-rature coeficient of resistivity
at temperature ,roc. It may bc defined as numerically
equal to the fractional change in p1 per;C changi in temperature from lloC. It is almost equal
to temperature.coeflicient of resistance ar. Hencie, puttin! ar fitlpt, we get
-
Pz - Pr[l +dr(tr-lr)] or simply as p, : po(l-|.aol)
Note. It has bcen found that although tempcrzrture ir the most significant factor inf,ucncing thc resisti-
r'ity of metals, other factors like pressure ani tensi'on aiJo afcii riiistiui-tfto somc extent. For frosi metals
ercept lithium and calcium, increase in pressure leads to decreasJ ioiesislivity. However, resistivity incrciscs
with incrcase in tension.
Example 1-8. A plalinum coil hbs aresistance of 3.116 Qat 40oC and 3'767 fJat 100'C.
Find the resistance at |oc and the temperalure-cofficient- o.f resistance qt 40'c.
(Electric Circuits, Allahabad Univ. 1976)
Solution. :
Rroo Ro(lf 100 as) ...(t)
Rro : Ro(l{40 a6) (...tt)
3.767 I*100 ao I
:000379 or
ffi - ffi or ll240 Per'C
aq

Fronr (i), rr e have 3.767 - Ro( | + 100 x 0.00379) ... ..Ro :2.732 e

Now, 7'ro: o 0'00379 |

l+m %:T+?oiTTolTg: zi(rPeroc
ELECTRIC CURRENT AND OHM'S LAW 13

Example 1-9. The resistance of the feld coils with copper conductors of a dynamo is
120 Q at 25'C. After x,orking for 6 hours on full load,the resistance of the coil increases to 140 Q.
Calculate the mean temperature rise of the feld coil. Take the temperature co-fficient of the
conductor material as 0'0042 at 0"C. (Elements of Elect. Engg. Bangalore Univ. Jan. 1979)
Solution. Let loC be the temperature of the field coils after the 6-hour full-load run.
Rre : 120:-Ro(l+25X0'0042) - l'105 Ro; Rr : 140 : Ro(l+0'0042 11
Dividing one equation by the other. we get
140: Ro(l +0.0042 ,).
/ : 68'8o, tempt. rise:68.8-25 : 43.8 "C
iZO ffi,;
Example 1-10. Two coils connected in series have resistances of 600 A and 300 {l and
tempt. coeff. of 0'l o/o and 0'4 o,/o respectively at 20'C. Find the resistance of the combination
at a tempt. of 50"C. llrhat is the efective tempt. coef. of combination ?
Solution. Resistance of 600 O resistor at 50'C is : 600il +0.001(50-20)l : 618 o
Similarly, resistance of 300 O resistor at 50"C is : 300[+0.004(50-20)J : 336 (;
Hence, total resistance of combination at 50"C is : 618+336 : 954 O
Let P : resistance-temperature coefficient at 20'C
Now, combination resistance at 20'C: 900 O
Combination resistance at 50"C : 954 O
es4:900il+g(50*20)l B:0.002
Example 1-ll. Two v'ires A qnd B are connected in series at }oC and the resistance
of B is 3'5 times that of A. The resistartce temperature coe.fficient of A is 0'1o/o and that of the
combination is 0'lolo. Find tlrc resistance temperature cofficient o_f B.
(Elect. Technology, Indore Uuiv, 1978.p
Solution. A simple technique which gives quick results in
such
questions is illustrated by the diagram aB
of Fig. l-14. It is seen that 0'0C/. d
Rr/.8r : 0'003/(0'001-a) or 3'5 : 0.003/(0'001-r.) ,/\./
-/
'r
\r
or d : 0.000143'C I or 0;Al43o/o. \./
0'001
Example 1-12. Tv'o moterials A ond B havc resistance temperature
cofficient of 0'004 aud 0'0004 respectively at a given temperature. In
what proportion must A & B be joined ln series to produce a circuit having /\
a tetilperature coficient of 0'001 ? (0.001-d) 0 0cl
lElect. Technology, Indore Univ. April 1976) Fig. l.14
Solution. Let R1 and Rs be the resistances of the two wires of aB
materials A and B which are to be connected in series. Their ratio mzr"y 0'004 0'0c04
be found by the simple technique shown in Fig l-15.
Rs \/
m:0"*
0'003
:5 \,/
0'001
z\
Henceo Rs must be 5 times Ra.
,/\
Example 1-13. A resistor of E0 Q resistance having a temperature ,/\
coeficient of 0'0021 per degree C is to be constucted. Wires of tv,o 0.0006 0.00 3
materials of suitable cross-sectional orea are ovailable. For material A, the Fig. t-15
resistance is 80 ohms per 100 me,tres and tlrc temperaturc cofficient is 0'003 pcr degrce C.
For rnalerial B, the corre,sponding figures are 60 ohrns per 100 metres and 0.0015 -pcr degree C.
Calculate suitable Iengths of wires of malerials A and B to be connected in seriei to construct
the required resistor. AII data are referred lo the same tempereture.
Solution. Let Rn and Rr, be the resistances of suitable lengths of materials A tnd B
respectively which rvhen joined in series will have a combined temperilrure coeff. of 0.0021.
Hence, combinttion resistance at any temperilture is (R,,*. R7,). Suppose rve hcat these materials
through roC.
 t4 ELECTRICAL TECI{NOI.oOY

When hcated, resistancc of ,{ increases from Ro to Ra (l +0'003 t). Similarly, rcsistancc

of X increases from Ro to Rr,( I +0'0015 t).
combination resistance after bcing heated through toC
: na(l+0'003 r)+Ro(l+0'0015 r)
The combination a being given, value of combination resistance can be also found
directly as : (R6+RrXl +0'0021 r)
(&+R,xl+0'0021 r) -- R"(la0'003 r){Rr(l+0'0015 t)
Simplifying the above, we set
+ -' + ...(t) .
Now Ro*Rr, : 80 O ..'(rr)
Substituting the value of Rr, from (t) into (ii; we gct
Ro{fR' : 80 or Ru : 32 Cl and .RD : 48 O
If Lo and La arc the required lengths in metrcs, then
L,, - (100/80)x32 : 40 m and Lb: (lDl60)x4t - t0n
Exemplc 1.14. A coil has u resistance of 18 A when its,nean tentPeralure.is 2fC and of
20 A when its'mean rcmperarure is 50"C. Find its meon temperature rise v,hen its rcsistancc ls
2I A and lhe. surrounding temperalure is I5'C.
lElect. Technology, Unlv. of Indore, Aprll 7?;
Solution. Let R3 be the resirtlncc of thc coil and zo its t'empt. coetficient at OoC.
Then, 18 : Ro (l +*0x20) and 20 : &(l*50 cto)
Dividing one by the other, we gct
lf5Oao
20 : ';iTo-; : I
per oc
i; 2fu-
no

If t "C is the temperature of the coil when its resistancc is 2l O, then'

2t: Ro(l +t!zsl)
Dividing tbis equu,tion by the above equation, we have

?l : +Hffil; r - 65oc; temp. rise - 65-15 - r0oc

Exrmple 1-15. The coil ol a relay takes a eurrent o 0'l2 A when it is at the room tem'
p"rotur"
'relay oJ ti'C ana connecte:d airost o 6O-y supply. If the minimum operating cunent of the
is 0i I A, <.alculate the tcmpcrature above wlttch the relay -will fail ,to ope.rgt! when connec'
cdtb the soni suppll'. Resistaice-temperarure coeftcient o1 ttre- coil material is 0'0013 peroC
at 0C.
Solution. Resistance of the relay coil at l5"C is R15 : 60/0'12 - 500 O
Let roC be the tempcrature a.t which the minimum operating currcnt of 0 I A flows in
the relay coil, Then Rr : 60/0'l : 600 ()
Now R15 : Re(l f t5 ao) : Ro(l a 15 x 0'0043) and rR1
- .Rs(l +0'0043 t)

. lrR-r: | +0'0043 t or 600 I +0'0043 I t: 64'5oC

10654-- m---lT6-4t-
lf the tcmperature rises abovc this value, then due to increase in resistance, the relay
coil will draw current less than 0'l A and, therefore, will fail to operate.

Example l-16. The field coit of a salient-pole alternator has the follou'ing dimen-
sions :-
Mean length of rurn : 95 cm ; number of turns : 70 | copper tape cross-section
-15 mmxS mm.bercrmine the resistance of the coil- at 70'C and the heat generated in kilo
calories per second when canf ing a current-of t00 A. (Resistitity of copper at 20'C is Il58 ohm
ELECTRIC CURRENT AND OHM'S LAW 15

per metre lengrh of I mm, cross-section). Temperalure coeficient of copper is 11234'5 per"C.
One kilocalorie is equivalent to 4l80.ioules.

Solution. azo : lllfl7a

A.g
where o.o : 11234'5

azo - -l
11234'5
_*26iIl4:S'
: 11254.5 per
oC

We can find pro ffom the fact that resistance o[ a wire of length I m and cross-section
I mmr is l/58 Q at 20"C.
Ai I x lo 2x l/58
pzo-?: ---100 l'72x106O-cm

ero: pro (l{a2sx50) : l'72x10-6( t* #): z'ostxl0 .o-cm

Now Rn: ?rcT L

Length : 70x95: 6650cm I Area : 15x3 :45 mme:45x10-2 cml

R,o : J!${}$
x l0-r 45
: o.o3o4 o
100'10'0391 :
Heat produced/second' : jifot."l - 72'tx10-rkcal.

Exrmpfe l-17. A semi-circular ring of copper has an inner radius of-6 ^c.m, radial
rhickness 3 cm and an axial thickness 1 ci. Tind'tirc resistdnre of the ring at 50 "-C between
its two end-faces, Assume specifc resistanee of Cu at 20' : I'724x10'6 oltm'cm and reslstance
tempt: coef. of Cu at 0oC : 0'00$fC.

Solutlon. The semi-circular ring is shown in Fig. l-16

Mcan radius of ring : (6+9)12 : 7.5 cm
Mean length between end faces - 7 5 * cm : 23'56 cm
Cross-section of the ring : 3x4: 12 cm2

Now ao: 0'0043i"c i o.to : l+13*orfual

:0'00396

pm : pro Il ]pro(50 -20;l

: l'724 x 10-0(1430x0.00396):1.91x l0'0 Q-cm
. proX/: l'91x106x23'56
D --7-
nao: ------lT-
: 37.5 xl0-o O Fig. l-16

Tutoriol Problems No. 1-2

L It is found that thc rcsistaocc of a coil of wire increascs from 40 obms at l5'C to 50 ohmr at
60"C. Calculate the rcsigtancc tcmperaturc coefficicnt at 0'C of the conductor matcrial.
(Elect. Technology, Indore Unlv. Mcy 1975)

2. A tungstco lamp filamcnt has a tcmperature of 2,050"C and a resistance of 5d) (l whcn takiog
normal working current. Calculate the resistaoce of thc filament when it has a temperaturc of 25"C, Terqp-
eralurc-coefficicot at OoC is 0'005/"C. t50 Ol
 16 ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY

3. The shunt field coil of a d.c. generator has a resistance of200 Q at 20'C. Find its resistance at
80"C if the te mperature coefficient of resistance is 0'004 at 20'C,
1248 Al (Electrical Engineering, M.S. Univ. Baroda, 1969)
4. A d.c. shunt motor after running for several hours on constant voltage mains of 4.00 V takes a
field current of l'6 A. If the temperature rise is known to be 40'C, what value of extra circuit resistance is
1eq,ui19-d to adjust the field current to l'6 A when starting from cold at 20'C ? Temperature coefficient :
0'0043/'C at 20'C. {36.69 Ol
5. In a test to determine the resistance of a single-core cable, an applied voltage of 2.5 V was
nccessary to produce a current of 2 A in it at I5'c.
(a) calculate
oC.
the cable resislance at 55'C if the temperature coefficient of rcsistance of copper at
0"C is l/235 per
(6) if the cable under working conditions carries a current of
l0 A at this temperature, calcutate the
power dissipatcd in the cable. [(a) f '45 5l (r) 145 Wl
6. The lield current in a motor is l'7 amperes at 20'C and after running the motor on full load for
6 hours, current falls to I'5 A. If thc _voltage across the field coil is 230 V and resistance temperature coeffi-
cicnt of copper is 0'00428/"C, what is the final tempcrature of the coil ?
(Elect, Tcchnology, Indorc Univ. Dee.1977)
7. An electric radiator is rcquired to dissipate l.kW when connected to a 230-Y supply, If the coils
of the radiator are of wire 0'5 mm in diameter having resistivity of 60 pQ-cm, calculate the necessary length of
the wire. [1732 cm]
E. The rcsistance of an armature is 0'013 ohm at room temperature and 0.0147 ohm after a full-
load run of scveral hours. What is average tefltperature rise? (Assume the value of cr for copper at room
remperature to be 0'004) (Elect. Technology, Univ. of Indorc, July 1975)
9. An aluminium wire 5 m long and 2 mm diameter is connected in parallel with a wire 3 m long,
Thc total current is 4 A and that in the alurninium wire is 2'J A. Find thd diameter of the copper wird.
'10'97nnl
ihirespectiveresistivitiesof copperandaluminiumarel'7and 2'6 p(l-cm.
10. Acoil is wound with 200 m of copper wirc of cross-sectional area 5 mmr. During a heat run, the
currcnt is maintained at a constaDt value of l5 A and the average .emperature rise is from I0"C to 30"C. The
rcsistivity at 20oC and the temperature coefficient at 0'C arc l/58 O/mlmmt and 11234.5 per oC, Calculate
the increase in copper loss. [l2 W]
11, Itisrcquired toconstructaresistanceof l@Ohavingatemperature coefncient of0'00lpqr"C.
Wires of two materials of suitahle cross-seclional area are available. For material l, th"- resistance is 97 fr per
t00metres and for material 8, the resistance is 40 O per 100 metres. The temperaturc coefficient of rcsistance
formaterial ,{is0'003 peroCandfor material 8is 0'0005 per oC. Determine suitablelengthsof wiresof
materialsAandB. tA: 19'4 m;B:200m1
12. The resistance of thc shunt winding of a d.c. machine is measured beforc and after a run of
scveral hours. The average values are 55 ohms and 63 ohms. Calculate the rise in temperature of thc
winding. (Temperature coellcient of resistancc of copper is 0'00428 ohm per ohm per "C)
136 "Cl {London Univ.)
- _ 13. A
piece of resistancc wire, l5'6 m long and of cross-rectional area 12 mm8 at a temperature
of 0"C, passes a currcnt of 7'9A wherr connected to a d.c. supply at 240Y. Calculatc (a) resistiviiy of the
wire (b) the current which will flow when the tcmpcrature risCs to 55"C. (The temperature coefficient of the
rcsistancc wire is 0'00029 O/O/'C. t@)23'37 pQ-m(b) 7.18A1 (London IJniv.)

l-12. Ohm's Law

This law applies to electric conduction through good conductors and may be stated as
follows :-
the rqtio of potential diference (V) betu'een any tl'o points on a (onductor to the current
(I\flowing between them, is constant, provided the temperuture of conduc.tor does not change.
v
In other t, l-v :
word Constant, Or
7
: R

where R is the resistance of the conductor between the two points considered.
Put in another way, it simply means that provided R is kept constant, current is directly
proportional to the potential difference across the ends of a conductors. However, this linear
relationship between Y and I does not apply to all non-metallic conductors. For example, for
silicon carbide, the relationship is given by Y:!7J,', where K and m are constants and zz is less
than unity. It also does not apply to non-linear devices such as Zener diodes and voltage-
regulator (VR) tubes
 ELECTRIC CURRENT AND OHM'S LAW l7

Example l-18. A coil of copper wire has aresistance of 90Q at 20"C and is connecled to a
230-V supply. By how much must the voltage be increased in order to maintain the current constant
if the temperature of the coil rises to 60"C ? Take the temperature coeficient of resistance of
copper as 0'00428 from 0"C.
Solution. As seen from Art. l-9
R.o: 1+6oxo'00428 Reo : 90x|.2568|l'0856 : 104.2 o
Rgo r+ffi
Now, current at 20'C : 23Ol9O : 2319 A
Since the wire resistance has beconte 104'2 O at 60oC, the neiv voltage required for
keeping the current constant at its previous value : 104'2x2319 : 266'3 V
increase in voltage required : 266'3
-230 : 36 3Y

l-13. Resistances in Series

When some conductors having resistances Rr, Rs and R3 etc. are jolned end-on'end a.s in
Fig. l-17, they are said to be connected in series. It can be proved that the equivalent resis-
taice or' tot;l resistance between points Aaod D is equal to thesum of the ihree individual
resistances. Being a series circuit, it should be remember6d that (i ) current is the same through

1..-u, -+ ur-$-or--J v

Fig. l -17 Fig. l-18

all the three conductors (ri) but voltage drop arross each is different due to its different resistance
and is given by Ohm's Law and (iii) sum of the three-volta.ge drops is equal to the voltage applied
across the three conductors. There is ,,r. progressive fall in potential as we go from poinl I to
D as shown in Fig. l-18.
V : Vt*Yz*Vt: lRr+/nr+IRg ...Ohm's Law
But V: lR
where R is the equivalent resistance o[ the series combination.
1R : IRr+1Rr+1R3 .'. R - nr+Rr+R3
l-14. Resistance's in Parallel
Three resistances, as joined in Fig. l-19, are said to be connecteJ in parallel. In this case
(t) p.d. across all resistances is the same (ii) current in each resistor is different and is given by
Ohm's Law and (jii) the total current is the sum of the three
separate cnrrents.
, R,T, L
v
I : h*Ir+Is: R, -Y R3
V
Now; 1 : -;,( where 7 is applied voltage
R : equivalent resistance of the paratlel combina.tion.
v vyyll,l,loR; ot
: E*,q
R a- : F, +n, + n; Fig. t-19
 IE ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY

Example 1-19. Calculate the values of two resistances which when connectcd ln series
give 50 A and 8 Cl when in parallel.
(Etect. Technology, fndore Univ. June 1976)
Solution. Let the two unknown resistances be & and Rt.
50 : Rr+& and 8 : & &/(Rr*Xr)
8 : Rr(50-&y50 or R1s-50 &+400 : 0
(Rr-40XRr:10):0 &:l0O or 40O Rr:40O or 10C)
Hence, one resistance is of l0 O and the other of 40 Q.
Example 1-20. What is the value of the unknown resistor
R in Fig. 1-20 if the voltage drop across the 500 dl resistor is 2.5
volts ? All resistances are in ohms. A
(Elect. Technolog;y, Inilore Untv. April 1977)
.Solution. By direct proportion, drop on 50 O resistance
: 2'5x 50/500 : 0'25 V
Drop across CMD or CD : 2'5+0'25 - 2'7SV
Drop across 550 O resistance s 12-2'75: 9'25 V
I : 9.251550 - 0.0168 A, /1 : 2,5150n: 0.005 A
/r : 0.0168-0.005 - 0.0118 A
0'0118 -2'751R;R-233O
- Example l-21. Calculate the efective resistance of the
following combination of resistances and tlu voltage drop acrosi each
resistance when a P. D. of 60 V ls applled bctween points A and B.
FiC. l-20
Solution. Resistance between ,,{ and C (Fig. t-21)
:"1I1 -2o
Resistance of Uruo.f, ,lli
- : 20o
lg+2
Now, there are two parallel paths
between points A and D of resistance-20. O
and 5 O. Hence, resistance between 7|
and D Fig. r-21
': 20x5
20* :4cl
Resista.nce between A and B :4+g -l2Q
Total circuit current
- 60112: 5 A
Current through 5 O resistor
-5x#:oo ...Art l-16
Current inbranch ACD : 5x;{ _ I A
P.D. across 3O and 6 O resistors : lx2 ' :2Y
P.D. across l8 O resistor : tXl,8 : ltV
P.D.across5O resistor
- 4x5 -20V
P.D.across8O resistor : 5x8 -40V
Example l-22. A circuit consists o! fgur 100-W lamps connecred in parallel across a
230-Y supply. Inodvertently, a voltmeter iai been connected ii
series witn tni 6iii.'- rn, iiiii
-stiiti-*
talc.e of.the u-oltmeter is 1500 Q--and t-bgt of the lamps under the condltions irx fimet
their value when burning normally. what-wtll.bc thb reading of the voltmeter ?
 ELECTRIC CURRENT AND OIIM'S LAW l9
solution, The circuit is shown in Fig l-22. The wattage of a lamp is given by
lV : rP - V'lR
.. 100 : 23o3lR R :529 O r---{@
,^,.|J00tL

Resistance of each lamp under rt"i"j"onoi- i votilere'c fT+

tionis :6x529:3174e i - - O
Equivalent resistance of these four lamps con- 2\ov Y Y Y
nectedinparallel-317414:793.5A I i | |
This resistance is connected in series with the I
voltmeter or rsoo rl iesistance. , I i6fi
total circuit resistance : 1500+793.5 Fil. t-22
: 2293'5 Q
circuit currenr - 23012293.5 A
According to Ohm's law, voltage drop across the voltmeter
: 1500x 23012293'5 - l50 V 1epprox)
. T**Ple. 1-?3. Determine the value of Rand the currcntthroughitinFig. I-23(a)if
currcnt through branch AO k zero. (Elect. Tcchnolo:gy, IndorC Univ. il7il
_ Solution. The given circuit can be redrawn as shown in Fig. l-23 (r). As seen, it is
-.ir.uit.
nothing else but Wheatitone UriOCi As is wcll-known, when current through brench
A

I
a r) (try)

(o)

,lO becomes zero, the bridge is said to be balanced. In that case, products of the resistances of
oppositc arms of the bridge become egual
4Xl'5-RXl;.R:6O
Under condition of bqlance, it makes no difference if resistance X is removed thereby
giving us the circuit of Fig. l-23 (c). Now, thcre alc,two parallcl paths between points B md, b
of resistances (11t'5): 2'5 O aod (4+6) - l0O. .R1c : 10 il 2.5 ;2Ci.
Total circuit resistance :2+2 : 4 {1. Total circuit current - l}l4 : 2.5 A.
This current gcts dividcd into two parts at point .B. Current through R is
y : 2.5x2'5112'5 0'5 A
- pxrmple l-24. The ba-se-of an incandescent= with a tungsten filament is marked 120 y,
60 W. Measurement on a Wheastone brldge _of the reglstange of thi lamp at 20oC indicatei
^lamp
20A. What is the normal tlmperaturc,of^\canlgyence of thefilarnent if thi resistance-temperu-
oC
ture cocficient of ungsten is 5 x I0-' per at 20oC.
. (Elect. Engg.-l. Boubay Univ. r97t)
Solution, lVorking current of the lamp - 601120 - 0.5 A
Hot resistance of the lamp is - l20lo,5 : 24O A
Let t be the normal burning temperaturs of the la^mp.
 m ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY,

Then Rt : 240 o, &o - 20 O, dzo : 5x l0 8/"C

Now Rr : Rao Ff aro(/-20)l

I
24O:20il+U-20)x5xlu-r 1 t :2220'C
, Exemple 1-25. The filament of a 240-Y metal-filament lamp is to be constructed fro,n a
wire' having s di(imeter of 0'02 mm and a resistivity at 20"C of 4'3pQ-cm. If o : 0 0051'C,
what length oJ filament is necessary if the lamp is'to dissipate 60 watt.g at afilament tempt. ol
2420'C ?

Solution. Electric power generated : IlR watts : Zr/R watts

VZIR : 60 or 24021R:60
240_x240 :
Resistance at 2420'C Rclzo : 960 cl

Now : Rroil +(Z+ZO.-20)x0.0051

Rzqzo

or 960 : Rro(l+I2), '. Rgo : 960/13 O

zr(0'002)r
Now ?26: 4'3X l0'c Q-cm and , - "n1r

I' :- AXRro- j(0'002)rx960

:4;lltT3tlo':5f E, cil
^-
P^
Tutor ial Problems No. 1-3
I. An armature has a resistancc of 0'2 O at l5'C and rhe armature Cu loss is to be limited to 600
watts with a temperature rise of 55'C. If c6 for Cu is 0'0043/'C, what is the maximum current that can be
passed through the armature ? t50'E AI
2. AbulbratedllOV,60wattsisconnectedwithanotherbulbratedllOV, l00Wacrossa220mains.
Calculate the resistancewhichshonld\bejoinedinparallelwiththefirstbulbsotharboththcbulbsmaytake
thcir rated power. t302'5 Al
3, Two coils connccted in prrallel across 100 V supply mains. take l0 A from the line. The power
dissipatod in one coil is 600 W. What is the resistance of the other coil ? t25 Ol
4. Abattcryof l0cetls,eachofe.m.f.2volts and interoal resisrance0l Oisconnectedtoacircuit
consisting of a variable resisrance R in series with a group of three resistances of l, 2 and 3 ohm connected
in parallcl.
What must bc the value of R in order that the current in the 2 (l rcsistance. may be l ampere ? When
R has this value, what is thc p d. across the battery, the parallel group and the variable resistance ?
tl'91 f); 16'33 V;2V;1433Vl
5. An electric heatiog element to dissipatc 450 watts on 250 V mains is to bc made f rom nichrome
ribbonofwidthlmmaqdthickness0'05mm.Calculatethelengthbf the ribboo required (theresistiviry of
nichrome is ll0x10-8 O-m) t65l ml
6. An electric lamp whose resistance, when in use, is 2 O is connected to the terminals of a dry cell
whose e.m.f. is l' 5V. lf rhe current through the lamp is 0 5 A. calculate rhe internal resistance of the ccll
and the pot€nrialdifferencebetweentheterminalsof the.lamp. If two such cellsareconnectedinparallel,
rcsistance which must be connected in series with the arrangement ro keep ,nr .irtrri"l ,,^i:Tl"ri]
|:F"r,l.
7. When blrrning oormally, the tempe-rature of the filament in a 230-V, 150-W gas-filled tungsten lamp
is 2,750"C. Assuming a room temperalure of l6'C, calculate (a, the normai currenitakcn by the lamp (D)
trl€ cuffort taken ar the moment of switchiog on. Temperature ioefficienr of tungsten is 0 004?A/d)/'C at-o"i.
[(a)0'652 A (A) 8'4 sA]

1-15. Practical Resistors

Some of the practical applications of resistors are as follows :-
(t) -as meter elements i.e. as ammeter shunts and voltmeter multipliers
(ii) to control currenr tbrough a circuit i.e. as rheostats and
(iii) as heater elements for converting electrical energy into heat energy
 ELECTRIC CURRENT AND OHM'S LAW 2I

Constructionally, they are of the following types :-

(a) wire-wound resistor on ceramic or plastic formers
(D) composition (mostly, carbon) resistors
' (cl deposited metal resistors on ceramic bases
(d) deposited carbon resistors on ceramic bascs
(e) printed, painted or etched circuit resistors.
The wire-wound resistors are generally used in power and equipment'control industries
wherea.s the carbon composition resistors find extensive use in electronici and light-equipment
control industries.

1-16. Division of Current in Paraltel Circuits

In Fig. l-24, two resistances are joined in parallel across a voltage Y. The current in
each branch, as given by Ohm's law, is
' It: VlRr and l, : VlRz
I., Rt

1:&
LRr 12 R2
tl
As --- : Gt and -=- : Gz
/(1 fi2

+:g
12 uz
Hence, the division of current in the branches of a Fis,. l-24
parallel circuit is directly proportional to the conductance of the
branches or inversely proportional to their resistances. We may also express the branch currents
in terms of the total circuit current thus.
Now h+Is : J L: I-h
Ir Rr
7-i: &
.I1R1 - Rr(/-Ir)
R
rrRz r
rr: Tr*R, and Iz:
- I l(r*&
.+
For alterna,ting-current circuits, we use impedances instead of resistances. For such

circuits L-L Z' an.'

zr'
: t'- tr4t;
' 4*Zz. 'r
Take the case of three resistors in parallel connected across a voltage Y (Fig. l-25). Thc
total current is 1: Ir+It+h. Let the equivalent resistance be
R. Then 'r-Rr
V: TR
Also V: /tRt /g: /rRr
or'
I lRr
or h: IRi& ...(i)
L: T-'
I ll-I-_L- I
Now
F.: Rt'Rr'Rg
RrRrR,
.R- . Fig. 145
En'+nF +T'-&
 22 ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY

From (i) abovc, r, : r(6ffih,)

Similarlv h: r (m,***TEu-,) -ot':(nm*f;mm)
Example l-26. A resistance of I0 A is connected in series with two resistances each of
15 dl arranged in parallel. What resistunce must be shunted across this parallel combinailon so
that the total current taken shall be I'5 A with 20 V applied ?
" (Elements of Elect. Engg. I ; Bangalore Univ. Jan. 1979)
Solution. The circuit connections are shown in
Fig. l-26.
Drops across I0-O resistor : l'5x l0 - 15 V.
Drop across parallel combination, Vta:20-15: 5V
Hence, voltage €tcross each parallel resistance is 5V.
L : 5lt5 : ll3 A, h: 5lt5 : tl3 A
/3 : 1.5-(l 13 +l 13) : 5164.
IaR:5or(5/6)R - 5orR:6O. Fts.r-26
Example 1-27. If ?01/ be applied across AB, shown in Fig. I-27. calculate the total
current,thepowerdissipatedineachresistor and the value of the ieriesresistance tohalve rhe
total current
@lements of Elect. Engg -l; Bangalore Univ. Jan. 199)
Solution. As seen from the figure. Rrn : 370ltg9o.
Hence, total current
- 20+3701199 : 10.76 A.
It: 10'76x516*74125)- 6'70 A ; I, : 10.76-6.76: 4A
2t,
I frM 2 1

r
Ao+4ryr=--<B
3701199

Fis. r-2?

lt :6'76x6lg:4'51A, Ic: 6,76-4.51 : 225A.

Voltage drop across A and M, Ylru 6.76x24125
- - 6.4g V.
I" : Ve.ul2 :6'4812 - 3.24Ai Io -6.4814 - I.62A i Ic:6.4516 - 1.08A.
Id : 6'4818 - 0'ElA, J" : 2015 - 4 A.

Power Dissipation
Pn: IozRr:3'242x2:21W, P6- l.Slzy4: l0'4W, P": l.08tx6:7W.
Pa:0'8lrx8 - 5'25W, P2:42y5: t0W, Pr:4.512x3:61W
Pc:2.252 x6:30.4W.
The series resistance required is 370/199 O.
- Incidentally, tota.l power dissipatcd: /2R1s: l0.76zx 3701199 : 215'3W (as
a check;.
 ELECTRIC CURNBNT AND OIIMTS LAW 23

. Enmplc l-2t. I'lp currcnt tn the I0-A rcsistanca of thc clrcult shown tn Ffc. I-28 i{
I0 A. Flnd the currcn, ln 5 Q rcsistor. Calculate alu the power consumed by the i-(ire,yi.rtor.
(Elect. Engg. f,erala Unlv.r 1979)
Solutlon. As seen from Art. l.ld

h: I(Er;iffim;)
: to(=n-o*#;m;r) : z'sr
P : IfRt: (1512)2x5 : 2t1.25 W.
Fig. 1.28
-. - Example- l'29. Two conductors, ol1g of copper and the other of iron, are connected n
parallcl and at 20"C carry eqyql^gyrrents. lAhat proportion of current iitt pais through eaii, tf
the temperat.ue ls raised to I0A,C'! Assume a for copper as
|i;qO_lZ and for- iron' as O'OOA
jer'.b
at 20oC. Find also the values of temperature ionfrcienis at 100"C.

resistance
sorutron. Since rhey carry equal currents 20"c,(rEhlj",1l:::::::;X"H"":I
", their resistances increase though unequally.
zt 20oC ie. Rr.. As temperaturc is raised,
::3
For Cu. Rroo : &o (l +80x0.0042) : 1.336 ftao
For iron R'roo : &o (1a80x0.006) : l'48 Reo

As seen from Art. l-16 current through Cu conductor is

r t. R'rm ,.. 1.48 Rro
32'561o oI I
Hence, current*.";;::"m ; J;:Tm;
the remaining current i.e. 47.44 per cent passes through iron.
:::H: Obviously,

Or current through iron conductor is

r _ L| - Rroo
It: t.. l'336 Rro :0'4744 /
Fffi - rx ffi or. 4T.tWlooIl
I
For Cu, droo
- 1ry-6;dtri21;-S6- = 0.00314'C-r'
€lroo :
I
For iron,
-Op56tTm- - 0.00406"C-r
Example 1-30. A battery of unknbwn e.m-f. is connected across resistances as shown
i1t F!5. I-29. Tle Y!!age. dr-op across tle E-A resistor is 20V. lVhat will be the current reading
in the ammeter ? ?
What is the e.m.f. of the battery .,

(Basic Elect. Engg. ; BangladeshlUniv., l97E)

Solution. Current through 8-O resistance : 20/8 - 2.5A
This current is divided into two parts at point ,{ :
one part going along ptth AC and the other along path
lBC which has a resistancc of 28 O.
rz:2.sx(iT$r) : o.7A
. Hcnce, ammeter reads 0'7 A.

Resistance between A and C : (2Bx ll/39) ohrn.

A ELECTRICAL TECSNOLOGY

Total circuit resistance : 8+ 1l +(308/39) : 1049139 A

E : 2'5 x1049139.: 67'3 V

l-17. Theory of Shunt

An instrument which detects electric current (by utilizing one of its effects) is known as
galvanometer. It is used for not only detecting the presence of current in any circuit but can
also be used for measuring its rolative strength and direction. The same galvanometer can be
either used for measurrng current strength i.e. as a.n ammeter or for measuring potential differ-
ence between two points i.e. as a voltmeter.
. Galvanometer itself can usually carry small currents. If the current is too large, then
only a part of the total current should be passed through the galvanometer, the remainder pass-
ing through a small resistance connected across the galvano-
^S
meter as shown in Fig. l-30. The low resistance ,S provides a
'bypath'for the current a.nd is called a shunt and the galvano-
meter is said to be thcn 'shunted'. Shunted galvanometers can
be made to record currents many times greater than their nor-
inal full-scale deflection currents. The ratio of the maximum
current (with shunt; to the full-scale dcflection currcnt (without
shunt) is known as the .multiplying power'or .multiplying Fie. l-30
factor' of the shunt.
Let @ : galvanometer resistance i .S : shunt resistance
1 : line current to be measured
Ic : full-scale deflection current of the galvanometer
As seen from Fig. 1-30, the volta.ge across the galvanometer and the shunt resistance is
the same as both are joined in parallel.
GxIu -,Sx(/-/o) because current through shunt is I, - (I-Is\
s:& Arso +-( t*-3)
multiplying power of shunt : ( r*$ )
Obviously, lower the value of shunt resistance, greater is its multiplying power.

1-18. Ammeter Shunt

The range of ammeters can also bc extended by suirably adjusting thc value of shunt
resistance.
Example 1-31. A moving-coil instrument has a resistance of I0 Q and gives full-scale
deflection when carrying a current of 50 mA. Find the value of shunt required to convert the ins-
fiument into an ammeter of range 100 A.
Solution. Io : 50 mA : 50/1000 : 0'05 A
Shunt current : 100-0.05 : 99.95 A
Now Gx Io : S (1-lr) l0 x0'05 : Sx 99'5 ^S
: 0'005Q (rpprox).
Exampte 1-32. Two resistors of value 1000 O and 4000 dl are connected in series across
a constant vol_tage supply of 150 V. Find (a) P.D; across 4000 chm resistor (b) calcalate the
change in supply current and the reading on a voltmeler of 121000 A resistance when It is conncc-
ted across the larger resistor.
Solution. (a) Total resistance : 1000+40@ : 5000 O
 BLECTRIC CURRENT AND OHM'S LAW 25

Applied voltage : 150 V current 1 : 150/5000 - 30/1000 - 30 mA

P.D. across 21000 O resistor : 30x4000/1000 : 120 V
16j ln Fig. 1-31, voltmeter has been joined across the larger resistance. The equivalent
resistance between B and C
: 4000x 12000/16000 : 3000 O
Resistance between A and C : 1000+ 3000 -- 4000 O
New supply current : 150/4000 37.5 mA
change in supply current : 37'5-30 : 7.5 mA
P.D. across .B and C : 37.5 x 3000/1000 : I 12 5 V
voltmeter reading : 112'5 V Fig. l-31
Tutorial Problems No. 1-4
l. Two rcsistors of 100 O and 200 Q arc cornected in series across a 4-V ccll of neotioihr.
rcsishn;;. ;';"ffi;;"?ztiirf
in cach case ?
ii"'.a
ri''iiti-"-". to measuri p-.'d.;;;;J'"lSl"_iiilqililitif'tJ:,1X!";X1
Ir v acrosc lo{i'd l;'v';-cr;s 200 ol,
2. Twovoltmeters,-one_havioga-resistaocc-of ll-lEq and the other a resistance
of 15.2 kO are
conDected io series across a ll5-V line. Both are of o-150 v_raogc. Catcutate
ilJ"iiioirrg"irr'""ir, mct"r.
[s4.r v;60'e V] lBasiC Etect Enss. ; prriliaiiFiiii])sity re761
3. Thercsistanccof ad.c'milliammetert:39,9...11:currentfor.full-scaledeflection
t0mA. It
is proposed to make a d.c. voltmeter by using thc milliammeter and a suitable i".i"i-..Jiriio.1. is 'rie
for full-scale deflection is to be 300 v. Determine rh-ere^sistln_ce-of the multiplier- volrage
[29,980 OJ (Basic Etect.'Eiie. ; Baqsladesh Univ. 1975)
4. Thcpowerreceivcdbyttreloadafthecodof a trans,nissioo line is 6400W. Thc p.d. arthe
rending end is 160 V and the lioc resistance (comegnd c-o)^r^s_!,Q O. fino ine curreol rhe p.d.
and thc linc toss. at thc load
[t0 A, 80 v, 6400 w] (Baric Elect. Enii.-i";;l"i;;i ilrir. ntzl
5. A resistance coil AB of 100 Q rcsistance isJo^b:5_t9 as a porcotiometer aad is _conoccted to a
d.c.supplvat230v. Findby calculationthepositio-p-ofa-rapping n.oio_tb b;il;;;;;'i"iuti
currcnt of 2A will flow in a resistance of J0 O ionnected acroii l-arird C.
- ,r,",
"
[43.4 () from A to Cl (London (!niv.l