materials

Article
Estimation of Soil-Water Characteristic Curves in
Multiple-Cycles Using Membrane and TDR System
Won-Taek Hong, Young-Seok Jung, Seonghun Kang and Jong-Sub Lee *
School of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering, Korea University, 145 Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu,
Seoul 136-713, Korea; 01698788767@korea.ac.kr (W.-T.H.); mcaie@korea.ac.kr (Y.-S.J.); gshnice@korea.ac.kr (S.K.)
* Correspondence: jongsub@korea.ac.kr; Tel.: +82-2-3290-3325

Academic Editor: Durga Misra

Received: 30 September 2016; Accepted: 13 December 2016; Published: 17 December 2016

Abstract: The objective of this study is to estimate multiple-cycles of the soil-water characteristic
curve (SWCC) using an innovative volumetric pressure plate extractor (VPPE), which is incorporated
with a membrane and time domain reflectometry (TDR). The pressure cell includes the membrane
to reduce the experimental time and the TDR probe to automatically estimate the volumetric water
content. For the estimation of SWCC using the VPPE system, four specimens with different grain size
and void ratio are prepared. The volumetric water contents of the specimens according to the matric
suction are measured by the burette system and are estimated in the TDR system during five cycles
of SWCC tests. The volumetric water contents estimated by the TDR system are almost identical to
those determined by the burette system. The experimental time significantly decreases with the new
VPPE. The hysteresis in the SWCC is largest in the first cycle and is nearly identical after 1.5 cycles.
As the initial void ratio decreases, the air entry value increases. This study suggests that the new
VPPE may effectively estimate multiple-cycles of the SWCC of unsaturated soils.

Keywords: membrane; soil-water characteristic curve; time domain reflectometry; unsaturated soils;
volumetric pressure plate extractor

1. Introduction
Most soil near the surface consists of an unsaturated zone with soil particles, water, and air.
The essential component of unsaturated soils is the matric suction. The matric suction in unsaturated
soils is sensitive to the environmental conditions [1,2]. For example, the matric suction of unsaturated soil
increases in drying conditions, while the matric suction decreases in wetting conditions. Matric suction
changes alter the characteristics and mechanical behavior of unsaturated soils. For the prediction of
the shear strength of the unsaturated soils, Vanapalli et al. [3] developed an analytical model using the
soil-water characteristic curve (SWCC) and the effective shear strength parameters. In addition, the
matric suction of the unsaturated soils significantly affects the resilient modulus and the permanent
deformation of the ground [4,5]. Therefore, understanding matric suction is important to analyze the
properties of unsaturated soils. Matric suction can be estimated by the soil-water characteristic curve,
which is the relationship between matric suction and the volumetric water content or the degree of
saturation in the soil [6].
The SWCC is dependent upon on the soil type, grain size distribution, initial void ratio, and
plasticity. The SWCC generally shows hysteresis behavior: the volumetric water content of the drying
process is higher than that of the wetting process with the same matric suction. Most of the SWCC,
however, is generally obtained for the drying process for the convenience of the measurement [2].
A ceramic disk with a high air entry value has been commonly used to obtain SWCCs; therefore, it takes
an extremely long time to obtain a SWCC in the wetting process because of the difficulty of equilibrium
conditions [7]. In this study, a microporous membrane was used to reduce the experimental time

Materials 2016, 9, 1019; doi:10.3390/ma9121019 www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2016, 9, 1019 2 of 15

instead of a high air entry ceramic disk. The microporous membrane has high hydraulic conductivity
and is thin, so the experimental time was significantly reduced. Thus, this new apparatus incorporated
with a membrane could conduct multiple-cycles of SWCC tests within a short experimental time.
Quantitative measurements of the volumetric water content of unsaturated soils have been
commonly conducted using the burette system during the SWCC tests. The burette system provides
a continuous measurement of the soil water content, which is recommended to minimize errors in the
identification of the SWCC [8]. In this study, the volumetric water contents of unsaturated soils were
estimated by the time domain reflectometry (TDR) system as well as the burette system. The TDR
can be used to monitor continuous changes in the soil water content [9]. Furthermore, the TDR probe
calibrations for the J30-50 (Jumunjin sand) and F100 (Fine sand) sands were performed to accurately
estimate the soil water content. The volumetric water content estimated by the TDR system during the
SWCC tests is compared with that measured by the burette system, and the result exhibits a direct
proportional relationship. Thus, the TDR system could effectively be used for the measurement of
water content during the SWCC tests.
In this study, SWCC tests with different initial void ratios and particle sizes were performed
to characterize the properties of the SWCC. First, background on the fundamental components of
unsaturated soils such as soil suction, the soil-water characteristic curve and the newly developed
time domain reflectometry system are explained. Second, the features of the experimental setup and
experimental studies are described. Third, the experimental results according to the filter type and
particle size are compared. Subsequently, the property changes of SWCC according to multiple-cycles,
initial void ratio, and particle size are presented. In addition, the results of the TDR measurements
were compared with those of the burette system. Lastly, the results of multiple-cycles of the SWCC test
are discussed.

2. Characterization of Unsaturated Soils

2.1. Soil Suction

The soil suction (ψ) consists of a matric suction (ua − uw ) and osmotic suction (π), as follows [1]

ψ = (ua − uw ) + π (1)

where the matric suction (ua − uw ), which indicates the difference between air pressure (ua ) and
pore-water pressure (uw ), is the net pressure applied to soil particle–air interface. Note that matric
suction has a same absolute value to the matric potential in a stress state variable [10] with opposite
sign. The matric suction changes depending on climatic conditions, such as drying and wetting
conditions. As the radius of curvature of the meniscus decreases in the drying process, the matric
suction increases. Conversely in the wetting process, the matric suction decreases. Thus, the variation
of matric suction causes alternation in the unsaturated soil properties. The osmotic suction (π),
which is the tendency of a solution to take in water, varies according to the chemical component, the
concentration of ions, and the fraction of the soil particles. The osmotic suction causes water to move
on the high concentration side.

2.2. Soil-Water Characteristic Curve

The soil-water characteristic curve (SWCC) represents the relationship between matric suction
and the volumetric water content [11]. The SWCC is dependent upon the mineralogy, particle size
distribution, soil type, dry unit weight, and permeability of the unsaturated soil, so the SWCC has
been used to estimate the shear strength and tensile strength of the unsaturated soils. Furthermore,
the flow of groundwater and the slope stability of unsaturated soils can be investigated with the
SWCC. A typical soil-water characteristic curve is plotted in Figure 1, which shows that the SWCC
can be categorized into saturated, transition, and residual zones [3]. In the saturated zone, pore-water
is not flowing out until the matric suction is greater than the air entry value (AEV), which is the
Materials 2016, 9, 1019 3 of 15
Materials 2016, 9, 1019 3 of 15

intersection of
intersection of the
the extensions
extensions of
of the
the tangent
tangent lines
lines in
in the
the saturated
saturated zone
zone andand the
the transition
transition zone,
zone, as
as
shown in Figure 1. In the transition zone, the air is flowing into the pore as the matric suction
shown in Figure 1. In the transition zone, the air is flowing into the pore as the matric suction increases increases
and thus
and thuspore-water
pore-water flows
flowsout.
out. The
The characteristics
characteristics ofof the
the transition
transition zone
zone determine
determine thethe slope
slope of
of the
the
SWCC. For the residual zone, while the matric suction increases, no water is flowing out.
SWCC. For the residual zone, while the matric suction increases, no water is flowing out. The constant The constant
volumetricwater
volumetric watercontent,
content,which
whichisiscalled
calledthe
theresidual
residualwater
watercontent,
content,isismaintained.
maintained.

Saturated zone Transition zone Residual zone

Air entry value

Volumetric water content [%]

Drying process

Wetting process

Residual
water content

Matric suction [kPa]

Figure 1.
Figure 1. Typical
Typicalsoil-water
soil-watercharacteristic
characteristiccurve.
curve.

2.3. Time Domain Reflectometry

2.3. Time Domain Reflectometry
The time domain reflectometry (TDR) system consists of a pulse generator, a coaxial cable and a
The time domain reflectometry (TDR) system consists of a pulse generator, a coaxial cable
TDR probe. Note that the TDR probe consists of two or three slender rods [12]. In this study, a two—
and a TDR probe. Note that the TDR probe consists of two or three slender rods [12]. In this
rod type probe is used in order to minimize the effect of the soil disturbance during the wetting and
study, a two—rod type probe is used in order to minimize the effect of the soil disturbance during
drying processes [13]. In the TDR system, the propagation time of the guided electromagnetic wave
the wetting and drying processes [13]. In the TDR system, the propagation time of the guided
is measured for the estimation of the dielectric constant of soils around the TDR probe. The
electromagnetic wave is measured for the estimation of the dielectric constant of soils around the TDR
electromagnetic wave, which is generated by the pulse generator, propagates through the coaxial
probe. The electromagnetic wave, which is generated by the pulse generator, propagates through the
cable and the TDR probe. The electromagnetic wave reflected at the head and the tip of the TDR
coaxial cable and the TDR probe. The electromagnetic wave reflected at the head and the tip of the
probe (see Figure 2), due to the impedance mismatch, is collected in time domain.
TDR probe (see Figure 2), due to the impedance mismatch, is collected in time domain.
The Typical TDR waveforms in air, wet soil, and water are represented in Figure 2. The
The Typical TDR waveforms in air, wet soil, and water are represented in Figure 2. The waveform
waveform of the reflected electromagnetic wave is the function of the probe configuration and the
of the reflected electromagnetic wave is the function of the probe configuration and the soil properties
soil properties around the TDR probe. As the probe configuration is fixed, the shape of the reflected
around the TDR probe. As the probe configuration is fixed, the shape of the reflected wave is mainly
wave is mainly dependent upon the dielectric constant of the surrounding soils. The reflection time
dependent upon the dielectric constant of the surrounding soils. The reflection time at the probe tip
at the probe tip increases as the dielectric constant increases and the scaled distance increases in the
increases as the dielectric constant increases and the scaled distance increases in the TDR waveform.
TDR waveform. From the scaled distance (horizontal axis in Figure 2), the apparent length (x2 − x1)
From the scaled distance (horizontal axis in Figure 2), the apparent length (x2 − x1 ) can be calculated
can be calculated and the dielectric constant can be evaluated as follows [12]
and the dielectric constant can be evaluated as follows [12]
κ = [(x2 − x1)/L]2 (2)
κ = [(x2 − x1 )/L]2 (2)
where κ is the dielectric constant; x1 and x2 are reflection points at the beginning (interface between
the coaxial
where cable
κ is the and theconstant;
dielectric TDR probe) andx2the
x1 and aretip of the TDR
reflection probe;
points andbeginning
at the L is the TDR probe between
(interface length.
the coaxial cable and the TDR probe) and the tip of the TDR probe; and L is the TDR probe length.
Materials 2016, 9, 1019 4 of 15
Materials 2016, 9, 1019 4 of 15

1.2
Air
Air
Wet soil
1.0 Wet soil
Water
` Water
TDR probe

Reflection coefficient
`
0.8 `

0.6 Coaxial cable Head Tip

0.4

0.2
x2 - x1
0.0
0.0 0.5 x1 1.0 x2 1.5 2.0
Scaled distance [m]

Figure
Figure 2. 2. TypicalTDR
Typical TDRwaveforms
waveforms in
inair,
air,wet
wetsoil,
soil,and water.
and water.

The dielectric constant of the unsaturated soils varies sensitively depending on the volumetric
The dielectric
water constant
content. Thus, of the unsaturated
the volumetric soils
water content varies
that sensitively
is required in the depending
SWCC can beon the volumetric
estimated by
waterusing
content. Thus, the volumetric water content that is required in the SWCC can
the TDR system. The most commonly used relationship between the dielectric constant be estimated
(κ) and by
usingvolumetric
the TDR system. The most
water content (θv) iscommonly used relationship between the dielectric constant (κ) and
as follows [14]
volumetric water content (θv ) is as follows [14] 3 2 θv = aκ + bκ + cκ + d (3)
3
where the coefficients of a, b, c, and θdvare
= aκ + bκ2 + cκ +determined.
experimentally d Topp et al. [14] suggested (3)
a = 4 × 10−6, b = −5.5 × 10−4, c = 2.92 × 10−2, and d = −5.3 × 10−2. If the error of the volumetric water content
whereis the
approximately
coefficients0.02–0.03
of a, b, m c,3·m
and−3, the coefficients of a, b, c, and d should be determined in the
d are experimentally determined. Topp et al. [14] suggested
calibration
− 6 phase [15].
a = 4 × 10 , b = −5.5 × 10 , c = 2.92 × 10−2 , and d = −5.3 × 10−2 . If the error of the volumetric
− 4

water content is approximately 0.02–0.03 m3 ·m−3 , the coefficients of a, b, c, and d should be determined
3. Experimental Setup and Studies
in the calibration phase [15].
3.1. Specimens
3. Experimental Setup and Studies
The experimental studies were conducted using J30-50 and F100 sands. The grain-size
distributions of the two specimens are plotted in Figure 3. Figure 3 shows that both J30-50 and F100
3.1. Specimens
are uniform specimens. For the J30-50 sand, the sand passes the sieve No. 30 and remains on sieve
The experimental
No. 50. The F100 sand studies werewith
is a sample conducted using
a grain size betweenJ30-50
sieveand
No. F100
100 andsands.
sieve No.The200.grain-size
The
distributions of the of
index properties two specimens
both are plottedininTable
sands are summarized Figure
1. The3. mean
Figure 3 shows
diameters (D50that bothmm
) are 0.46 J30-50
and and
F100 0.13
are uniform
mm for thespecimens.
J30-50 and For
F100the J30-50
sands, sand, theThe
respectively. sand passes
specific the sieve
gravities [16] No. 30 and
are 2.62 remains
and 2.65 for on
sievethe
No.J30-50 and F100
50. The F100 sands,
sand isrespectively.
a sample with The maximum
a grain sizevoid ratio [17]
between and No.
sieve the minimum void ratio
100 and sieve No. 200.
[18] are
The index 0.99 and 0.62
properties for the
of both J30-50
sands are sand, respectively.
summarized For the
in Table F100mean
1. The sand,diameters
the maximum (D50void
) areratio
0.46 mm
and minimum ratio are 0.96 and 0.59, respectively. According to the unified
and 0.13 mm for the J30-50 and F100 sands, respectively. The specific gravities [16] are 2.62soil classification system
and 2.65
(USCS), both J30-50 and F100 sands are classified as poorly graded sandy soils (SP).
for the J30-50 and F100 sands, respectively. The maximum void ratio [17] and the minimum void
ratio [18] are 0.99 and 0.62 for the Table
J30-501. sand, respectively. For the F100 sand, the maximum void ratio
Index properties of the specimens.
and minimum ratio are 0.96 and 0.59, respectively. According to the unified soil classification system
(USCS), both J30-50 and F100 sands Property J30-50asSand
are classified F100 Sand
poorly graded sandy soils (SP).
Gs 1 2.62 2.65
emax 1.
Table
2 0.99 of the specimens.
Index properties 0.96
emin 3 0.62 0.59
D50 4
Property 0.46 mm
J30-50 Sand 0.13F100
mmSand
1Cu 5 1.56 1.75
Gs 2.62 2.65
emax C2 c6 1.05
0.99 0.890.96
Soil3 type
emin SP
0.627 SP 70.59
1 D50 4 2 Maximum void
Specific gravity of the soils; 0.46 mmof the specimens;
ratio 0.133 mm
Minimum void ratio of the
specimens; Mean diameter
4 Cu 5 of the specimens; 1.56 1.75
5 Coefficient of uniformity of the specimens; 6
Cc 6 1.05 0.89
Coefficient of curvature on the grain-size distribution curves of the specimens; 7 Poorly graded sandy
Soil type SP 7 SP 7
soils classified by the unified soil classification system.
1 Specific gravity of the soils; 2 Maximum void ratio of the specimens; 3 Minimum void ratio of the specimens;
4 Mean diameter of the specimens; 5 Coefficient of uniformity of the specimens; 6 Coefficient of curvature on

the grain-size distribution curves of the specimens; 7 Poorly graded sandy soils classified by the unified soil
classification system.
Materials 2016, 9, 1019 5 of 15
Materials 2016, 9, 1019 5 of 15

Materials 2016, 9, 1019 5 of 15

Figure3.3.Particle
Figure Particlesize
size distribution
distribution of
of J30-50
J30-50and
andF100
F100sands.
sands.

3.2. Volumetric Pressure Plate Extractor

3.2. Volumetric Pressure Plate Extractor
For the measurement of the SWCC in unsaturated soils, several methods such as a methylene
For the measurement of the SWCC
Figure in unsaturated
3. Particle soils,
size distribution several
of J30-50 methods
and F100 sands. such as a methylene blue
blue test [19], a tempe pressure cell, a thermal conductivity cell [20,21], thermocouple psychrometers
test [19], a tempe pressure cell, a thermal conductivity cell [20,21], thermocouple psychrometers [22]
[22] and3.2.
a pressure
Volumetric plate apparatus
Pressure have been used. In addition, several analytical and mathematical
Plate Extractor
and a pressure plate apparatus have been used. In addition, several analytical and mathematical
models using grain size distribution and the other properties of the unsaturated soils were
models For the measurement
using grain of the SWCC in unsaturated soils, the
several methods such aswere
a methylene
established for thesize distribution
prediction of theand the other
SWCC [23].properties
However, of unsaturated
the methods related soils
with theestablished
thermal
blue
forcharacteristics test
the predictionofofthe[19], a tempe pressure
the unsaturated
SWCC [23]. However,cell, a thermal theconductivity
methods cell [20,21],
related thermocouple
with the thermal psychrometers
characteristics
[22] and a pressure plate apparatus soils haveindirectly
been used.measure
In addition,theseveral
SWCC, and the
analytical analytical and
and mathematical
of mathematical
the unsaturated soils indirectly measure the SWCC, and the analytical and mathematical methods
modelsmethods
using grain require
size the experimental
distribution and thebackgrounds. Among
other properties of the
the SWCC
unsaturatedtest methods,
soils werethe
require the experimental
pressureestablished
plate apparatus, backgrounds.
which utilizes
for the prediction Among
of the SWCC the SWCC
the axis-translation test
[23]. However, the methods,
technique, the pressure
is mostwith
methods related plate
commonly apparatus,
the thermal used
which utilizes
because the axis-translation
the pressure
characteristics plate
of theapparatus technique,
unsaturated allows
soils theisdirect
most measurement
indirectly commonly
measure the used of the
SWCC, because
water
and the
thecontent pressure
analyticalunder plate
andthe
applied mathematical
apparatus allowssuction
matric methods
the direct acted require
measurement the experimental
on a specimen. of the
Thewater backgrounds.
content
pressure Among
plateunder thethe
apparatus isSWCC
applied
divided testinto
matric methods,
suction theacted
two types,
ondepending pressure
a specimen. onThe
the plate apparatus,
pressure
measurement plate which
apparatus
method. utilizes the
theaxis-translation
is divided
First, into two
pressure technique,
types,
plate is(PPE)
depending
extractor most type
oncommonly
the usedthe
measurement
measures
because the pressure plate apparatus allows the direct measurement of the water content under the
weight First,
method. changethe of pressure
the sample. Second,
plate extractor the volumetric
(PPE) type pressure
measures plate extractor
the weight (VPPE) changeevaluates the
of the sample.
applied matric suction acted on a specimen. The pressure plate apparatus is divided into two types,
volume
Second, theofvolumetric
water flowing out from
pressure plate the sample.(VPPE)
extractor Note that the PPEthe
evaluates type may not
volume of generate
water the wetting
flowing out from
depending on the measurement method. First, the pressure plate extractor (PPE) type measures the
curve
the sample.of the SWCC
Notechange
weight and
that the may disturb
PPEsample.
of the type may the
Second, sample
notthe during
generate weight
the pressure
volumetric measurements
wetting plate curveextractor of
of the SWCC the specimens.
(VPPE) and maythe
evaluates Thus,
disturb
thethe VPPE
sample has been
during
volume commonly
of weight
water flowing used
measurements
out from to the
continuously
ofsample. obtain
the specimens.
Note thePPE
Thus,
that the drying
the and not
typeVPPE
may wetting
hasgenerate
been processes
commonly of the
the wetting used
to SWCC. curve ofobtain
continuously the SWCC the and may and
drying disturb the sample
wetting during weight
processes of the measurements
SWCC. of the specimens. Thus,
In In this
this study,
thestudy,
VPPE the
has
the VPPE
been
VPPE isisused
commonlyusedusedtotodetermine
determine the SWCC.
to continuously
the obtain the
SWCC. The
The VPPE
drying
VPPE andmay
may change
wetting the
processes
change thesoil
of water
soilthewater
content SWCC.
by adjusting the matric suction. The VPPE system mainly consists of a pressure controller, a
content by adjusting the matric suction. The VPPE system mainly consists of a pressure controller,
burette system, In this
andstudy, the VPPEpressure
a cylindrical is used tocell determine
as shown thein
SWCC.
FigureThe 4a.VPPE may change
As shown in Figurethe soil water
4a, the low-
a burette system, and a cylindrical pressureThe cellVPPE
as shown
systemin Figure 4a. As of ashown in Figure 4a, the
pressurecontent by
regulator adjusting
(0–70 kPa) the matric
is usedsuction.
as a pressure controller mainly
and was consists
adopted pressure
for the controller,
evaluationa of
low-pressure regulator
burette system, (0–70 kPa) is used
and a cylindrical as a cell
pressure pressure
as showncontroller
in Figureand 4a. Aswas
shownadopted
in Figurefor4a,thethe
evaluation
low-
the drying and the wetting processes. Additionally, a digital gauge was installed to accurately
of the drying andregulator
pressure the wetting processes.
(0–70 kPa) is used as Additionally, a digital
a pressure controller and gauge was installed
was adopted to accurately
for the evaluation of
determine the air pressure applied in the specimens. The inflow and outflow volumes of the pore
the drying and the wetting processes. Additionally, a digital
determine the air pressure applied in the specimens. The inflow and outflow volumes of the pore gauge was installed to accurately
water indetermine
the drying and wettingapplied
processes were measured by the burette system and estimated
of the pore by
water
the TDRwater
dryingasthe
in thesystem and air pressure
shown
wetting
in
processes
Figure 4a.
in the
werespecimens.
measuredThe byinflow and outflow
the burette system volumes
and estimated by the
in the drying and wetting processes were measured by the burette system and estimated by
TDR system as shown in Figure 4a.
the TDR system as shown in Figure 4a.

TDR coaxial cable line

TDR coaxial cable line

Bolt
Bolthole
hole TDR rods
TDR rods

(a) (a) (b)

(b)
Figure 4. Schematic drawing of apparatus: (a) VPPE incorporated with the TDR system; (b) circular
Figure
Figure 4. 4. Schematicdrawing
Schematic drawingofofapparatus:
apparatus: (a) VPPE
VPPE incorporated
incorporatedwith
withthe
theTDR
TDRsystem; (b)(b)
system; circular
circular
soil cell.
soil cell.
soil cell.
Materials 2016, 9, 1019 6 of 15

A membrane, instead of a high air entry ceramic disk, was placed between the soil specimen
and the porous stone to reduce the equilibrium time of the matric suction due to the thin (140 µm)
membrane thickness and the high hydraulic conductivity in the membrane [7]. The high air entry
ceramic disks, which have been commonly used in the typical SWCC tests [24], require a significantly
longer equilibrium time in matric suction [25–27]. The specifications of a typical ceramic disk and
membrane are compared in Table 2.

Table 2. Specifications of the membrane and ceramic disk.

Classification Membrane Ceramic Disk

Pore size 0.2 µm 0.5 µm
Thickness 145 µm 7 mm
Air entry value 350 kPa 500 kPa
Hydraulic conductivity 5.19 × 10−9 m/s 7.95 × 10−10 m/s
Material polyethersulfone ceramic

Note that the values of hydraulic conductivity are about 10−5 –10−8 m/s and ~10−8 m/s for the
silt and the clay, respectively. Therefore, the experimental time of the SWCC test incorporated by the
membrane can be significantly reduced even for the fine soils.
The circular soil cell shown in Figure 4b was manufactured using polyamide material to minimize
the effects of interference in the electromagnetic waves during the TDR tests. The dimensions of the
circular soil cell are 73 mm in inner diameter and 30 mm in height.

3.3. Time Domain Reflectometry System

The time domain reflectometry (TDR) system consists of TDR electronics, a coaxial cable, and
a TDR probe. The coaxial cable is a RG 58 C/U type and the cable length is determined as 3 m, which is
the minimal length for the measurement system. As the cable length becomes longer, more uncertainty
in the determination of reflection time is introduced [28]. The schematic drawing of the TDR probe
installed in the circular soil cell is shown in Figure 4b. The TDR probe is made of stainless steel and
is a curved two-rod type. The diameter and length of the rods used in the TDR probe are 3 mm and
110 mm, respectively. As the curvature of the two rods is identical with that of the circular cell, the
two-rod type TDR probe was embedded horizontally into the inside of the circular soil cell as shown
in Figure 4b. At each stage of the electromagnetic wave measurement, 256 signals were averaged to
minimize the uncorrelated noises.

3.4. TDR Probe Calibration

Probe calibration is essential for the accurate estimation of the volumetric water contents of the soil
specimens. For the derivation of the accurate relationship between the volumetric water content and
the dielectric constant, the calibration in water and air should be included [29,30]. Thus, the calibration
of the TDR probe was conducted in water, air, and J30-50 and F100 sands at the different volumetric
water contents. For TDR probe calibrations and SWCC tests, distilled water is used to control the
volumetric water content of the specimens. The waveforms captured in the air, water, and J30-50 sands
with a wide range of volumetric water contents are plotted in Figure 5a. Figure 5a shows that the
scaled distance increases with an increase in the volumetric water content of soils. The evaluated
dielectric constant was plotted corresponding to the volumetric water content for both J30-50 and F100
sands, as shown in Figure 5b. In addition, the relationships between the dielectric constant and the
volumetric water content of other soils reported in other researches [14,31] are overlaid in Figure 5b.
Figure 5b shows that J30-50 and F100 sands are placed in the middle of other soils. The relationship
between the dielectric constant and the volumetric water contents for J30-50 and F100 sands are

J30-50 sand: θv = 4 × 10−6 κ3 − 5.5 × 10−4 κ2 + 3.02 × 10−2 κ − 7.1 × 10−2 (4)
Materials 2016, 9, 1019 7 of 15
Materials 2016, 9, 1019 7 of 15

F100F100
sand:sand: = 410×−10
θv = θ4v× κ3 κ−3 −5.5
6 −6 10−−44κκ22++2.92
5.5××10 2.92××1010 −2− 6.3 × 10−2
−2κ
κ − 6.3 × 10−2 (5)(5)

1.2 0.5
Air
θv=0.0%
1.0 θv=8.5%
θv=17.5% 0.4

Volumetric water content, θv

θv=29.1%
Reflection coefficient

0.8 θv=39.1%
Water 0.3

0.6

0.2 Organic soil (Topp et al., 1980)

Fine sand (Vaz and Hopmans, 2001)
0.4
Silty clay (Vaz and Hopmans, 2001)
Clay (Topp et al., 1980)
0.1 Silt (Topp et al., 1980)
0.2 J30-50 (This study)
F100 (This study)
Glass bead (Topp et al., 1980)
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0 10 20 30 40
Scaled distance [m] Dielectric constant, к

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure5.5.TDR
TDRcalibration:
calibration:(a)
(a)TDR
TDRwaveform
waveformfor forJ30-50
J30-50sand;
sand;(b)
(b)relationship
relationshipbetween
betweenthe
thedielectric
dielectric
constant and the volumetric water content. θ v denotes the volumetric water content.
constant and the volumetric water content. θv denotes the volumetric water content.

3.5. Test Procedure

3.5. Test Procedure
The experimental studies for the estimation of the SWCCs are conducted as follows. First, the
The experimental studies for the estimation of the SWCCs are conducted as follows. First, the
porous stone is installed on the base of the VPPE system and fully saturated. Subsequently, the
porous stone is installed on the base of the VPPE system and fully saturated. Subsequently, the
membrane is placed above the porous stone and is fully saturated to minimize the influence of air.
membrane is placed above the porous stone and is fully saturated to minimize the influence of air.
After the saturation is completed, a circular soil cell with an O-ring is installed on the porous stone
After the saturation is completed, a circular soil cell with an O-ring is installed on the porous stone
and the membrane. A bolt and a nut are used in the circular soil cell to turn the airflow off in the
and the membrane. A bolt and a nut are used in the circular soil cell to turn the airflow off in the
VPPE system. The specimen with the specified initial void ratio is prepared by mixing the sand and
VPPE system. The specimen with the specified initial void ratio is prepared by mixing the sand and
water. After the sand specimen is placed into the circular soil cell, water is filled from the outside of
water. After the sand specimen is placed into the circular soil cell, water is filled from the outside of
the specimen and the soil specimen is soaked for at least 24 h for full saturation. When the setting of
the specimen and the soil specimen is soaked for at least 24 h for full saturation. When the setting of
the soil specimen is completed, the pressure cell is connected to the pressurized air supply, and air
the soil specimen is completed, the pressure cell is connected to the pressurized air supply, and air
pressure is gradually applied using the pressure controller. The range of the applied matric suction
pressure is gradually applied using the pressure controller. The range of the applied matric suction is
is 0.1–60.0 kPa. For the identification of the SWCC of unsaturated soils, the matric suction should be
0.1–60.0 kPa. For the identification of the SWCC of unsaturated soils, the matric suction should be
applied up to 50 kPa in the drying process and up to 0.1 kPa in the wetting process [8]. Five cycles of
applied up to 50 kPa in the drying process and up to 0.1 kPa in the wetting process [8]. Five cycles of
the drying and wetting processes are completed to investigate the variation of the SWCC according
the drying and wetting processes are completed to investigate the variation of the SWCC according
to the repeated drying–wetting processes. Simultaneously, when the water level in the burette is
to the repeated drying–wetting processes. Simultaneously, when the water level in the burette is
stabilized under the applied matric suction, the inflow–outflow volume of the pore water is measured
stabilized under the applied matric suction, the inflow–outflow volume of the pore water is measured
using the burette system to determine the volumetric water content. Additionally, the
using the burette system to determine the volumetric water content. Additionally, the electromagnetic
electromagnetic waves of the TDR are measured at each matric suction to estimate the volumetric
waves of the TDR are measured at each matric suction to estimate the volumetric water content.
water content.
4. Experimental Results and Analyses
4. Experimental Results and Analyses
As experimental studies, several cases of SWCC tests are conducted for the specimens with
As experimental
the different studies,
initial void ratio several cases size
and particle of SWCC
for thetests are conducted
estimation for the specimens
of the SWCCs of differentwith
typesthe
of
different initial void ratio and particle size for the estimation of the SWCCs
unsaturated specimens. The volumetric water contents estimated by the TDR system are comparedof different types of
unsaturated specimens.by
with those determined Thethevolumetric waterFurthermore,
burette system. contents estimated by the TDR
the experimental system
time, aresuction,
matric comparedand
with those determined by the burette system. Furthermore, the
volumetric water content are continuously monitored during the SWCC tests. experimental time, matric suction,
and volumetric water content are continuously monitored during the SWCC tests.
4.1. Water Content
4.1. Water Content
The TDR waveforms according to the matric suction and corresponding SWCC are investigated
The TDR
for J30-50 sandwaveforms according
with an initial to the
void ratio of matric
0.75. Insuction and corresponding
the drying SWCCsuction
process, as the matric are investigated
increases,
for
theJ30-50 sand with
volumetric waterancontent
initial void ratio ofby
measured 0.75.
theIn the drying
burette systemprocess, as the
decreases matric
from suction
0.425 to 0.1increases,
as shown
the volumetric water content measured by the burette system decreases from 0.425 to 0.1 as shown
in Figure 6a and the TDR waveform shifts from the right side to the left side as shown in Figure 6b.
Materials 2016, 9, 1019 8 of 15

Materials 2016, 9, 1019 8 of 15

in Figure
Materials 6a9,and
2016, 1019the
TDR waveform shifts from the right side to the left side as shown in Figure 8 of6b.
15
Thus, the apparent length in the TDR signature decreases, and the dielectric constant decreases.
apparent length in the TDR signature decreases, and the dielectric constant decreases. In In the
Thus,
drying
the the
drying apparent
process,
process, length
thethe in the
significant
significant TDR
change signature
changeof of
the decreases,
apparent
the apparentlengthandofof
length the
the dielectric
thewaveform
waveform constant
occursdecreases.
occurs in In
in the matric
the drying
suction
suction process,kPa,
of 1.2–1.5 the which
significant change of
corresponds tothe
theapparent
AEV.
AEV. length of the waveform occurs in the matric
suction of 1.2–1.5 kPa, which corresponds to the AEV.
0.5 1.2
1st drying (e=0.75)
0.5 1.2
1st drying (e=0.75)
0.4
v v

Drying

[] []
content,

0.4
Drying 0.8

coefficient
content,

0.3 0.8

coefficient
water

0.3 50kPa
5.0kPa
water

50kPa

Reflection
0.2
Volumetric

2.0kPa
5.0kPa

Reflection
0.2 0.4 1.7kPa
Volumetric

2.0kPa
0.4 Drying 1.5kPa
1.7kPa
0.1 Drying 1.2kPa
1.5kPa
0.1 1.0kPa
1.2kPa
0.4kPa
1.0kPa
0.0 0
0 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 0.4kPa 1.25
0.0 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
0.01 0.1 Matric suction
1 [kPa] 10 100 0 0.25 Scaled
0.5 distance [m]
0.75 1 1.25
Matric suction [kPa] Scaled distance [m]
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 6.
6. SWCC
SWCC and
and TDR
TDR waveform
waveform during
during the
the drying
drying process:
process: (a)
(a) SWCC;
SWCC; (b)
(b) TDR
TDR waveform.
waveform.
Figure 6. SWCC and TDR waveform during the drying process: (a) SWCC; (b) TDR waveform.
In the wetting process, as the matric suction decreases, the volumetric water content measured
In burette
by the the wetting process,
system as the
increases matric
from 0.1 suction
to 0.375decreases,
as shown the volumetric
in Figure 7a. Inwater content
addition, themeasured
opposite
by the burette system increases from 0.1 to 0.375 as shown in Figure 7a. In addition, the opposite
phenomenon occurs in the TDR waveforms as shown in Figure 7b. As 7a. the matric suction decreases
phenomenon occurs
phenomenon occurs in
in the TDR waveforms
waveforms as shown in Figure 7b. As the matric suction decreases
from 50 kPa, the waveforms in the matric suction of 50–2 kPa are nearly identical.
from 50 kPa, the waveforms in the matric suction of 50–2 kPa are nearly identical.
0.5 1.2
0.5 1st wetting (e=0.75) 1.2
1st wetting (e=0.75)
0.4
v v
content,

[] []

0.4
0.8
coefficient
content,

0.3 0.8
coefficient

50kPa
water

0.3
2.0kPa
50kPa
water

Reflection

0.2 1.1kPa
2.0kPa
Volumetric

Wetting 0.4 0.9kPa

Reflection

0.2 1.1kPa
Volumetric

Wetting 0.4 Wetting 0.7kPa

0.9kPa
0.1 Wetting 0.5kPa
0.7kPa
0.2kPa
0.5kPa
0.1
0.1kPa
0.2kPa
0
0.0 0.1kPa
0 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25
0.0 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
0 0.25 0.5 distance
0.75 1 1.25
0.01 0.1 Matric suction
1 [kPa] 10 100 Scaled [m]
Matric suction [kPa] Scaled distance [m]
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 7. SWCC and TDR waveform during the wetting process: (a) SWCC; (b) TDR waveform.
Figure
Figure 7.
7. SWCC
SWCC and
and TDR
TDR waveform
waveform during
during the
the wetting
wetting process:
process: (a)
(a) SWCC;
SWCC; (b)
(b) TDR
TDR waveform.
waveform.
The dielectric constant during the drying and wetting phases were evaluated from the TDR
The dielectric
waveforms. constant water
The volumetric duringcontent
the drying and wetting
was estimated phases werethe
by substituting evaluated
dielectricfrom the TDR
constant into
The dielectric constant during the drying and wetting phases were evaluated from the TDR
waveforms.
the The
calibration volumetric
results as water
expressed content
in was estimated
Equations (4) and by substituting
(5). Then, the the dielectric
volumetric constant
water into
contents
waveforms. The volumetric water content was estimated by substituting the dielectric constant into
the calibration
estimated by theresults as expressed
TDR system in Equations
are compared (4) and
with those (5). Then, the
determined thevolumetric waterforcontents
the calibration results as expressed in Equations (4) and (5). Then,by the burette system
volumetric J30-50
water contents
estimated
and F100 by
sandsthe TDR
as shownsystem
in are compared
Figure 8. Figure with
8 those
shows determined
that the by
volumetric the burette
water system
contents for J30-50
evaluated
estimated by the TDR system are compared with those determined by the burette system for J30-50
andthe
by F100
TDRsands
andasasthe
shown in Figure
burette systems8. Figure 8 shows
are very similar that the volumetric water contents evaluated
and F100 sands shown in Figure 8. Figure 8 shows thatfor
theboth sand specimens.
volumetric The evaluated
water contents determinantby
by the TDR
coefficient and
(R the
2 the burette
) is burette
0.98 forsystems systems
J30-50 and are very
F100 similar similar
sands. The for
R issand
2 both sand
significantly specimens.
high, The
sodeterminant determinant
the volumetric water
the TDR and are very for both specimens. The coefficient
coefficient
content (R2) is 0.98
evaluated byfor
theJ30-50 and
TDRsands. F100can
system sands. The R2 is significantly high, so the volumetric water
(R2 ) is 0.98 for J30-50 and F100 The R2be effectively
is significantly used,
high,ifsothe
theautomatic
volumetricTDR system
water contentis
content evaluated by the TDR system can be effectively used, if the automatic TDR system is
prepared.
evaluated by the TDR system can be effectively used, if the automatic TDR system is prepared.
prepared.
Materials 2016,
Materials 2016, 9,
9, 1019
1019 99 of
of 15
15
Materials 2016, 9, 1019 9 of 15
0.5
0.5 J30-50 (Drying)
J30-50 (Drying)
J30-50 (Wetting)
0.4 J30-50 (Wetting)
0.4 F100 (Drying)
F100 (Drying)
F100 (Wetting)

 by burette system
F100 (Wetting)

vv by burette system

0.3
0.3

0.2
0.2 2
RR2 ==0.98
0.98

0.1
0.1

0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0 0.1
0.1 0.2 0.3
0.3 0.4
0.4 0.5
0.5
vv by TDR
TDR system
system

Figure
Figure Volumetric
Volumetric water
8.8.Volumetric
Figure8. content
water content comparison.
contentcomparison.
comparison.

4.2.4.2. Experimental
Experimental Time
Time
TheThe experimentaltime
experimental timeforforoneonecycle
cycle ofof the
the SWCC
SWCC for for the
theJ30-50
J30-50and andF100F100sands
sands with
withananinitial
initial
void
void ratioratio
ratio of of
of0.850.85 is plotted
0.85isisplotted
plottedinin in Figure
Figure 9a, which
9a, which is obtained
is obtained with use
with of the
use ofmembrane.
the For
membrane. F100 sand,
For F100
Figure 9a, which is obtained with use of the membrane. For F100 sand,
the
sand, experimental
the experimental time of
time one cycle of the drying and wetting processes is approximately 22 h. The
the experimental time of oneofcycle
one cycle
of theofdrying
the drying and wetting
and wetting processes
processes is approximately
is approximately 22 h. 22
Theh.
experimental time for J30-50 sand (~10 h) is shorter than that of F100 sand because of the larger
The experimental
experimental timetime for J30-50
for J30-50 sand sand(~10(~10 h) shorter
h) is is shorter thanthanthatthatofofF100
F100sand sandbecause
becauseof of the
the larger
particle and pore size of J30-50 sand. For comparison, the experimental time with the ceramic disk
particle andand pore
poresize sizeofofJ30-50
J30-50sand.sand.For Forcomparison,
comparison, thetheexperimental
experimental timetimewith
withthethe
ceramic
ceramic diskdisk
for
for the J30-50 sand, with the same initial void ratio of 0.75, is plotted in Figure 9b. While the ceramic
the the
for J30-50 sand,
J30-50 withwith
sand, the same
the sameinitial voidvoid
initial ratioratio
of 0.75, is plotted
of 0.75, in Figure
is plotted in Figure9b. While the ceramic
9b. While the ceramicdisk
disk has been commonly used for the determination of the SWCC, the experimental time is
has been
disk commonly used forused the determination of the SWCC, theSWCC,
experimental time is considerably
considerably long [32]. For example, for J30-50 sand with an initial void ratio of 0.75, approximately is
has been commonly for the determination of the the experimental time
long
18 [32].
days For
considerably were example,
long [32]. For
required for
for J30-50
example,
one sand
cycle with
forthe
of J30-50an sand
drying initial
andwithvoidan
wetting ratio of 0.75,
initial approximately
voidHowever,
processes. ratio of 0.75, 18 days were
approximately
the experimental
required
18 days for
were one cycle
required of
for the
one drying
cycle ofand
the wetting
drying processes.
and wetting However,
processes.
time with a membrane is less than 10 h for J30-50 sand with an initial void ratio of 0.75. Thus, the experimental
However, the timethe
experimentalwith
a membrane
time is
with a membrane
experimental less than 10 h for J30-50
is less than shorter
time is considerably sand
10 h for with
J30-50
with an initial
sand with
membrane void ratio of 0.75.
an initialofvoid
use because Thus, the experimental
ratio oftravel
the shorter 0.75.distance
Thus, the
time
withis considerably
experimentalhighertime is shorter
hydraulic considerablywith membrane
conductivity shorter with
in the use becauseasof
membrane
membrane, usethe shorterofin
because
summarized travel
the distance
shorter
Table with
travel
2. The higher
distance
modified
hydraulic
with higher conductivity
hydraulic in the membrane,
conductivity in as
the summarized
membrane, inasTable 2.
summarized
volumetric pressure plate using the membrane may significantly reduce the experimental time, so The modified
in Tablevolumetric
2. The pressure
modified
plate
theusing
volumetric the membrane
pressure
multiple-cycles plate may
of theusing
SWCC significantly
the can bereduce
membrane
tests maythe
conducted. experimental
significantly thetime,
Note that reduce most so
the the multiple-cycles
experimental
geotechnical time, so
problems of
SWCC
theare tests can
associated
multiple-cycles withofbe conducted.
the
the wetting
SWCCprocess Notecan
tests that
bethe
[33,34]. mostSWCC
Most
conducted. geotechnical thatproblems
studies,
Note the most are
however, have associated
been commonly
geotechnical with the
problems
wetting
areperformedprocess
associated [33,34].
onwiththe drying Most
the wetting SWCC
process of studies,
process cyclehowever,
one[33,34]. dueMost have
to the
SWCC been
experimental commonly
studies, time [2].
however, performed
have been on commonly
the drying
process
performed of one
on thecycle due to
drying the experimental
process of one cycletime due[2]. to the60 experimental time [2].
70
J30-50 (D50=0.46mm) Membrane
70 60 60 Ceramic disk
F100 (D50=0.13mm) 50
J30-50 (D50=0.46mm) Membrane
(Song, 2013)
60 50 F100 (D50=0.13mm) Ceramic disk
50
40
[kPa] [kPa]
Matric suction [kPa]

(Song, 2013)
50 40
Matric suction

40
Matric suction [kPa]

30

40 30
Matric suction

30
20
30 20

20
10
10
20

0 0
10
10 0 10 20 30 40 50 0 100 200 300 400 500
Time [h] Time [h]
0 0
0 10 20 (a) 30 40 50 0 100 (b)
200 300 400 500
Time [h] Time [h]
Figure 9. Experimental time for one cycle of the SWCC: (a) membrane for J30-50 and F100 sands with
(a) (b)
an initial void ratio of 0.85; (b) membrane and ceramic disk for J30-50 sand with an initial void ratio
Figure 9.
9. Experimental
of 0.75.
Figure Experimentaltimetimefor one
for cycle
one of of
cycle thethe
SWCC: (a) membrane
SWCC: (a) membranefor J30-50 and F100
for J30-50 sandssands
and F100 with
an initial
with void void
an initial ratio ratio
of 0.85; (b) membrane
of 0.85; and ceramic
(b) membrane disk for
and ceramic diskJ30-50 sand sand
for J30-50 with with
an initial void ratio
an initial void
of 0.75.
ratio of 0.75.
Materials 2016, 9, 1019 10 of 15

4.3. Materials
SWCC 2016, 9, 1019 10 of 15

4.3.
4.3.1. SWCC
Hysteresis in SWCC
The soil-water
4.3.1. Hysteresis incharacteristic
SWCC curves obtained with the prepared specimens are plotted in Figure 10.
The volumetric water content decreases in the drying process and increases in the wetting process.
The soil-water characteristic curves obtained with the prepared specimens are plotted in Figure
The drying curve shows the water desorption of the specimen as the matric suction increases.
10. The volumetric water content decreases in the drying process and increases in the wetting process.
In contrast, the wetting curve shows the water adsorption of the specimen in accordance with the
The drying curve shows the water desorption of the specimen as the matric suction increases. In
decrease
contrast, thematric
in the wetting suction.
curve shows the water adsorption of the specimen in accordance with the
All SWCCs
decrease in theshow hysteresis
matric suction. behavior: the drying curves have a higher volumetric water content
at the same matric suction
All SWCCs [1] due behavior:
show hysteresis to the inkthebottle
dryingeffect, contact
curves have aangle
highereffect, and soil
volumetric fabric
water change
content
during thesame
at the drying andsuction
matric wetting[1] processes
due to the [35,36]. Aseffect,
ink bottle the pore-size andeffect,
contact angle shapeandof the
soilunsaturated
fabric changesoils
during the drying
are non-uniform, theand wetting
radius processes [35,36].
of curvature and the Ascontact
the pore-size
angleand shape the
between of the unsaturated
soil soils are
and air-water
not are non-uniform,
identical duringthetheradius of curvature
wetting and drying and the contact angle
processes. The between
radius of the soil and air-water
curvature are not
and contact angle
identical
in the wetting during the wetting
process are higherandthan
drying processes.
those The radius
in the drying of curvature
process. The soiland contact
with angle curvature
a higher in the
andwetting process are
higher contact anglehigher
has than thosetime
an easier in the drying process.
desorbing The soil
the water; with a the
therefore, higher
watercurvature
contentandof soil
higher contact angle has an easier time desorbing the water; therefore, the water content of soil during
during the wetting process is lower. Figure 10 shows that after 1.5 cycle of the SWCC (first drying–first
the wetting process is lower. Figure 10 shows that after 1.5 cycle of the SWCC (first drying–first
wetting–second drying), the shape and size of the SWCCs are almost identical. Thus, more than
wetting–second drying), the shape and size of the SWCCs are almost identical. Thus, more than 1.5
1.5 cycles of the SWCC tests are required to fully characterize the SWCC behavior of unsaturated soils.
cycles of the SWCC tests are required to fully characterize the SWCC behavior of unsaturated soils.
Additionally,
Additionally,thethe
hysteresis
hysteresissize
sizeofofthe
thefirst
firstcycle
cycle for bothsands
for both sandsisisgreater
greater than
than that
that of the
of the otherother cycles,
cycles,
as shown
as shownin Figure 10.10.
in Figure The hysteresis
The hysteresismagnitudes after the
magnitudes after thesecond
secondcycle
cycle are
are almost
almost identical.
identical.

0.5 0.5
AEV
Drying AEV
AEV Drying
0.4 0.4 AEV
Volumetric water content, v

Volumetric water content, v

1st drying 1st drying

0.3 0.3
1st wetting 1st wetting
2nd drying 2nd drying
2nd wetting 2nd wetting
0.2 0.2
3rd drying 3rd drying
3rd wetting 3rd wetting
4th drying 4th drying
0.1 4th wetting 0.1 4th wetting Wetting
Wetting
5th drying 5th drying
5th wetting 5th wetting
0.0 0.0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Matric suction [kPa] Matric suction [kPa]

(a) (b)
0.5 0.5
AEV
Drying

AEV
0.4 Drying 0.4 AEV
AEV
Volumetric water content, v

Volumetric water content, v

1st drying 1st drying

0.3 0.3
1st wetting 1st wetting
2nd drying 2nd drying
2nd wetting 2nd wetting
0.2 0.2
3rd drying 3th drying
3rd wetting 3th wetting
4th drying 4th drying
Wetting
0.1 4th wetting 0.1 4th wetting
Wetting
5th drying 5th drying
5th wetting 5th wetting
0.0 0.0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Matric suction [kPa] Matric suction [kPa]

(c) (d)
Figure 10. Multiple-cycles of the soil-water characteristic curve: (a) void ratio of e = 0.85 for J30-50
Figure 10. Multiple-cycles of the soil-water characteristic curve: (a) void ratio of e = 0.85 for J30-50
sand; (b) void ratio of e = 0.80 for J30-50 sand; (c) void ratio of e = 0.75 for J30-50 sand; (d) void ratio
sand; (b) void ratio of e = 0.80 for J30-50 sand; (c) void ratio of e = 0.75 for J30-50 sand; (d) void ratio of
of e = 0.85 for F100 sand. AEV denotes the air entry value.
e = 0.85 for F100 sand. AEV denotes the air entry value.
Materials 2016, 9, 1019 11 of 15

Materials 2016, 9, 1019 11 of 15

4.3.2. Initial Void Ratio Effect

4.3.2. Initial Void Ratio Effect
TheTheSWCCs
SWCCs according
accordingtotothe
theinitial
initialvoid
void ratio are represented
ratio are representedininFigure
Figure1111forfor J30-50
J30-50 sandsand at the
at the
first,first,
second, third, and fifth cycles. As the initial void ratio increases in J30-50 sands, the air entry
second, third, and fifth cycles. As the initial void ratio increases in J30-50 sands, the air entry value
(AEV)
value decreases, and the volumetric
(AEV) decreases, water content
and the volumetric watercorresponding to the AEV
content corresponding to increases
the AEV as summarized
increases as
in Table 3.
summarized in Table 3.

0.5 0.5

0.4 0.4
Volumetric water content, v

Volumetric water content, v

0.3 0.3

0.2 1st drying (e=0.85) 0.2 2nd drying (e=0.85)

1st wetting (e=0.85) 2nd wetting (e=0.85)
1st drying (e=0.75) 2nd drying (e=0.75)
0.1 1st wetting (e=0.75) 0.1 2nd wetting (e=0.75)
1st drying (e=0.65) 2nd drying (e=0.65)
1st wetting (e=0.65) 2nd wetting (e=0.65)
0.0 0.0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Matric suction [kPa] Matric suction [kPa]

(a) (b)
0.5 0.5

0.4 0.4
Volumetric water content, v

Volumetric water content, v

0.3 0.3

0.2 3rd Drying (e=0.85) 0.2 5th drying (e=0.85)

3rd Wetting (e=0.85) 5th wetting (e=0.85)
3rd Drying (e=0.75) 5th drying (e=0.75)
0.1 3rd Wetting (e=0.75) 0.1 5th wetting (e=0.75)
3rd Drying (e=0.65) 5th drying (e=0.65)
3rd Wetting (e=0.65) 5th wetting (e=0.65)
0.0 0.0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Matric suction [kPa] Matric suction [kPa]

(c) (d)
Figure 11. SWCC according to the initial void ratio: (a) first cycle; (b) second cycle; (c) third cycle;
Figure 11. SWCC according to the initial void ratio: (a) first cycle; (b) second cycle; (c) third cycle;
(d) fifth cycle.
(d) fifth cycle.

Table 3. Air entry values according to the initial void ratios.

Table 3. Air entry values according to the initial void ratios.
Initial Void Air Entry Value θv in Air Entry Value
Sand
Ratio 1st Cycle 2nd–5th
Air Entry ValueCycle 1st Cycle 2nd–5th
θv in Air Entry Cycle
Value
Initial Void
Sand 0.85 1.0 kPa 0.9 kPa 0.431 0.374
Ratio 1st Cycle 2nd–5th Cycle 1st Cycle 2nd–5th Cycle
J30-50 0.75 1.2 kPa 1.1 kPa 0.399 0.347
0.85 1.0 kPa 0.9 kPa 0.431 0.374
0.65 1.5 kPa 1.4 kPa 0.370 0.321
J30-50 0.75 1.2 kPa 1.1 kPa 0.399 0.347
F100 0.85
0.65 5.0
1.5kPa
kPa 5.0 1.4
kPakPa 0.4120.370 0.358 0.321

F100 0.85 5.0 kPa 5.0 kPa 0.412 0.358

As the initial void ratio of the specimen decreases, the matric suction for the residual zone
(Figure 1) increases because the flow of pore-water decreases in the smaller pore-sized specimens
As the Furthermore,
[37–39]. initial void ratio
the of the specimen
difference decreases,
in water contentthe
frommatric suction for
the saturated the to
zone residual zone (Figure
the residual zone 1)
increases because
increases with an theincrease
flow of in pore-water decreases
the initial void ratio asinsummarized
the smallerinpore-sized
Table 4. Thespecimens [37–39].
SWCC trend
obtained in the
Furthermore, the first cycle isin
difference similar
watertocontent
that of previous
from thestudies [37,38,40].
saturated zone toHowever, the SWCC
the residual zone trends
increases
withchange as the in
an increase number of cycles
the initial increases.
void ratio Therefore, multiple-cycles
as summarized in Table 4. Theof SWCCtrend
SWCC are necessary
obtained into the
characterize fully the behavior of the unsaturated soils.
first cycle is similar to that of previous studies [37,38,40]. However, the SWCC trends change as the
number of cycles increases. Therefore, multiple-cycles of SWCC are necessary to characterize fully the
behavior of the unsaturated soils.
Materials 2016, 9, 1019 12 of 15
Materials 2016, 9, 1019 12 of 15

Table 4. Differences of the volumetric water content according to the initial void ratios.
Table

Initial Void Difference

Difference in Volumetric
in Volumetric Water
Water Content
Content
Sand Initial Void
Sand Ratio 1st Cycle 2nd–5th Cycle
Ratio 1st Cycle 2nd–5th Cycle
0.85 0.386 0.330
J30-50 0.85 0.75 0.3860.330 0.330
0.270
J30-50 0.75 0.65 0.3300.279 0.270
0.230
0.65 0.279 0.230
4.3.3. Particle Size Effect
4.3.3. Particle Size Effect
The influence of particle size on the SWCC is observed in Figure 12. The mean diameter of J30-50
sand The
(0.46influence
mm) is of3.5particle size on than
times greater the SWCC
that ofis F100
observed
sandin(0.13Figure
mm) 12.atThe
themean
samediameter of J30-50
initial void ratio
sand (0.46
(0.85). mm)12isshows
Figure 3.5 times greater
that as thethan
finethat of F100
content sand (0.13
decreases, themm)SWCCat the sametoinitial
shifts void
the left ratio
side. (0.85).
Similar
Figure 12
results canshows that in
be found as previous
the fine content
studiesdecreases,
[27,41,42].the SWCC
While theshifts
initialtovoid
the left side.
ratio for Similar results can
both specimens is
be found the
identical, in previous studies
matric suction of[27,41,42].
F100 sand While thethan
is greater initial void
that ratio for
of J30-50 sandboth
withspecimens
the same is identical,
volumetric
the matric
water suction
content. ofthe
Thus, F100AEVssandforisJ30-50
greater than
and F100that of J30-50
sands sand with
at an initial void the
ratiosame volumetric
of 0.85 are 1.0 kPa water
and
content. Thus, the AEVs for J30-50 and F100 sands at an initial void ratio of
5.0 kPa, respectively, as summarized in Table 3. In addition, J30-50 sand shows the steeper SWCC 0.85 are 1.0 kPa and 5.0 kPa,
respectively, as
relationship. summarized
The in Table
total hysteresis 3. which
size, In addition,
is theJ30-50
sum of sandtheshows the steeper
differences in theSWCC relationship.
volumetric water
The total hysteresis size, which is the sum of the differences in the volumetric
content between the drying curve and the wetting curve, shows similar results to those found in water content between
the dryingstudies
previous curve and
[38].the
Thewetting curve, shows
total hysteresis similar
size is results
in inverse to those found
proportion to theinparticle
previous studies
size as shown[38].
The
in total hysteresis
Figure 12. size is in inverse proportion to the particle size as shown in Figure 12.

0.5 0.5

0.4 0.4
Volumetric water content, v

Volumetric water content, v

0.3 0.3

0.2 0.2

0.1 0.1
J30-50 (1st Cycle) J30-50 (2nd Cycle)
F100 (1st Cycle) F100 (2nd Cycle)
0.0 0.0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Matric suction [kPa] Matric suction [kPa]

(a) (b)
0.5 0.5

0.4 0.4
Volumetric water content, v

Volumetric water content, v

0.3 0.3

0.2 0.2

0.1 0.1
J30-50 (3rd Cycle) J30-50 (5th Cycle)
F100 (3rd Cycle) F100 (5th Cycle)
0.0 0.0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Matric suction [kPa] Matric suction [kPa]

(c) (d)
Figure 12. SWCC
Figure 12. SWCCaccording to the to
according particle size: (a)size:
the particle first cycle; (b)cycle;
(a) first second(b)cycle; (c) third
second cycle;cycle; (d) fifth
(c) third cycle.
cycle;
(d) fifth cycle.
Materials 2016, 9, 1019 13 of 15

5. Summary and Conclusions

For the estimation of multiple-cycles of the soil-water characteristic curve (SWCC), the innovative
volumetric pressure plate extractor (VPPE), which was incorporated with a membrane and time
domain reflectometry (TDR), was introduced. A membrane was used instead of a ceramic disk, and the
TDR system was adopted to automatically estimate the volumetric water content of the soil specimen.
Note that the experimental time for the membrane VPPE was compared with that of the ceramic
disk VPPE, and the volumetric water contents estimated by the TDR system are compared with those
measured by the burette system. By using the innovative VPPE, multiple-cycles of SWCCs are obtained
for the sand specimens with different initial void ratios and different particle sizes. Jumunjin sand
(J30-50) with a mean diameter of 0.46 mm, and fine sand (F100) with a mean diameter of 0.13 mm were
used. For J30-50 sand, three specimens were prepared with different initial void ratios of 0.85, 0.75 and
0.65. For F100 sand, the prepared initial void ratio was 0.85.
The volumetric water contents estimated by the TDR system were almost identical to those
determined by the burette system, meaning that the volumetric water content could be directly
evaluated by the automatic system with the TDR. The use of a membrane instead of a ceramic
disk significantly reduced the SWCC test time because of the higher hydraulic conductivity and
thin thickness of the membrane. Therefore, multiple-cycles of the SWCC tests can be conducted
to characterize the cyclic effects in the SWCC within a relatively short period of experimental time.
The multiple-cycles of the SWCC test results showed that the largest hysteresis in the SWCC was
observed in the first cycle. The shape and size of SWCC during multiple-cycles after 1.5 cycles
(first drying–first wetting–second drying) were almost identical. Thus, at least 1.5 cycles of the
SWCC are required for the complete estimation of the soil-water characteristic curve in unsaturated
sands. This study demonstrated that the innovative VPPE incorporated with the membrane and TDR
system may be an effective method for the complete characterization of multiple-cycles of SWCC in
unsaturated geo-materials.

Acknowledgments: This research was supported by a grant (13SCIPS04) from Smart Civil Infrastructure Research
Program funded by Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport (MOLIT) of Korea government and Korea
Agency for Infrastructure Technology Advancement (KAIA).
Author Contributions: Young-Seok Jung and Jong-Sub Lee conceived and designed the experiments; Young-Seok Jung
and Seonghun Kang performed the experiments; Won-Taek Hong, Young-Seok Jung, and Jong-Sub Lee analyzed
the data; Jong-Sub Lee contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools; Won-Taek Hong, Young-Seok Jung, and
Jong-Sub Lee wrote the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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