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CHAPTER-5
INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
CURRENT AND VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS

CURRENT TRANSFORMER
Instrument transformers (CTS & PTS ) are commonly used items in power system and hence an
elementary knowledge concerning their characteristics, performance, limitations by those constantly
dealing with them is essential. Current and Voltage transformers insulate the secondary (relay,
instruments & meters) circuits from the primary (Power) circuit and provide quantities in the
secondary which are proportional to those in the primary.
The role of current transformer in a protective relaying is different from metering and
instrumentation. The essential role of a measuring transformer is to deliver from the secondary
winding a quantity accurately representative of that which is applied to the primary side and a
protective transformer varies its role according to the type of protection it serves.

There is no great difference between a protective voltage transformer and a measuring voltage
transformer the difference being only in the nature of the voltage transformed. Normally the same
transformer can serve both purposes provided the protective voltage transformer transforms
reasonably accurately its duty . This is not true for a current transformer, as the requirements for a
protective current transformers are often radically different from those of metering. The primary
difference is that the measuring current transformer is required to retain a specified accuracy over the
normal range of load currents, whereas the protective current transformer must be capable of
providing an adequate output over a wide range of fault conditions from a fraction of full load to
many times full load.

A current transformer consists of an iron core with two windings. One winding is connected in the
circuit whose current is to be measured and called the primary and the other winding is connected to
the burden and called the secondary. The flow of current in the primary winding produces an
alternating flux in the core and this flux induces an e.m.f in the secondary winding which results in
the flow of secondary current when this winding is connected to an external closed circuit. The
magnetic effect of the secondary current, in accordance with the fundamental principles , is in
opposition to that of the primary and value of secondary current automatically adjusts itself to such a
value, that the resultant magnetic effect of the primary and secondary currents, produces a flux
required to induce the e.m.f necessary to drive the secondary current through the impedance of the
secondary. In an ideal transformer, the primary ampere-turns are always exactly equal to the
secondary ampere-turns and the secondary current is, therefore always proportional to the primary
current. In an actual current transformer however this is never the case. All core materials, so far
discovered require a certain number of ampere-turns to induce the magnetic flux required to induce
the necessary voltage.

This can be illustrated as shown in the diagram. Ep and Es are the voltages in the primary and
secondary windings, respectively which must be anti phase or 180 apart. In order to supply the iron

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loss( made up of hysteresis and eddy currents) and maintain the flux, the primary must supply a
current, Ic in phase with the voltage, also a current Im at right angles to the voltage and in phase with
the flux, to magnetise the core. These two currents combine to form the exciting current Ie. If a
burden is connected to the secondary and draws a current Is lagging behind the voltage by an angle 
a corresponding current Is’ must flow in the primary. The total primary current Ip is, therefore, the
sum of Ie and Is’.

If the primary current reduces, the secondary current will also automatically reduce, and since the
secondary impedance is fixed, the secondary voltage and flux in the core will be reduced in the same
proportion. However , due to the non linearity of the magnetisation curve of the core iron, the
exciting current Ie decreases in a different ratio. This results in the current error and phase error not
being directly proportional to the current levels. That is, with a given impedance in the secondary
circuit, the exciting ampere-turns form a larger proportion of the total at small primary currents than
at large, and it is the exciting current required to magnetise the core which causes the errors.

The most accurate current transformers is one in which the exciting ampere-turns are least in
proportion to the secondary ampere-turns. Exciting ampere-turns can be reduced in three ways.
1, By improving the quality of the magnetic material.
Cold rolled grain oriented silicon steel(CROSS) has a magnetisation characteristics with a knee
point at1.6 tesla.

Nickel steel( Proprietary name Mumetal) has a knee point of 0.7 tesla.

2, By decreasing the mean magnetic path of the core.

3, By reducing the flux density in the core.

Current Transformer Basic Formulae

Protective relays are designed to operate from secondary quantities supplied from current transformer
and from voltage(or potential) transformers. The secondary output of these devices is the information
used by the relays to determine the conditions existing in the plant being protected. It is necessary,
therefore, that the secondary output, of current and voltage present a true picture to the relays of the
conditions in the primary circuit during faults as well as normal loads. Or alternatively, that their
performance be known under extreme conditions so that any error in reproduction in the secondary
circuit can be partially or completely compensated for in the setting and characteristic of the relay.
Current Transformer magnetisation curve
The primary current contains two components. These are respectively the secondary current which is
transformed in the inverse ratio of the turns ratio of and an exciting current, which supplies the eddy
current hysteresis losses and magnetises the core. This latter current flows in the primary winding
only and therefore, is the cause of the transformer errors. It is therefore not sufficient to assume a
value of secondary current and to work backwards to determine the value of primary current by
invoking the constant ampere-turns rule, since this approach does not take into account the exciting

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current. From this observation it may be concluded that certain values of secondary current could
never be produced whatever the value of primary current and this is of course, the case when the core
saturates and a disproportionate amount of primary current is required to magnetise the core.
The amount of exciting current drawn by a current transformer depends upon the core material and
the amount flux which must be developed in the core to satisfy the burden requirements of the current
transformer. The appropriate current may be obtained directly from the exciting characteristics of the
transformer since the secondary e.m.f. and therefore the flux developed is proportional to the product
of secondary current and burden impedance.

The general shape of the exciting characteristic for a typical grade of CROSS (cold rolled grain
oriented silicon steel) is shown. The characteristic is divided into three regions, defined by the ankle
point and knee point. The working range of a protective current transformer extends over the full
range between the ankle point and knee point and beyond., while a measuring current transformer
usually operates only in the region of the ankle point. The difference in working ranges between
metering and protective current transformers stems from the radical difference in their functions.
Metering current transformers work over the range 10% to 120% full load and it is even an advantage
if the current transformer saturates for currents above this range in order to provide thermal
protection for the instruments. protection current transformers on the other hand are required to
operate correctly at many times rated current.
Knee Point
The knee-point of the excitation characteristics is defined as the point at which a 10% increase in
secondary voltage produces a 50% increase in exciting current. It may, therefore, be considered as a
practical limit beyond which a specified current ratio may not be maintained. Beyond the knee-point
the current transformer is said to enter saturation.
Open circuited secondary winding
The secondary circuit of a current transformer should never be left open circuited whilst primary
current continues to flow. In these circumstances only the primary winding is effective and thus the
current transformer behaves as a highly saturated choke(Inductor) to the flow of primary winding
current. Thus a peaky and relatively high voltage appears at the secondary output terminals,
endangering life, and causing breakdown of secondary circuit insulation.
Where a current transformer is not in use but where its primary winding is still energised it is
important to ensure that the secondary winding is left “SHORT CIRCUITED”

Current Transformer errors

The errors associated with current transformers are the magnitude error and phase angle error. The
error for protection and metering are quite different. The metering CTs should have high accuracy
under normal working range but saturate quickly above load current. This is achieved by employing
high permeability core material with a low saturation level. The core material most suitable for
measuring applications are nickel iron alloys as these have by far the lowest exciting ampere turns
per unit length of core and the knee point occurs at a relatively low flux density. Protection CTs have
to work under fault condition and hence should have a high saturation level. This is achieved by
using Grain oriented silicon steel having higher knee-point flux density.

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VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS

The voltage transformer (VT) is a device which will provide isolation from the high voltages on the
system and can transform reasonably accurately , the HV system voltage to which it is connected, to a
value which is more convenient to handle. Typically 110/63.5V
The accuracy requirement for measuring VTs is, far more demanding than that necessary for
protection.
Voltage transformers are of two types—Electromagnetic and Capacitor type.

Electromagnetic V.Ts
The equivalent circuit of this type of transformer is shown in fig.1&2
The secondary output voltage Vs is required to be an accurate replica of the input primary voltage Vp
in both magnitude and phase over a specified range of output. The winding impedances are kept
small and the magnetising current is kept low over the required range of operating voltages and
burdens, by ensuring that the normal operating flux density in the core is well below the saturation
level.
Voltage Transformer Error Specification
Ratio (or voltage) errors defined as:-
(Kn.Vs-Vp)X 100%
Vp Where Kn =nominal Vp/Vs ratio

The turns ratio will not necessarily be equal to Kn due to the use of compensating turns to spread the
errors over the range of burdens(ie. –ve errors at low burdens and +ve errors at high burdens)
The phase error is the angle  between the primary and secondary voltages. It is positive when the
secondary voltage leads the primary voltage . Fig. Shows a negative error.

Capacitor Voltage Transformer(CVT)

The Electromagnetic VT is a highly efficient and reliable equipment. However, the cost rises
steeply as the system voltage increases. A more economical means of obtaining an accurate voltage
reference is the CVT, which is in fairly common use on system of132kv and above.

A typical circuit diagram illustrates the main components. A suitable number of capacitors are
coupled in series between line and earth. These are normally of the porcelain clad OIP and
aluminium foil construction. They are tapped at a convenient voltage known as the intermediate
voltage, and supply a transformer circuit the inductive reactance of which balances the capacitive

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reactance of the coupler at rated frequency, thus constituting a resonating circuit at the system
frequency.

The intermediate transformer is required in order that a worthwhile output can be obtained from
economical capacitors. The intermediate voltage is normally in the order of 12KV, being stepped
down to the of 63.5Volts. The unit follows the conventional oil filled construction. Outputs and
accuracies of 200VA class 1.0 or 75VA class 0.5 are obtainable economically, but being a resonating
circuit this can be held at rated frequency_+ ½ cycle

PTs. secondary windings should not normally be paralleled, due to the reason that the voltage
difference of the PTs will cause a circulating current on the secondary side. If the voltage difference
is large, the magnitude of the circulating current will be considerable and it can cause burning of PT
secondary winding. If the buses are at the same potential, then the difference in the secondary voltage
will be small and in our voltage selection scheme for distance protection momentary paralleling of
PTs is allowed to avoid possible mal-operation of distance protection due to loss of PT supply.
Except for distance protection for all other functions like metering ,Directional O/C protection etc.
PT paralleling should be avoided.

Voltage transformers should always be protected by secondary fuses, or by a miniature circuit

breaker which should be located as near to the transformer as possible. A short circuit on the
secondary wiring will produce a current of many times the rated output, this is a natural consequence
of the low regulation necessary to maintain the ratio accuracy over the range of rated burden.
Although a V .T. will usually carry without overheating, a current considerably in excess of its
rating , the short circuit current would certainly cause excessive heating.

POLARITY
Polarity is the instantaneous current direction in the secondary side with respect to primary. Assume
that the current is flowing from P1 to P2 terminal in the primary circuit. Then in the secondary
current flow will be from S2 to S1 inside the CT and from S1 to S2 in the external circuit.

Flick Test
Connect a battery(6V) +ve to P1 and AVO +ve lead to S1. On application of voltage there will be a
forward kick of the AVO and a reverse kick on removal of the test lead from P1.

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P1

S1 +
VVv
V V
S2 _

P2

STEADY STATE BEHAVIOUR

OF CURRENT TRANSFORMERS

1, Current Transformer Theory.

2, Basic Formulae.
3, Magnetisation Curve.
4, Equivalent Circuit.
5, Accuracy Requirement.
6,Choice of C.T.

CURRENT TRANSFORMER FUNCTION

Two Basic Groups of C.T.

1, Measurement C.Ts – Limits well defined.

2, Protection C.Ts -- Operation over wide range of currents.

NOTE:- They have DIFFERENT characteristics.

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CURRENT TRANSFORMER CONTRUCTION

BAR PRIMARY.

WOUND PRIMARY

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BASIC THEORY Is

1Primary Turn Ip
T Secondary Turns.

For an ideal transformer:- R

PRIMARY AMPERE TURNS= SECONDARY
AMPERE TURNS

1x Ip= T x I

BASIC THEORY

For Is to flow through R there must be some potential

Es =the E.M.F. Is

Ip

Es=Is x R
Es R
Es is produced by an alternating flux in the core.

Es Proportional to – d/dt

PHASOR DIAGRAM


Ip

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Ie
Ie
Is” Im
Ep Es

Ic

Is
Ep= Primary Voltage
Es = Secondary Voltage
 = Flux.
Ic =Iron losses(Hysteresis & eddy currents)
Im= Magnetising current.
Ie=Excitation current.
Ip=Primary current &
Is=Secondary current.

CURRENT TRANSFORMER ERROR

Transformer Error VS Primary Current

Error

Current Error--
Phase Error --

Primary current. Rated Current.

Errors can be reduced by :--

1, Using better quality magnetic material.
2, Shortening the mean magnetic path.
3, Reducing the flux density in the core.

BASIC FORMULAE

Maximum Secondary Winding Voltage:

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Ek =4.44 x B A f N Volts. –1

Where:--

Ek = Secondary Induced Volts (Knee - Point Voltage.)

B = Flux Density (Tesla)

A = Core Cross-sectional Area (Square Metres)
f = System Frequency( Hertz)
N = Number of Turns.

Circuit Voltage Required:

Es =Is(Zb+Zs+Zl) Volts. –2

Where:-

Is = Secondary Current of C.T.( Amperes)

Zb = Connected External burden.(Ohms)
Zs = C.T. Winding Impedance ( Ohms)
Zl = Lead Loop resistance (Ohms)

Require Ek > Es

MAGNETISATION CHARACTERISTIC

Typical Magnetisation Characteristic

Knee Point.

Flux Density-
(Tesla)

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MMF- ampere-turns per metre.

C.T. EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT Is Zs

Ip Ip/N

Ie
Es
N
Ze Vt Zb

Ip = Primary rating of C.T.

N = C.T. ratio
Zb = Burden of relays in ohms (r+jx)
Zs = C.T. secondary winding impedance in ohms (r+jx)
Ze = Secondary excitation impedance in ohms (r+jx)
Ie = Secondary excitation current.
Is = Secondary Current
Es = Secondary excitation voltage.
Vt = Secondary terminal voltage across the C.T. terminals.

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CURRENT TRANSFORMER RATINGS

Rated Dynamic Current.

Ratio of : IPeak : IRated

(IPeak =maximum current C.T. can withstand without suffering any damage.)

ACCURACY LIMIT FACTOR.—A.L.F.

(Or saturation factor)

Ratio of:- I Primary : I Rated

Up to which the C.T. rated accuracy is maintained.

e.g. 200/1A C.T. with an A.L.F. = 5 , will maintain its accuracy for

I primary < 5 x 200 = 1000Amps.

CURRENT TRANSFORMER DESIGNATION

Class “P”
Specified in terms of :--
i, RATED BURDEN
ii,CLASS (5P OR 10P )
iii, ACCURACY LIMIT FACTOR (A.L.F. )
Example:--
15VA 10P 20
To convert VA and A.L.F. into useful volts
Vk =VA/In x ALF

Choice of Current Transformer Primary Rating.

C.T. PRIMARY RATING > FULL LOAD CURRENT.

--Practical Max. ratio 3000/1A

For greater ratios interposing C.T.

Issue-B
11-07-2000
BEP-7

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