1 04.10.

2021 --- General Intro

11.10.2021 --- Atomic Structure, Interatomic Bonding and

2
Structure of Crystalline Solids, Imperfections in Solids

3 18.10.2021 --- Mechanical,Thermal &Physical Properties of Materials

4 25.10.2021 --- Mechanical, Thermal &Physical Properties of Materials (cont’d) – Q1

CONTENTS

5 01.11.2021 --- Dislocations, Strengthening Mechanisms and Failure

08.11.2021 ---Metal Alloys: Microstructure Engineering, Phase Diagrams and
6
Transformations, Introduction to Ceramics

7 15.11.2021 --- Recitaiton Class & MIDTERM-1

8 22.11.2021 --- BREAK

9 29.11.2021 --- Polymers for Aerospace Applications

10 06.12.2021 --- Polymeric Composites for Aerospace Materials - Q2

11 13.12.2021 --- Mechanics of Polymer Composites

12 20.12.2021 --- Testing and Characterization of Materials

13 27.12.2021--- Materials Selection & Design – Q3

14 03.01.2022 --- Materials Selection & Design (cont’d)

Chapter 6 - 1
15 10.01.2022 --- Recitation Class &MIDTERM-2
 Chapter 6:
Mechanical Properties
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...

• Stress and strain

• Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
• Plastic behavior: At what point does permanent
deformation occur? What materials are most
resistant to permanent deformation?
• Toughness and ductility: What are they and how
do we measure them?

2
 Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial
d
F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic
d
3
 Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared

delastic + plastic dplastic

F
F
Plastic means permanent! linear linear
elastic elastic
d
dplastic
4
Slip Motion in Single- and Poly-crystals
s

300 µm

Chapter 6 -
 Engineering Stress
• Tensile stress, s: • Shear stress, t:
Ft Ft F

Area, Ao Fs
Area, Ao

Fs
Ft
F Ft
Ft lb f N t= s F
s= = 2 or 2
Ao
Ao in m
original area
before loading
\ Stress has units:
N/m2 or lbf /in2
6
 Common States of Stress
• Simple tension: cable
F F
A o = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)
F
s= s s
Ao
• Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft
M Fs Ao
Ac
Fs
t =
Ao
M
2R Note: t = M/AcR here.
7
 Common States of Stress
• Simple tension: cable
F F
A o = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)

s
F
s=
Ao

8
 OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (i)
• Simple compression:

F
Ao

F Note: compressive
s= structure member
Ao (s < 0 here).

9
OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (ii)
• Bi-axial tension: • Hydrostatic compression:

Pressurized tank Fish under water

sq > 0

sz > 0 sh< 0 s ta tic

a s iso
lle d
o ca
A l s 10
 Engineering Strain
• Tensile strain: • Lateral strain:
d/2
-d
e = d eL = L
Lo Lo wo
wo

dL /2
• Shear strain:
q
Dx g = Dx/y = tan q

y 90º - q
Strain is always
90º dimensionless.
11
 Stress-Strain Testing
• Typical tensile test • Typical tensile
machine specimen

extensometer specimen

gauge
length

Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials,
Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1965.)
12
 Common Mechanical Tests
• Samples tested called as “specimen”
• Common mechanical tests applied to metals,
ceramics, polymers, composites…etc.
– Tension tests
– Compression tests
– Indentation hardness
– Cantilever bending
– 3 point bending
– 4 point bending
– Torsion
Chapter 6 - 13
 Geometry and Loading Conditions

Indentation
Hardness Testing Cantilever
Tensile Compression bending
Testing Testing

four-point torsion
three-point testing
bending Chapter 6 - 14
bending
 Three Classes of Specimens

• (a) smooth or unnotched

• (b) notched
• (c) precracked WHY DIFFERENT GEOMETRIES?

Chapter 6 - 15
Standardization- ASTM (American
Soceity for Testing Materials
• Mechanical Tests were performed for
– Obtaining values of material properties
– Understanding suitableness for engineering uses
– Exploring quality of specimens
• ASTM standards is the way to standardize these
tests
• Other standardization organizations: BSI, ISO…etc.
• Every year ASTM publishes an Annual Book
consisting of more than 70 volumes
• Every volume of this book consists of different
classes of materials

Chapter 6 - 16
 Tension Tests
• Test Methodology
• Either circular or rectangular
cross section
• Applied by slowly pulling a Test Specimens
specimen with an axial force
• Ends of specimen is enlarged
to provide area for gripping
• Gripping the specimen varies
with the sample geometry
• Constant speed

Chapter 6 - 17
 Linear Elastic Properties
• Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)

• Hooke's Law:
s=Ee s
F
E

e
Linear-
elastic F
simple
tension
test

18
 Mechanical Properties
• Slope of stress strain plot (which is
proportional to the elastic modulus) depends
on bond strength of metal

19
 Other Elastic Properties
t M
• Elastic Shear
modulus, G:
G simple
g torsion
t=Gg test

M
• Elastic Bulk P P
modulus, K:
DV DV P P
P = -K Vo
Vo K pressure
test: Init.
vol =Vo.
Vol chg.
= DV

20
 Young’s Moduli: Comparison
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
Semicond
1200
1000 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
CFRE(|| fibers)*
Platinum
Cu alloys
Si crystal
<100> Aramid fibers only Structural steels
100 Zinc, Ti
80
60
Silver, Gold
Aluminum
Magnesium,
Glass -soda AFRE(|| fibers)*
Glass fibers only ~210 GPa
Tin GFRE(|| fibers)*
40
Concrete

109 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE*
Graphite GFRE( fibers)*
10
8 CFRE( fibers) *
6 AFRE( fibers) *
Polyester
4 PET
PS Composite data based on
!

PC Epoxy only reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%

al e

2
PP of aligned
sc

1 HDPE
carbon (CFRE),
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain) aramid (AFRE), or
l og

PTFE
0.4 glass (GFRE)
fibers.
0.2 LDPE 21
 Plastic (Permanent) Deformation
(at lower temperatures, i.e. T < Tmelt/3)

• Simple tension test:

Elastic+Plastic
engineering stress, s at larger stress

Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

ep engineering strain, e

plastic strain

22
 Yield Strength, sy
• Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when ep = 0.002 .2 %
0
tensile stress, s
sy = yield strength
sy

Note: for 2 inch sample

e = 0.002 = Dz/z
\ Dz = 0.004 in

engineering strain, e
ep = 0.002
23
 Yield Strength : Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
2000
Steel (4140) qt

1000
Yield strength, sy (MPa)

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since

700 W (pure)

since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

600

in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

Cu (71500) cw
500 Mo (pure)
Steel (4140) a
400
Steel (1020) cd Room temperature
300
values
Hard to measure ,

Al (6061) ag

Hard to measure,
200 Steel (1020) hr ¨
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
100
ag = aged
dry
70 PC
cd = cold drawn
60 Nylon 6,6 cw = cold worked
50 Al (6061) a PET
qt = quenched & tempered
40 PVC humid
PP
30 HDPE
20

LDPE
Tin (pure) 24
10
 Akma mukavemeti
Tensile Strength, TS
• Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.

TS
F = fracture or
ss
yy
ultimate
engineering

strength
stress

Typical response of a metal Neck – acts

as stress
concentrator
strain
engineering strain
• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are
aligned and about to break.
25
VMSE: Virtual Tensile Testing

26
 Tensile Strength: Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
5000 C fibers
Aramid fib
3000 E-glass fib
Tensile strength, TS (MPa)

2000 Steel (4140) qt

AFRE(|| fiber)
1000 W (pure) Diamond GFRE(|| fiber)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)aa CFRE(|| fiber)
Steel (4140)cw Si nitride
Cu (71500)
Cu (71500) hr Al oxide
300
Steel (1020)
Al (6061) ag
Ti (pure) a
Room temperature
200 Ta (pure)
values
Al (6061) a
100 Si crystal wood(|| fiber) a = annealed
<100> Nylon 6,6
Glass-soda PC PET
hr = hot rolled
40 Concrete PVC GFRE( fiber) ag = aged
PP CFRE( fiber)
30 cd = cold drawn
AFRE( fiber)
HDPE cw = cold worked
20 Graphite
LDPE qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
10 aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
wood ( fiber)

1 27
 Süneklik
Ductility Kopma uzaması
Lf - Lo
• Plastic tensile strain at failure: %EL = x 100
Lo
smaller %EL
Engineering
tensile
stress, s larger %EL Ao
Lo Af Lf

Engineering tensile strain, e

• Another ductility measure: Ao - Af

%RA = x 100
Ao

28
 Tokluk
Toughness
• Energy to break a unit volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.

Engineering small toughness (ceramics)

tensile large toughness (metals)
stress, s
very small toughness
(unreinforced polymers)

Engineering tensile strain, e

Brittle fracture: elastic energy

Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy
29
 Resilience, Ur
• Ability of a material to store energy
– Energy stored best in elastic region

ey
Ur = ò sde
0
If we assume a linear
stress-strain curve this
simplifies to

1
Ur @ sy e y
2
30
 Elastic Strain Recovery

s yi D

s yo
2. Unload
Stress

1. Load 3. Reapply
load
Strain
Elastic strain
recovery
31
 Hardness
• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
• Large hardness means:
-- resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
-- better wear properties.
apply known force measure size
e.g., of indent after
10 mm sphere removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness
32
 Hardness: Measurement
• Rockwell
– No major sample damage
– Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range
20-100.
– Minor load 10 kg
– Major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
• A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond

• HB = Brinell Hardness
– TS (psia) = 500 x HB
– TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB

33
 Hardness: Measurement
Table 6.5

34
 True Stress & Strain
Note: S.A. changes when sample stretched

• True stress sT = F Ai sT = s(1 + e )

• True strain eT = ln(! i ! o ) eT = ln(1 + e )

35
 Hardening
• An increase in sy due to plastic deformation.
s
large hardening
sy
1
sy small hardening
0

e
• Curve fit to the stress-strain response:
hardening exponent:
sT = K eT ( )n n = 0.15 (some steels)
to n = 0.5 (some coppers)
“true” stress (F/A) “true” strain: ln(L/Lo)
36
 Design or Safety Factors
• Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.
• Factor of safety, N Often N is
sy between
sworking = 1.2 and 4
N
• Example: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does
not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a
factor of safety of 5.
d
sy
sworking = 1045 plain
carbon steel:
N sy = 310 MPa Lo
220,000N TS = 565 MPa
5
(
p d /42
) F = 220,000N
d = 0.067 m = 6.7 cm
37
 Question
• Why we express the tension test results in
stress-strain rather than force-
displacement?
• How can you obtain poisson`s ratio from
tension test?

Chapter 6 -
 Summary
• Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
• Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
• Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches sy.
• Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
• Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.

39
 Chapter 7:
Deformation & Strengthening
Mechanisms

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• Why are the number of dislocations present
greatest in metals?

• How are strength and dislocation motion related?

• Why does heating alter strength and other properties?

40
 Dislocations & Materials Classes
• Metals (Cu, Al):
+ + + + + + + +
Dislocation motion easiest + + + + + + + +
- non-directional bonding + + + + + + + +
- close-packed directions ion cores
electron cloud
for slip
• Covalent Ceramics
(Si, diamond): Motion difficult
- directional (angular) bonding

• Ionic Ceramics (NaCl):

+ - + - + - +
Motion difficult
- + - + - + -
- need to avoid nearest
neighbors of like sign (- and +) + - + - + - +

41
Chapter 7 - 42
 Dislocation Motion
Dislocation motion & plastic deformation
• Metals - plastic deformation occurs by slip – an edge
dislocation (extra half-plane of atoms) slides over
adjacent plane half-planes of atoms.

• If dislocations can't move,

plastic deformation doesn't occur! 43
 Dislocation Motion
• A dislocation moves along a slip plane in a slip direction
perpendicular to the dislocation line
• The slip direction is the same as the Burgers vector direction

Edge dislocation

Screw dislocation

44
 Deformation Mechanisms
Slip System
– Slip plane - plane on which easiest slippage occurs
• Highest planar densities (and large interplanar spacings)
– Slip directions - directions of movement
• Highest linear densities

– FCC Slip occurs on {111} planes (close-packed) in <110>

directions (close-packed)
=> total of 12 slip systems in FCC
– For BCC & HCP there are other slip systems.
45
 Stress and Dislocation Motion
• Resolved shear stress, tR
– results from applied tensile stresses
Applied tensile Resolved shear Relation between
stress: s = F/A stress: tR =Fs /A s s and tR
F slip plane tR = FS /AS
A tR
normal, ns
AS Fcos l A/cos f
FS
F nS f
i p
sl rec ti on
p ctio
n l A
l i
di s re t FS AS
F di R n
p
sli rectio
di

tR = s cos l cos f
46
 Critical Resolved Shear Stress
• Condition for dislocation motion: tR > tCRSS
• Ease of dislocation motion depends typically
on crystallographic orientation
10-4 GPa to 10-2 GPa
tR = s cos l cos f
s s s

tR = 0 tR = s/2 tR = 0
l = 90° l = 45° f = 90°
f = 45°

t maximum at l = f = 45º 47
Single Crystal Slip

48
Sliding of one plane of atoms past an adjacent one. This high-stress process is necessary to plastically
(permanently) deform a perfect crystal.
Chapter 7 -
A low-stress alternative for plastically deforming a crystal involves the motion of a dislocation along a slip
plane.
Chapter 7 -
Dislocation slip is more difficult along (a) a low-atomicdensity plane than along (b) a high-atomic-density
plane.
Chapter 7 - 51
Chapter 7 -
• Strength of metals may be increased by:
-- decreasing grain size
-- solid solution strengthening
-- precipitate hardening
-- cold working

Chapter 7 - 53
 Four Strategies for Strengthening:
1: Reduce Grain Size

• Grain boundaries are

barriers to slip.
• Barrier "strength"
increases with
Increasing angle of
misorientation.
• Smaller grain size:
more barriers to slip.

• Hall-Petch Equation: s yield = s o + k y d -1 / 2

54
 Four Strategies for Strengthening:
2: Form Solid Solutions

• Impurity atoms distort the lattice & generate lattice strains.

• These strains can act as barriers to dislocation motion.
• Smaller substitutional • Larger substitutional
impurity impurity

A C

B D

Impurity generates local stress at A Impurity generates local stress at C

and B that opposes dislocation and D that opposes dislocation
motion to the right. motion to the right.

55
Lattice Strains Around Dislocations

56
 Strengthening by Solid
Solution Alloying
• Small impurities tend to concentrate at dislocations
(regions of compressive strains) - partial cancellation of
dislocation compressive strains and impurity atom tensile strains
• Reduce mobility of dislocations and increase strength

57
 Strengthening by Solid
Solution Alloying
• Large impurities tend to concentrate at
dislocations (regions of tensile strains)

58
 Ex: Solid Solution
Strengthening in Copper
• Tensile strength & yield strength increase with wt% Ni.
180
Tensile strength (MPa)

Yield strength (MPa)

400
120
300

200 60
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
wt.% Ni, (Concentration C) wt.%Ni, (Concentration C)

• Empirical relation: s y ~ C 1/ 2
• Alloying increases sy and TS.

59
 Four Strategies for Strengthening:
3: Precipitation Strengthening
• Hard precipitates are difficult to shear.
Ex: Ceramics in metals (SiC in Iron or Aluminum).
precipitate
Large shear stress needed
Side View to move dislocation toward
precipitate and shear it.

Unslipped part of slip plane Dislocation

Top View
“advances” but
precipitates act as
S “pinning” sites with
spacing S.
Slipped part of slip plane

1
• Result: sy ~
S
60
 Application:
Precipitation Strengthening
• Internal wing structure on Boeing 767

• Aluminum is strengthened with precipitates formed

by alloying.

1.5µm 61
 Four Strategies for Strengthening:
4: Cold Work (Strain Hardening)
• Deformation at room temperature (for most metals).
• Common forming operations reduce the cross-sectional
area:
-Forging force -Rolling
roll
die Ad
A o blank Ad Ao
roll

-Drawing force -Extrusion

Ao
die Ad container die holder
Ao tensile force
force ram billet extrusion Ad
die container die
Ao - Ad
%CW = x 100
Ao 62
 Dislocation Structures Change
During Cold Working
• Dislocation structure in Ti after cold working.
• Dislocations entangle
with one another
during cold work.
• Dislocation motion
becomes more difficult.

63
 Dislocation Density Increases
During Cold Working
total dislocation length
Dislocation density =
unit volume
– Carefully grown single crystals
à ca. 103 mm-2
– Deforming sample increases density
à 109-1010 mm-2
– Heat treatment reduces density
à 105-106 mm-2

• Yield stress increases as rd increases:

64
 Impact of Cold Work
As cold work is increased
• Yield strength (sy) increases.
• Tensile strength (TS) increases.
• Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.

low carbon steel

65
 Mechanical Property Alterations
Due to Cold Working
• What are the values of yield strength, tensile strength &
ductility after cold working Cu? 2 2
pDo pDd
-
Copper %CW = 4 4 x 100
Cold pDo2
Work
4
Do2 - Dd2
= x 100
Do = 15.2 mm Dd = 12.2 mm Do2

(15.2 mm) 2 - (12.2 mm) 2

%CW = x 100 = 35.6%
(15.2 mm) 2
66
 Mechanical Property Alterations
Due to Cold Working
• What are the values of yield strength, tensile strength &
ductility for Cu for %CW = 35.6%?

60

tensile strength (MPa)

yield strength (MPa)

700 800

ductility (%EL)
40
500 600
300 MPa Cu
300 Cu 400 340 MPa 20
Cu 7%
100 200 00
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 20 40 60
% Cold Work % Cold Work % Cold Work

sy = 300 MPa TS = 340 MPa %EL = 7%

67
 Effect of Heat Treating After Cold Working
• 1 hour treatment at Tanneal...
decreases TS and increases %EL.
• Effects of cold work are nullified!
annealing temperature (ºC)
100 200
600
300 400 500 600 700
60
• Three Annealing stages:
tensile strength (MPa)

tensile strength 1. Recovery

ductility (%EL)
50 2. Recrystallization
500
40 3. Grain Growth
400 30

ductility 20
300
Re Re Gr
co cry ain
ve sta Gr
ry lliz ow
ati th
on
68
 Three Stages During Heat Treatment:
1. Recovery
Reduction of dislocation density by annihilation.
• Scenario 1 extra half-plane
of atoms Dislocations
Results from annihilate
diffusion atoms
diffuse and form
a perfect
to regions
of tension atomic
plane.
extra half-plane
of atoms
• Scenario 2
3. “Climbed” disl. can now tR
move on new slip plane
2. grey atoms leave by
4. opposite dislocations
vacancy diffusion
meet and annihilate
allowing disl. to “climb”
1. dislocation blocked; Obstacle dislocation
can’t move to the right

69
 Three Stages During Heat Treatment:
2. Recrystallization
• New grains are formed that:
-- have low dislocation densities
-- are small in size
-- consume and replace parent cold-worked grains.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm

33% cold New crystals

worked nucleate after
brass 3 sec. at 580°C.
70
 As Recrystallization Continues…
• All cold-worked grains are eventually consumed/replaced.

0.6 mm 0.6 mm

After 4 After 8
seconds seconds

71
 Three Stages During Heat Treatment:
3. Grain Growth
• At longer times, average grain size increases.
-- Small grains shrink (and ultimately disappear)
-- Large grains continue to grow
0.6 mm 0.6 mm

After 8 s, After 15 min,

580ºC 580ºC

72
 TR = recrystallization
temperature

TR

º
73
 Anisotropy in sy
• Can be induced by rolling a polycrystalline metal
- before rolling - after rolling

rolling direction
235 µm
- isotropic - anisotropic
since grains are since rolling affects grain
equiaxed & orientation and shape.
randomly oriented.

Chapter 7 - 74
 Recrystallization Temperature
TR = recrystallization temperature = temperature
at which recrystallization just reaches
completion in 1 h.
0.3Tm < TR < 0.6Tm

For a specific metal/alloy, TR depends on:

• %CW -- TR decreases with increasing %CW
• Purity of metal -- TR decreases with
increasing purity

75
 Grain Size Influences Properties

• Metals having small grains – relatively strong

and tough at low temperatures

• Metals having large grains – good creep

resistance at relatively high temperatures
 Summary

• Dislocations are observed primarily in metals

and alloys.
• Strength is increased by making dislocation
motion difficult.
• Strength of metals may be increased by:
-- decreasing grain size
-- solid solution strengthening
-- precipitate hardening
-- cold working
• A cold-worked metal that is heat treated may experience
recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth – its properties
will be altered.

77
 Useful Linear Elastic Relationships
• Simple tension: • Simple torsion:
2ML o
d = FL o a= 4
EA o pr o G
F M = moment
d/2 a = angle of twist
Ao
Lo Lo
wo

2ro
dL /2
• Material, geometric, and loading parameters all
contribute to deflection.
• Larger elastic moduli minimize elastic deflection.
Chapter 7 - 78
 Slip Motion in Polycrystals
• Polycrystals stronger than s
single crystals – grain
boundaries are barriers
to dislocation motion.

• Slip planes & directions

(l, f) change from one
grain to another.

• tR will vary from one

grain to another.

• The grain with the

largest tR yields first.

• Other (less favorably

oriented) grains 300 µm
yield later.
Chapter 7 - 79