Thesis on

EFFICIENT SOLAR POWER TRANSMISSION

(DUAL AXIS SOLAR TRACKER)

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree of

Master of Technology in
Electronics and Communication Engineering

Submitted by
Roshan Kumar Thakur

Roll No. 66180404

Under the Supervision of Mrs. Vijeta

R.N. College of Engineering, Madlauda, Panipat

Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

R.N College of Engineering, Madlauda, Panipat

(Affiliated from)

Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, Haryana, INDIA

(Session 2018-20)
 DECLARATION

I hereby certify that the work which is being presented in this thesis entitled “Efficient
Solar Power Transmission (Dual Axis Solar Tracker)” in partial fulfillment of the
requirement for the award of the degree of Master of Technology in Electronics and
Communication Engineering and submitted to the Department of Electronics and
Communication Engineering at R.N College of Engineering and Technology, Madlauda,
Panipat affiliated to Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra is an authentic record of my
own work carried out under the supervision of Mrs. Vijeta , H.O.D. Department of
Eelectronics and Communication Engineering, R.N College of Engineering and
Technology, Madlauda, Panipat. The matter presented in this thesis has not been submitted
by me for the award of any other degree of this or any other Institute/University. If there is
any copyright with this thesis then I will be responsible for any legal dispute.

Roshan Kumar Thakur

Roll No: 66180404

This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct and true to the best
of my knowledge and belief.

Mrs. Vijeta
H.O.D.
(Electronics & Communication Engineering Department)

The M.Tech Viva-Voce Examination of Roshan Kumar Thakur (Roll No.-66180404) has
been held on and accepted.

Signature of External Examiner Signature of Supervisor Signature of HOD

1
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled “Efficient Solar Power Transmission (Dual Axis
Solar Tracker)” submitted by Roshan Kumar Thakur, Roll No. 66180404 to the
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering of R.N College of Engineering
and Technology, Madlauda, Panipat, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra for the award of
the Degree of Master of Technology in Electronics & Communication Engineering, is a
bonafide research work carried out by him under our supervision and guidance. His thesis has
reached the standard of fulfilling the requirements of regulations relating to degree.

We wish him success in all his future endeavors.

Mrs. Vijeta
Head of Department
Deptt.of Electronics & Communication Engineering
R.N College of Engineering

This is to certify that Mr. Roshan Kumar Thakur is a bonafide student of Master of
Technology in Electronics & Communication Engineering under class Roll No. 66180404.
The dissertation is, in our opinion worthy for consideration for the award of Master of
Technology in Electronics & Communication Engineering.

Mrs. Vijeta
Head of Department
Deptt.of Electronics & Communication Engineering
R.N College of Engineering

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to place on record my deep sense of gratitude to my supervisor Mrs. Vijeta,
(Head of Department), Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering,
R.N College of Engineering, Madlauda affiliated to Kurukshetra University (Kurukshetra),
Haryana for her stimulating guidance, continuous encouragement and supervision throughout
the course of present work and for giving me the freedom to pursue topics of my own interest
and providing me with exactly the amount of structure needed to ensure my success. You have
not simply taught me how to succeed as a student, but rather how to be an independent
researcher. Thank you so much for all of the academic, professional, and personal advice that
you have given me.

The completion of this dissertation would not have been possible without the boundless
encouragement and support of my family. My parents have spent their lives encouraging my
intellectual and personal growth. From you all, I have learned to take pride in my work and to
enjoy the simple pleasure of a job well done. Thank you for everything that you have given
me.

Roshan Kumar Thakur

Roll No: 66180404

3
 ABSTRACT

Solar energy is rapidly gaining notoriety as an important means of expanding renewable energy
resources. As such, it is vital that those in engineering fields understand the technologies
associated with this area. Our project will include the design and construction of a
microcontroller-based solar panel tracking system. Solar tracking allows more energy to be
produced because the solar array is able to remain aligned to the sun. This system builds upon
topics learned in this course. A working system will ultimately be demonstrated to validate the
design. Problems and possible improvements will also be presented.

4
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

DECLARATION....................................................................................... 1

CERTIFICATE ...................................................................................... . 2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ......................................................................... 3
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................... 4
TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................... 5
ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................... 6

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................ 8

OVERVIEW ...................................................................................................... ............ 8
SOLAR POWER IN INDIA ...............................................................................................9
LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................................................................
11

CHAPTER 2 SOLAR RADIATION & PHOTOVOLTAIC…………….. 13

CONCEPTS ON SOLAR RADIATION……………………………………………..
13
INSOLATION ................................................................................................................ 15
PROJECTION EFFECT ............................................................................................... 16
WORKING OF PHOTOVOLTAICS ......................................................... 16

CHAPTER 3 SOLAR TRACKER…………………………………………..

17

INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................
17
NEED FOR SOLAR TRACKER ...................................................................................
17
TYPES OF SOLAR TRACKERS ................................................................ 18

5
CHAPTER 4 DESIGN OF SOLAR TRACKER ..................................... 21

TRACKER DESIGN ......................................................................... 21

DC MOTOR AND MOTOR DRIVER THEORY ...................................... 22

SYSTEM DESIGN……………………………………………………………….…. 25

SENSORS………………………………………………………………………….… 28

MOTOR DRIVER ………………………………………………………….. 30

COMPONENT USED…………………………………………………………..…. 32

CHAPTER 5 WIRELESS POWER TRANSMISSION.............………….. 33

CODE ........................................................................................... 36

REFERENCES………………………………………..………… .....................… 41
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS

6
 ABBREVIATIONS

PV Photovoltaic

DOF Degrees of Freedom

PV panels Photovoltaic panels

MPPT Maximum Power Point Tracking

SCM Single-chip microcomputer

DC Direct current

HSAT Horizontal single axis trackers

VSAT Vertical single axis trackers

AADAT Azimuth-Altitude dual axis trackers

A Altitude angle torque

B Azimuth angle torque

θz Altitude angle

θA Azimuth angle

MoU Memorandum of understanding

7
CHAPTER- 1

INTRODUCTION

OVERVIEW

The world population is increasing day by day and the demand for energy is
increasing accordingly. Oil and coal as the main source of energy nowadays, is expected
to end up from the world during the recent century which explores a serious problem in
providing the humanity with an affordable and reliable source of energy. The need of the
hour is renewable energy resources with cheap running costs. Solar energy is considered
as one of the main energy resources in warm countries.

Fig. 1.1 Sun path at latitude of 310

In general, India has a relatively long sunny day for more than ten months and
partly cloudy sky for most of the days of the rest two months. This makes our country,
especially the desert sides in the west, which include Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya
Pradesh etc. very rich is solar energy. Many projects have been done on using
photovoltaic cells in collecting solar radiation and converting it into electrical energy but
most of these projects did not take into account the difference of the sun angle of
incidence by installing the panels in a fixed orientation which influences very high.

8
As we know that the angle of inclination ranges between -90o after sun rise and +90o
before sun set passing with 0o at noon. This makes the collected solar radiation to be 0%
at sun rise and sun set and 100% at noon. This variation of solar radiations collection
leads the photovoltaic panel to lose more than 40% of the collected energy. Fig. 1.1
shows the yearly sun path at the latitude of30o. From the figure 1.1, one can estimate the
exact position of sun in every

Fig1. 2 Curve for the relationship between the solar radiation and the solar angle of
incidence.

month and at any time during the day. The position is decided by two angles in spherical
coordinates; the Altitude angle which is the angle of the sun in the vertical plane in
which the sun lies, and the Azimuth angle which represents the angle of the projected
position of the sun in the horizontal plane. These two angles will be discussed deeply
later in this document. Fig. 1.2 shows a curve for the relationship between the solar
radiation and the solar angle of incidence. This figure shows that solar radiations falling
on the solar array will be maximum when the angle of incidence on the panel is 0 0 which
means that the panel is perpendicular to the sun.

SOLAR POWER IN INDIA

Solar power in India is a fast-growing industry. As of 6 April 2017, the country's solar
grid had a cumulative capacity of 12.28 gigawatts (GW) compared to 6.76 GW at the end
of March 2016. India quadrupled its solar power generation capacity from 2,650 MW on

9
26 May 2014 to 12,289 MW on 10 March 2017. The country added 3.01 GW of solar
power capacity in 2015-2016, and 5.525 GW in 2016-2017, the highest of any year.

In January 2015, the Indian government expanded its solar plans, targeting US$100
billion of investment and 100 GW of solar capacity including 40 GW from rooftop solar,
by 2022. Commenting on the key importance India attaches to solar power, India’s Prime
Minister Narendra Modi said at the historic COP21 climate conference in Paris in 2015,
“The world must turn to (the) sun to power our future. As the developing world lifts
billions of people into prosperity, our hope for a sustainable planet rests on a bold, global
initiative. India's initiative of 100 GW of solar energy by 2022 is an ambitious target
given the world’s installed solar power capacity in 2014 was 181 GW.

In addition to the large-scale grid connected solar PV initiative, India is continuing to

develop the use of off-grid solar power for localized energy needs. India has a poor
electrification rate in rural areas. In 2015, only 55% of all rural households had access to
electricity, and 85% of rural households depended on solid fuel for cooking. Solar
products have increasingly helped to meet rural needs, and by the end of 2015, a
cumulative total of just under 1 million solar lanterns had been

sold in the country, reducing the need for expensive kerosene. During 2015 alone,
118,700 solar home lighting systems were installed, and 46,655 solar street lighting
installations were provided under a national program. The same year saw just over 1.4
million solar cookers distributed or sold in India.

India's largest photovoltaic (PV) power plants

1. Reliance Power Pokaran Solar PV Plant, Rajasthan, 40MW 02011-06 June 2011
Commissioning in March 2012

2. AdaniBitta Solar Plant, Gujarat, 40MW 02011-06 June 2011 To be

Completed December 2011

3. Moser Baer - Patan, Gujarat,30MW 02011-06 June 2011 Commissioned July

2011

4. Azure Power - Sabarkantha, Gujarat, 10MW 02011-06 June 2011

Commissioned June 2011

5. Green Infra Solar Energy Limited - Rajkot, Gujarat, 10M W 02011-11-29

November 29, 2 011 Commissioned November 2011

10
Fig 1.3 The average solar radiations receiver by different regions in India.

The daily average solar energy incident over India varies from 4 to 7 kWh/m2
with about 1500–2000 sunshine hours per year (depending upon location), which is far
more than current total energy consumption.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Sun-synchronous navigation is related to moving the solar powered rover (robot)

in such a way that its solar panel always points toward the sun and which results into
maximum battery charging and hence the rover can work for long hours. The unique
feature of this solar tracking system is that instead of taking the earth as its reference, it
takes the sun as a guiding source. Its active sensors constantly monitor the sunlight and
rotate the panel towards the direction where the intensity of sunlight is maximum. The
light dependent resistor’s do the job of sensing the change in the position of the Sun. The
control circuit does the job of fetching the input from the sensor and gives command to
the motor to run in order to tackle the change in the position of the sun. By using this
system the additional energy generated is around 25% to 30% with very less
consumption by the system itself. The paper gives the design and implementation of a

11
fuzzy logic computer controlled sun tracking system to enhance the power output of
photo voltaic solar panels. The tracking system was driven by two permanent magnet
DC motors to provide motion of the PV panels in two axis. The project describes the use
of a microcontroller based design methodology of an automatic solar tracker. Light
dependent resistors are used as the sensors of the solar tracker. The tracking system
maximizes solar cell output by positioning a solar panel at the point of maximum light
intensity. This paper describe the use of DC motors, special motors like stepper motors,
servo motors, to operate moving parts of the solar tracker. The system was designed as
the normal line of solar cell always move parallel to the rays of the sun. The Aim of this
project is to develop and implement a prototype of two-axis solar tracking system based
on a microcontroller and wireless transmission of the power generated to the load.

12
CHAPTER – 2

SOLAR RADIATION & PHOTOVOLTAIC

CONCEPTS ON SOLAR RADIATION

Before talking about the solar tracking systems, we will review some basic
concepts concerning solar radiation and mention some important values to better
understand the results of this work.

The sun, at an estimated temperature of 5800 K, emits high amounts of energy in

the form of radiation, which reaches the planets of the solar system. Sunlight has two
components, the direct beam and diffuse beam. Direct radiation (also called beam
radiation) is the solar radiation of the sun that has not been scattered (causes shadow).
Direct beam carries about 90% of the solar energy, and the "diffuse sunlight" that carries
the remainder. The diffuse portion is the blue sky on a clear day and increases as a
proportion on cloudy days. The diffuse radiation is the sun radiation that has been
scattered (complete radiation on cloudy days). Reflected radiation is the incident
radiation (beam and diffuse) that has been reflected by the earth. The sum of beams,
diffuse and reflected radiation is considered as the global radiation on a surface. As the
majority of the energy is in the direct beam, maximizing collection requires the sun to be
visible to the panels as long as possible.

Declination Angle-
The declination of the sun is the angle between the equator and a line drawn from the
centre of the Earth to the centre of the sun. The declination is maximum (23.450) on the
summer/winter (in India 21 June and 22 December) The declination angle, denoted by δ,
varies seasonally due to the tilt of the Earth on its axis of rotation and the rotation of the
Earth around the sun. If the Earth were not tilted on its axis of rotation, the declination
would always be 0°. However, the Earth is tilted by 23.45° and the declination angle
varies plus or minus this amount. Only at the spring and fall equinoxes is the declination
angle equal to 0°.

13
 Figure 2.1: The Declination Angles

Hour Angle-

The Hour Angle is the angular distance that the earth has rotated in a day. It is
equal to 15 degrees multiplied by the number of hours from local solar noon. This is
based on the nominal time, 24 hours, required for the earth to rotate once i.e. 360
degrees.

Solar hour angle is zero when sun is straight over head, negative before noon, and
positive after noon.(here noon means 12.00 hour)

Solar Altitude (θz)-

The solar altitude is the vertical angle between the horizontal and the line connecting to
the sun. At sunset/sunrise altitude is 0 and is 90 degrees when the sun is at the zenith.
The altitude relates to the latitude of the site, the declination angle and the hour angle.

Figure 2.2 Solar altitudes and azimuths typical behavior of sun path

14
INSOLATION
Insolation is a measure of solar radiation energy received on a given surface area and
recorded during a given time. It is also called solar irradiation and expressed as hourly
irradiation if recorded during an hour, daily irradiation if recorded during a day, for
example. The unit recommended by the World Meteorological Organization is MJ/m2
(mega joules per square meter) or J/cm2

Solar Azimuth (θA)- The azimuth angle is the angle within the horizontal plane measured
from true South or North. The azimuth angle is measured clockwise from the zero azimuth.
For example, if you're in the Northern Hemisphere and the zero azimuth is set to South, the
azimuth angle value will be negative before solar noon, and positive after solar noon.
Practitioners in the business of solar energy may use the unit Wh/m2 (watt-hours per square
meter). If this energy is divided by the recording time in hours, it is then a density of power
called irradiance, expressed in W/m2 (watts per square meter). Over the course of a year the
average solar radiation arriving at the top of the Earth's atmosphere at any point in time is
roughly 1366 watts per square meter. The Sun's rays are attenuated as they pass through the
atmosphere, thus reducing the irradiance at the Earth's surface to approximately 1000 W
m−2 for a surface perpendicular to the Sun's rays at sea level on a clear day. The insolation
of the sun can also be expressed in Suns, where one Sun equals 1000 W/m2

PROJECTION EFFECT
The insolation into a surface is largest when the surface directly faces the Sun. As the angle
increases between the direction at a right angle to the surface and the direction of the rays
of sunlight, the insolation is reduced in proportion to cosine of the angle; see effect of sun
angle on climate.
This 'projection effect' is the main reason why the Polar Regions are much colder than
equatorial regions on Earth. On an annual average the poles receive less insolation than
does the equator, because at the poles the Earth's surface are angled away from the Sun.

15
Figure 2.3One beam one mile wide shines on the ground at a 90° angle, and another at a
30° angle. The one at a shallower angle distributes the same amount of light energy over
twice as much area.

WORKING OF PHOTOVOLTAICS

Photovoltaics are the direct conversion of light into electricity at the atomic level.
Some materials exhibit a property known as the photoelectric effect that causes them to
absorb photons of light and release electrons. When these free electrons are captured, an
electric current results that can be used as electricity.
A solar cell (also called photovoltaic cell or photoelectric cell) is a solid state
electrical device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by the
photovoltaic effect. Crystalline silicon PV cells are the most common photovoltaic cells in
use today.
A number of solar cells electrically connected to each other and mounted in a support
structure or frame are called a photovoltaic module. Modules are designed to supply
electricity at a certain voltage, such as a common 12 volts system. The current produced is
directly dependent on how much light strikes the module. Multiple modules can be wired
together to form an array. In general, the larger the area of a module or array, the more
electricity will be produced. Photovoltaic modules and arrays produce direct-current (DC)
electricity. They can be connected in both series and parallel electrical arrangements to
produce any required voltage and current combination.

Figure 2.4: Photovoltaic panel or array

16
CHAPTER-3

SOLAR TRACKER

INTRODUCTION

Solar Tracker is a Device which follows the movement of the sun as it rotates from the east
to the west every day. The main function of all tracking systems is to provide one or two
degrees of freedom in movement. Trackers are used to keep solar collectors/solar panels
oriented directly towards the sun as it moves through the sky every day. Using solar
trackers increases the amount of solar energy which is received by the solar energy
collector and improves the energy output of the heat/electricity which is generated. Solar
trackers can increase the output of solar panels by 20-30% which improves the economics
of the solar panel project.

NEED FOR SOLAR TRACKER

The energy contributed by the direct beam drops off with the cosine of the angle
between the incoming light and the panel. The table no. 2.1 shows the Direct power lost
(%) due to misalignment (angle i).
Table no-2.1 Direct power lost (%) due to misalignment (angle i)
Misalignment (angle i ) Direct power lost (%)=1-cos(i)

00 0

10 .015

30 .14

80 1

23.40 8.3

300 13.4

17
The sun travels through 360 degrees east-west a day, but from the perspective of any
fixed location the visible portion is 180 degrees during a 1/2 day period. Local horizon
effects reduce this somewhat, making the effective motion about 150 degrees. A solar
panel in a fixed orientation between the dawn and sunset extremes will see a motion of
75 degrees on either side, and thus, according to the table above, will lose 75% of the
energy in the morning and evening. Rotating the panels to the east and west can help
recapture these losses. A tracker rotating in the east-west direction is known as a single-
axis tracker.

The sun also moves through 46 degrees north-south over the period of a year.
The same set of panels set at the midpoint between the two local extremes will thus see
the sun move 23 degrees on either side, causing losses of 8.3% A tracker that accounts
for both the daily and seasonal motions is known as a dual-axis tracker.

TYPES OF SOLAR TRACKERS

PASSIVE TRACKING SYSTEMS

The passive tracking system realizes the movement of the system by utilizing a low
boiling point liquid. This liquid is vaporized by the added heat of the sun and the center
of mass is shifted leading to that the system finds the new equilibrium position.

ACTIVE TRACKING SYSTEMS

The two basic types of active solar tracker are single-axis and double-axis.

18
Figure 2.5: Passive tracking system

Single axis trackers

The single axis tracking systems realizes the movement of either elevation or
azimuth for a solar power system. Which one of these movements is desired, depends on
the technology used on the tracker as well as the space that it is mounted on. For
example the parabolic through systems utilize the azimuthally tracking whereas the
many rooftop PV-systems utilize elevation tracking because of the lack of space. A
single-axis tracker can only pivot in one plane – either horizontally or vertically. This
makes it less complicated and generally cheaper than a two-axis tracker, but also less
effective at harvesting the total solar energy available at a site. Trackers use motors and
gear trains to direct the tracker as commanded by a controller responding to the solar
direction. Since the motors consume energy, one wants to use them only as necessary.

Single axis trackers have one degree of freedom that acts as an axis of rotation.
There are several common implementations of single axis trackers. These include
horizontal single axis trackers (HSAT) and vertical single axis trackers (VSAT).

A horizontal-axis tracker consists of a long horizontal tube to which solar modules are
attached. The tube is aligned in a north-south direction, is supported on bearings
mounted o n pylons or frames, and rotates slowly on its axis to follow the sun's motion
across the sky. This kind of tracker is most effective at equatorial latitudes where the sun
is more or less overhead at noon. In general, it is effective wherever the solar path is high
in the sky for substantial parts of the year, but for this very reason, does not perform well
at higher latitudes. For higher latitude, a vertical-axis tracker is better suited. This works
well wherever t he sun is typically lower in the sky and, at least in the summer months,

19
the days are long.
Dual Axis Trackers

Dual axis trackers as shown in the figure 2.6 have two degrees of freedom that
act as axes of rotation. Double-axis solar trackers, as the same suggest, can rotate
simultaneously in horizontal and vertical directions, and s o are able to point exactly at
the sun at all times in any location.
Dual axis tracking systems realize movement both along the elevation- and
azimuthally axes. These tracking systems naturally provide the best performance, given
that the components have high enough accuracy as well.

Fig2.6 Dual axis solar tracker

20
CHAPTER-4

DESIGN OF SOLAR TRACKER

TRACKER DESIGN

A solar tracker is a device that orient photovoltaic array toward the sun. In flat-
panel photovoltaic (PV) applications trackers are used to minimize the angle of
incidence between the incoming light and a photovoltaic panel. This increases the
amount of energy produced by the photovoltaic array.

Here we can use azimuth-altitude dual axis trackers (AADAT). Dual axis
trackers extract the maximum solar energy levels due to their ability to follow the sun
vertically and horizontally. No matter where the sun is in the sky, dual axis trackers are
able to angle themselves to be in direction toward the sun.

Fig. 3.1 Setup of a squared solar panel

The Fig. 3.1 shows a setup of a squared solar panel with two degrees of freedom. Here
Two DC motors are used to drive the two rotational degrees of freedom. The motors can
mounted directly on the rotation pins of the rotational joints to reduce losses caused by
linkages and joints and to avoid using more linkages and mechanisms

21
DC MOTOR AND MOTOR DRIVER THEORY

Introduction

The tracking systems would need to consist of two motors, which control the
position of the array, and a control circuit to direct these motors. The following sections
discuss some possible types of motors that could be used for this type of application.

DC Motors

Figure 3.2: Inner Workings of a DC Motor

Figure 3.2 shows the inner workings of a basic DC motor. The outside section of the
motor is the stator (stationary part), while the inside section is the rotor (rotating
part).The stator is comprised of two (or more) permanent magnet pole pairs, while the
rotor is comprised of windings that are connected to a mechanical commutator. The
opposite polarities of the energized winding and the stator magnet attract each other.
When this occurs the rotor will rotate until perfect alignment with the stator is achieved.
When the rotor reaches alignment, the brushes move across the commutator contacts
(middle section of rotor) and energies the next winding.

There are two other types of DC motors: series wound and shunt wound. These
motors also use a similar rotor with brushes and a commutator. However, the stator uses
windings instead of permanent magnets. The basic principle is still the same. A series
wound DC motor has the stator windings in series with the rotor. A shunt wound DC
motor has the stator windings in parallel with the rotor winding.

22
MATHEMATICAL MODEL

The fig. 3.3 shows a typical behavior for the sun path in December (winter) and June
(summer). The rotational angle of the orientation system in the vertical plane can be
calculated from the following equation:

Fig. 3.3Typical behavior for the sun path in December (winter) and June
(summer)

Sin  Sin.Sin Cos.Cos.Cos

where
zo is the altitude angle of the system.

z  90o -Zenith angle of the sun

is the latitude (  30o for our example)

 is the hour angle(15 o/hour), where  =0 at local noon.

 is the solar declination.

the is calculated from Cooper’s equation.

  23.45.Sin[360/ 365(284  N)]

Here, N is the day of the year (1 to 365),

N=1 on the 1st of January

23
KINEMATICS

Earth receives energy of 1000w/m2 which means we can generate 1000 watts of energy
from 1m2 area. If we assume a 10% total efficiency of the photovoltaic panels, the
predicted output power from the panel will be 100 Watt. Although, it is known that there
are panels with higher efficiency but it is preferable to calculate for the least case. Earth
complete its one rotation around its axis in 24 hours which means that it rotate by 360
degrees in 24 hour or one day. Therefore one hour cover 3600/24=150, which means one
hour angle =150. The system can be designed to move discretely to cover the total daily
track in desired steps to reduce the operating time. After sunset, the panel can be
designed to return back pointing towards the east to collect the sun radiation next
morning. This return process can be done in desired time interval. While the maximum
needed power is required by the motors forms 1% of the output of the panel. So it is
feasible to rotate the panel using electric motors fed by the output of the panel itself.

DYNAMICS
The solar array can be rotated in two directions, horizontal and vertical direction
by taking azimuth and inclination angle as reference.
Two control techniques can be applied here:

1. Open-loop control technique that depends on calculating the voltage corresponding

to the output angles and feeding them into the DC motors (to which our work is
concerned).
Closed-loop technique which depends mainly on the signals sent by the two solar
tracking sensors attached at the surface of the panel. The function of these sensors is to
detect the position of the sun and feed the signal back to the electronic control circuit
which in turn sends the signals to the motor to correct the real position of the panel

Each technique has its advantages and drawbacks, where the open-loop technique is safe
and continuous but it needs to keep the motors operating all the time even when there is
no sun in the cloudy days. The closed-loop technique saves power because it turns the
motors on when the sun is shining only, while the system stops working in cloudy
periods. The main disadvantage of the closed-loop technique is that it is expensive to be
applied that it needs sensors, electronics and control kits. A timer can be used to return
the whole system pointing towards the east after sunset to put the panel in a ready
position facing the sun in the next morning.

Consider the solar panel drawing shown in Fig. 3.4. In this drawing, a and b are the
dimensions of the rectangular plate panel, d is the perpendicular distance from the center
of gravity of the panel to the point of action of the rotating motor. θz and θ A are the
Altitude and Azimuth angles, respectively. A and B are the torques produced by the

24
motors around the Altitude and the Azimuth directions respectively. These torqueses are
responsible for the rotation of the two degrees of freedom of the system.

Fig 3.4 Configuration and angles of panel

SYSTEM DESIGN
The purpose of a solar tracker is to accurately determine the position of the sun. This
enables solar panels to interface to the tracker to obtain the maximum solar radiation.

COMPONENTS USED:

1. Microcontroller AT89S52
2. Voltage regulator IC LM7805
3. Motor driver IC LM293D
4. Solar panel
5. Dc motors(2)
6. Battery
7. Light Dependent Resistors(4)
8. Gears
9. Stand
10. Reset switch
11. Capacitors
12. Resistor
13. Crystal oscillator
14. CFL Circuit Board(12V-11 Watt)
15. Copper Wires.

25
 Block Diagram of overall system

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

26
SOLAR PANEL
Solar panel refers to a panel designed to absorb the sun's rays as a source of energy for
generating electricity or heating .A photovoltaic (PV) module is a packaged, connect assembly
of typically 6×10 solar cells. Solar Photovoltaic panels constitute the solar array of
a photovoltaic system that generates and supplies solar electricity in commercial and
residential applications. Each module is rated by its DC output power under standard test
conditions, and typically ranges from 100 to 365 watts.

• Monocrystalline solar cells are made out of silicon ingots, which are cylindrical in
shape. To optimize performance and lower costs of a single monocrystalline solar cell,
four sides are cut out of the cylindrical ingots to make silicon wafers, which is what
gives monocrystalline solar panels their characteristic look.
• Monocrystalline solar panels are the most expensive. From a financial standpoint, a
solar panel that is made of polycrystalline silicon (and in some cases thin-film) can be
a better choice for some homeowners.
• If the solar panel is partially covered with shade, dirt or snow, the entire circuit can
break down. Consider getting micro-inverters instead of central string inverters if you
think coverage will be a problem. Micro-inverters will make sure that not the entire
solar array is affected by shading issues with only one of the solar panels.
• The Czochralski process is used to produce monocrystalline silicon. It results in large
cylindrical ingots. Four sides are cut out of the ingots to make silicon wafers. A
significant amount of the original silicon ends up as waste.
• Monocrystalline solar panels tend to be more efficient in warm weather. Performance
suffers as temperature goes up, but less so than polycrystalline solar panels. For most
homeowners temperature is not a concern.

27
Polycrystalline Silicon Solar Cells

• The first solar panels based on polycrystalline silicon, which also is known as
polysilicon (p-Si) and multi-crystalline silicon (mc-Si), were introduced to the market
in 1981. Unlike monocrystalline-based solar panels, polycrystalline solar panels do not
require the Czochralski process. Raw silicon is melted and poured into a square mold,
which is cooled and cut into perfectly square wafers.

Thin-Film Solar Cells (TFSC)

• Depositing one or several thin layers of photovoltaic material onto a substrate is the
basic gist of how thin-film solar cells are manufactured. They are also known as thin-
film photovoltaic cells (TFPV). The different types of thin-film solar cells can be
categorized by which photovoltaic material is deposited onto the substrate:
• Amorphous silicon (a-Si)
• Cadmium telluride (CdTe)
• Copper indium gallium selenide (CIS/CIGS)
• Organic photovoltaic cells (OPC)

Advantages

• Mass-production is simple. This makes them and potentially cheaper to manufacture

than crystalline-based solar cells.
• Their homogenous appearance makes them look more appealing.
• Can be made flexible, which opens up many new potential applications.
• High temperatures and shading have less impact on solar panel performance.
• In situations where space is not an issue, thin-film solar panels can make sense.

SENSORS

A Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) or a photo resistor is a device whose resistivity is a

function of the incident electromagnetic radiation. Hence, they are light sensitive devices.
They are also called as photo conductors, photo conductive cells or simply photocells. They
are made up of semiconductor materials having high resistance. There are many different
symbols used to indicate a LDR, one of the most commonly used symbol is shown in the
figure below. The arrow indicates light falling on it.

28
MICROCONTROLLER AT89S52

Low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 8KB of ISP flash memory.
The device uses Atmel high-density, nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with
the industry-standard 80C51 instruction set and pinout. On-chip flash allows the program
memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory
programmer. This powerful microcontroller is suitable for many embedded control
applications.

DESCRIPTION (Port 1)

Port 1 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 1 output buffers can
sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins, they are pulled high by the
inter-nal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally being
pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. In addition, P1.0 and P1.1
can be configured to be the timer/counter 2 external count input (P1.0/T2) and the
timer/counter 2 trigger input (P1.1/T2EX), respectively.Port 1 also receives the low-order
address bytes during Flash programming and verification.

DESCRIPTION (Port 2)

Port 3 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 3 output buffers can
sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins, they are pulled high by the
inter-nal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being
pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the pull-ups. Port 3 receives some control
signals for Flash programming and verification.

XTAL1 Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock
operating circuit.
XTAL2 Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.
• PIN 9
Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running
resets the device.
• PIN 21
External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to
fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH.
Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset.
EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions. This pin also receives
the 12-volt programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming.

29
MOTOR DRIVER L293D

L293D is a typical Motor driver or Motor Driver IC which allows DC motor to drive on either
direction. L293D is a 16-pin IC which can control a set of two DC motors simultaneously in
any direction. It means that you can control two DC motor with a single L293D IC

VOLTAGE REGULATOR LM7805 IC

The LM340 and LM7805 Family monolithic 3-terminal positive voltage regulators employ
internal current-limiting, thermal shutdown and safe-area compensation, making them
essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can deliver over 1.5-A
output current. They are intended as fixed voltage regulators in a wide range of applications
including local (on-card) regulation for elimination of noise and distribution
problems associated with single-point regulation. In addition to use as fixed voltage regulators,
these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable output voltages and
currents

30
BATTERY

An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external
connections provided to power electrical devices such as flashlights, smartphones, and electric
cars. When a battery is supplying electric power, its positive terminal is the cathode and its
negative terminal is the anode.

CIRCUIT BOARD

31
WORKING
LDR
 FUNCTION - 4 LDR’S in four directions to sense the direction of maximum intensity
of light. The difference between the output of the sensors is given to the
microcontroller unit.

MICROCONTROLLER AT89S52
 FUNCTION- The microcontroller then takes a decision according to a algorithm and
tilts the panel in the direction of the maximum intensity via a motor driving IC L293D.
 PINS USED
PIN 1(P1.0)
PIN 2(P1.1)
PIN 3(P1.2)
PIN 4(P1.3)
FUNCTION- Port 1 pins are basically I/O pins. Here the output from four LDRs are
being served as input to the microcontroller to the above mentioned pins.
PIN 9 (RST)- This pin is used to reset the microcontroller.
50
PIN 14 (P3.4 T0)- Timer 0 pin. The O/P from this pin is fed as an I/P to pin 2 (driver
i/p) of L293d (motor driving IC).
PIN 15(P3.5 T1)- Timer 1 pin. The O/P from this pin is fed as an I/P to pin 7 (driver
i/p) of L293d (motor driving IC).
PIN 16 (P3.6 external data memory write strobe). The O/P from this pin is fed as an I/P
to pin 10 (driver i/p) of L293d.
PIN 17(P3.7 external data memory read strobe). The O/P from this pin is fed as an I/P
to pin 15 (driver i/p) of L293d.
PIN 20(GND)
PIN 40(Vcc)

MOTOR DRIVER L293D

 FUNCTION The output of the microcontroller unit is provided to the motor diver IC
for driving the motors

32
  PINS USED:
PINS 4&5, 12&13 – These pins are providing the function of ground.
PINS 1&9 – These pins are used to enable the driving section on either side of the IC.
PIN 8 (Vss) – This pin is used as supply for motors.
PIN 16(Vcc)- This pin is used for providing a supply voltage to drive the internal logic
circuitry of the IC.
PIN 7(INPUT)- This pin is serving as input to section A of the IC.
PIN 10(INPUT)- This pin is serving as input to section B of the IC.
PIN 2(INPUT)- This pin is serving as input to section A of the IC.
PIN 15(INPUT)- This pin is serving as input to section B of the IC.
PINS 3&6 (O/P)- These pins are serving as o/p i.e one dc motor is connected between
these pins.
PINS 11&14 (O/P)- These pins are serving as o/p i.e another dc motor is connected
between these pins.
4) VOLTAGE REGULATOR LM7805 IC
 FUNCTION By the help of a voltage regulator DC, unregulated output will be fixed
to a constant voltage. Thus it can uphold its output accurately at a fixed voltage all the
time although if there is a significant alteration in the DC input voltage.

Wireless power transfer (WPT)

Wireless power transmission, wireless energy transmission, or electromagnetic power transfer

is the transmission of electrical energy from a power source to an electrical load, such as an
electrical power grid or appliance, without the use of conductors like wires or cables. Wireless
power is a generic term that refers to a number of different power transmission technologies
that use time-varying electric, magnetic, or electromagnetic fields. In wireless power transfer,
a wireless transmitter connected to a power source transmits field energy across an intervening
space to one or more receivers, where it is converted back to an electric current and then used.
Wireless transmission is useful to power electrical devices in cases where interconnecting
wires are inconvenient, hazardous, or are not possible.

Wireless power techniques mainly fall into two categories, non-radiative and radiative. In near
field or non-radiative techniques, power is transferred by magnetic fields using inductive
coupling between coils of wire, or by electric fields using capacitive coupling between metal
electrodes. Inductive coupling is the most widely used wireless technology; its applications
include electric toothbrush chargers, RFID tags, smartcards, and chargers for implantable
medical devices like artificial cardiac pacemakers, and inductive powering or charging of

33
electric vehicles like SCMaglev ,trains ,AGV or buses. A current focus is to develop wireless
systems to charge mobile and handheld computing devices such as cellphones, digital music
players and portable computers without being tethered to a wall plug. In far-field or radiative
techniques, also called power beaming, power is transferred by beams of electromagnetic
radiation, like microwaves or laser beams. These techniques can transport energy longer
distances but must be aimed at the receiver. Proposed applications for this type are solar power
satellites, and wireless powered drone aircraft

An important issue associated with all wireless power systems is limiting the exposure of
people and other living things to potentially injurious electromagnetic field.

HOW DOES WIRELESS POWER WORK?

The basics of wireless power involves the transmission of energy from a transmitter to a
receiver via an oscillating magnetic field. To achieve this, Direct Current (DC) supplied
by a power source, is converted into high frequency Alternating Current (AC) by
specially designed electronics built into the transmitter. The alternating current energizes
a copper wire coil in the transmitter, which generates a magnetic field. Once a second
(receiver) coil is placed within proximity of the magnetic field, the field can induce an
alternating current in the receiving coil. Electronics in the receiving device then converts
the alternating current back into direct current, which becomes usable power.
The diagram below simplifies this process into four key steps.

WIRELESS POWER TRANSFER DIAGRAM

34
3
 1. The ‘mains’ voltage is converted in to an AC signal (Alternating Current), which
is then sent to the transmitter coil via the electronic transmitter circuit.
2. The AC current flowing through the transmitter coil induces a magnetic field
which can extends to the receiver coil (which lies in relative proximity)
3. The magnetic field then generates a current which flows through the coil of the
receiving device. The process whereby energy is transmitted between the
transmitter and receiver coil is also referred to as magnetic or resonant
coupling and is achieved by both coils resonating at the same frequency. Current
flowing within the receiver coil is converted into direct current (DC) by the
receiver circuit, which can then be used to power the device.

BENEFITS OF WIRELESS POWER

 Reduce costs associated with maintaining direct connectors (like those in the
tradtional slip ring).
 Greater convenience for the charging of everyday electronic devices
 Safe power transfer to applications that need to remain sterile or hermetically
sealed
 Electronics can be fully enclosed, reducing the risk of corrosion due to elements
such as oxygen and water.
 Robust and consistent power delivery to rotating, highly mobile industrial
equipment
 Delivers reliable power transfer to mission critical systems in wet, dirty and
moving environments.

Whatever the application, the removal of the physical connection delivers a number of
benefits over traditional cable power connectors, some of which aren’t always obvious.

35
CODE USED

#include<at89x52.h>

void initialization();

void delay_ms(unsigned int);

unsigned int k;

void main()

//inputs

//P0_0=east sensor

//P0_1=west sensor

//P0_2=sunrise

//P1_0=cw

//P1_1=ccw

//P1_2=east led

//P1_3=west led

//P1_4=sunrise led

initialization();

delay_ms(400);

while(1)

if(P0_0==1&&P0_1==1&&P0_2==1)//east-west-sunrise(facing east)

P1_0=0;///cw

P1_1=0;//ccw

36
P1_2=1;//east led

P1_3=1;//west led

P1_4=1;//sunrise led

else if(P0_0==1&&P0_1==1&&P0_2==0)//east-west(position ok)

P1_0=0;///cw

P1_1=0;//ccw

P1_2=1;//east led

P1_3=1;//west led

P1_4=0;//sunrise led

else if(P0_0==0&&P0_1==0&&P0_2==0)//(no sun light)

P1_0=0;///cw

P1_1=0;//ccw

P1_2=0;//east led

P1_3=0;//west led

P1_4=0;//sunrise led

else if(P0_0==1&&P0_1==0&&P0_2==0)//east(move-east cw)

P1_0=1;///cw
37
P1_1=0;//ccw

P1_2=1;//east led

P1_3=0;//west led

P1_4=0;//sunrise led

delay_ms(20);

P1_0=0;///cw

P1_1=0;//ccw

//delay_ms(20);

else if(P0_0==0&&P0_1==1&&P0_2==0)//west(move-west ccw)

P1_0=0;///cw

P1_1=1;//ccw

P1_2=0;//east led

P1_3=1;//west led

P1_4=0;//sunrise led

delay_ms(20);

P1_0=0;///cw

P1_1=0;//ccw

//delay_ms(20);

else if(P0_0==0&&P0_1==0&&P0_2==1)//(sun rise)

P1_0=1;///cw
38
 P1_1=0;//ccw

P1_2=0;//east led

P1_3=0;//west led

P1_4=1;//sunrise led

void initialization()

P0 = 0x00;

P1 = 0;

//generates delay in milli seconds

void delay_ms(unsigned int i)

unsigned int j;

while(i-->0)

for(j=0;j<500;j++)

39
CONCLUSION

The Tracking System uses a solar panel which follows the sun by means of two motors of
which one is responsible for azimuth rotation and the other one for tilt rotation. The motors are
derived by a microcontroller. The incident light on the LDR placed on the panel serves as an
input to the microcontroller which according to an algorithm guides the panel via motor
driving IC. An estimated increase of 26.43% in output voltage is observed when the results
are compared to a stationary panel.

40
REFERENCES

1. Wettergreen D., Benjamin Shamah, Paul Tompkins, William Whittaker, “Robotic

Planetary Exploration by Sun-Synchronous Navigation”, 6th International Symposium
on Artificial Intelligence and Robotics & Automation in Space,i-
SAIRAS 2001, Canadian Space Agency, St-Hubert, Quebec, Canada, June 18-22, 2001.

2. Saravanan C. , Dr .M.A. Panneerselvam, I. William Christopher, “A Novel Low Cost

Automatic Solar Tracking System”, International Journal of Computer
Applications (0975 – 8887) Volume 31– No.9, October 2011.

41
 LIST OF PUBLICATIONS

PAPER 1

EFFICIENT TRACKER DESIGN OF SOLAR PANEL USING DUAL AXIS

TRACKIG METHOD submitted by Roshan Kumar Thakur, under the supervision of Mrs.
Vijeta published in International Research Journal of Modernization in Engineering
Technology and Science Volume: 02/Issue: 09/ September -2020

e-ISSN: 2582-5208

PAPER 2

WIRELESS TRANSMISSION OF SOLAR ENERGY USING DUAL AXIS SOLAR

PANEL TRACKER submitted by Roshan Kumar Thakur, Dr. Rajesh Gargi, Guru Prasad
Panchal under the supervision of Mrs. Vijeta published in International Research Journal of
Modernization in Engineering Technology and Science Volume: 02/Issue: 09/ September -
2020

e-ISSN: 2582-5208