ARTICLE IN PRESS

BIOSYSTEMS ENGINEERING 98 (2007) 381– 390

Available at www.sciencedirect.com

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/issn/15375110

Research Paper: AE—Automation and Emerging Technologies

Development of a cucumber leaf picking device for

greenhouse production

T. Otaa,, J. Bontsemab, S. Hayashia, K. Kubotaa, E.J. Van Hentenb,c, E.A. Van Osb, K. Ajikia
a
Bio-oriented Technology Research Advancement Institution, 1-40-2 Nisshin, Kita, Saitama 331-8537,Japan
b
Wageningen UR Greenhouse Horticulture, P.O.Box 16, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
c
Wageningen University, P.O. Box 17, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands

art i cle info A leaf picking device for cucumbers was designed and evaluated. The picking device is
manually operated but can be used as a picking tool for a robot. The device consisted of a
Article history: picking rotor composed from knives and brushes, a motor and a vacuum cleaner. The
Received 19 June 2006 performance of removal, cutting, torque and shredding was investigated in the laboratory
Accepted 19 September 2007 experiments. In the greenhouse experiments, the performance of picking and cutting was
Available online 9 November 2007 investigated. The results were as follows: (1) the highest removal success rate was achieved
at a rotation speed of 1000 min1, a rotor configuration of ‘two knives and two brushes’ and
an insertion speed of 50 mm s1; (2) in this mechanical setting, the percentage of the
summation of the smooth cut surface of the leaf stalk and the smooth cut surface with
small skin was 90%; (3) the required torque was 0.09–0.96 N m and the average particle size
of the shredded leaves was 7.3–21.2 cm2; (4) the percentages of area of the dropped
particles to the average area of leaves was 10–16%; (5) the average execution time per leaf
was 1.1–2.3 s.
& 2007 IAgrE. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Cucumber is an important fruit in the Netherlands and Japan.
In 2003, the production of cucumbers in the Netherlands was
430,000 t on a production area of 639 ha (LEI & CBS, 2005) and
in Japan it was 684,100 t on a production area of 14,100 ha
(MAFF, 2007).
Cucumbers are mainly grown in two training systems, the
pinching training system and the high-wire training system.
With the pinching training system and Dutch greenhouses
larger than 1 ha, the top of the main stem is pinched after
reaching the horizontal wire at 2–3 m, after which the first
lateral branch and the second lateral branch are allowed to
grow. After reaching the ground the two lateral shoots are
topped and two new side shoots are allowed to grow,
sprouting from the wire area. In Japan with the pinching
training system, the top of the main stem is pinched at the
horizontal wire at a height of 1.5–2 m. Following pinching, the
first lateral branch and the second lateral branches are
allowed to grow whilst the other branches are removed. The
purposes of the picking leaves are to improve light conditions,
increase airflow and increase the vitality of the plants.
In the high-wire training system used in the Netherlands,
the main stem is grown continuously and the top of the stem
is maintained at 0–40 cm below the wire, which hangs at
3.5–4 m. When the top of the plant is within 40 cm of the
horizontal wire, the main stem is lowered by moving the stem
sideways. Consequently, the main stem of the plant is moved
for 30–40 cm through the row. The leaves at the lower part
of the stem are picked before lowering the top of the stem.

Corresponding author.
E-mail address: toota@affrc.go.jp (T. Ota).
1537-5110/$ - see front matter & 2007 IAgrE. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.biosystemseng.2007.09.021
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
382 BIOSYSTEMS ENGINEERING
This training system is relatively new for Dutch cucumber
growers although it was studied in the mid-1990s for robotic
harvesting and was introduced by a few growers. Subse-
quently, most of these growers returned to traditional
growing systems because labour costs were too high. How-
ever, recently the high-wire training system for cucumbers
was introduced again, this time for the purposes of increasing
the quality of the fruits. In Japan there is a similar training
system to the Dutch high-wire training system. The top of the
stem is hung at 1.5–2 m because greenhouses are usually
lower than in the Netherlands, then the top is moved
sideways for 20–30 cm and the leaves at the lower part of
the stem are removed.
In the Netherlands, the leaves of the cucumber plants are
removed to increase airflow within the crop canopy with the
pinching training system. With the high-wire system, the
lowest leaves are also removed to decrease the risk of
diseases after lowering of the plants (stems and leaves touch
the ground) and also to increase the airflow through the crop
canopy. A cucumber plant can grow sufficiently with 18–20
leaves on the plant. In Japan, leaves are removed from
the whole plant, both to increase the airflow around
the plants and to improve the level of available light for
the crop. In both countries, leaf picking is currently carried
out by hand but labour is costly and qualified workers are
difficult to source. More than 30% of the total production costs
are spent on wages in the Netherlands (Van Henten et al.,
2006) and leaf picking work consumes 30–50% of the total
labour input of cucumber production in Japan (Ota et al.,
2005).
Research for the automation and mechanisation of fruit
vegetable production started in the early 1980s (Sarig, 1993).
Many basic robotic studies have been carried out for tomato
fruit harvesting (Kondo et al., 1996; Hayashi & Sakaue, 1996) and
cucumber fruit harvesting (Arima & Kondo, 1999). Some
autonomous fruit picking robots were developed for cucumber
harvesting (Van Henten et al., 2002, 2003a, 2003b), eggplant
(aubergine) harvesting and tomato harvesting (Hayashi et al.,
2005). Hemming et al. (2004) developed a leaf picking system
that used image processing for leaf detection. A de-leafing
robot for cucumber was also developed, based on the cucumber
picking robot as a platform (Van Henten et al., 2006) by using an
information-based design method (Van Tuijl et al., 2004). The
de-leafing robot did not have any leaf collection function but
dropped the leaves onto the ground after cutting a leaf stalk
using an end-effector. The time required for the de-leafing
robot to detect the leaf and cut the leaf stalk was approximately
140 s per leaf. Consequently, if efficiency is to be increased, an
improvement in the automated leaf picking process is required.
The desired time for the automated leaf picking should be in
the same order of magnitude as the time for the manual
picking time, which is 5–10 s per leaf.
Following preliminary experiments in a Japanese green-
house (Ota et al., 2005), a prototype of a cucumber leaf picking
device was designed and evaluated in Dutch greenhouses
using an adapted vehicle. The objectives of this research
were (1) to develop a laboratory experimental apparatus for
the leaf picking device; (2) to conduct picking tests in the
laboratory to evaluate its performance; (3) to analyse the
relationship between mechanical conditions and the removal
98 (2007) 381 – 390
performance; (4) to conduct a greenhouse experiment with
cucumbers grown with the pinching training system and to
investigate performance under practical conditions.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Laboratory experimental apparatus
The picking rotor was composed of stainless-steel knives
and/or brushes made from stainless steel wire (Fig. 1). The
picking rotor was designed and manufactured in such a way
that the configuration of knives and brushes could be
changed. Knives and brushes were alternately spaced at
equal distances around the circumference of the rotor at 901
intervals. Leaves were extracted into the housing by the
pulling action of the rotating rotor and suction from the
vacuum cleaner. Leaves were shredded by the rotor in
the housing.
The apparatus (Fig. 2) consisted of a picking rotor contained
within a housing unit, an electric motor (model MSM590-
001C, Oriental Motor Co., Japan) and a torque transducer
(model TP-10KCE, Kyowa Electronic Instruments Co., Japan), a
linear motion actuator (model SA-S6AM, SUS Co, Japan), a
pipe and a vacuum cleaner (model SPV-102ECH, Suiden Co.,
Japan). The torque transducer was connected between the
motor and the picking rotor. During each test, signals of
torque were recorded with 100 Hz using a data acquisition
system. The motor and the linear motion actuator were
operated by setting variable speeds. The vacuum cleaner had
a flow rate of 3 m3 min1. At the base of the leaf stalk, a leaf
was attached onto the linear motion actuator, which could be
inserted into the centre of the opening of the rotor unit. The
apparatus was designed to suck the leaf into the unit by the
picking rotor while the leaf was approached by the linear
motion actuator. Leaves were removed from the vacuum
cleaner via a shutter, which, when opened, allowed the
sucked leaves to drop into a hopper.
143
98
Picking rotor
Rotation
Insertion of Suction
111
leaf
Brush
Knife
Fig. 1 – Schematic diagram of the leaf picking rotor; all
dimensions in mm.
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BIOSYSTEMS ENGINEERING 98 (2007) 381– 390 383

Fig. 2 – Laboratory experimental apparatus; (a) picking rotor and housing; (b) electric motor and torque transducer; (c) linear
motion actuator; (d) pipe; (e) computer and (f) vacuum cleaner.

Fig. 3 – Prototype of picking device; (a) picking rotor with Fig. 4 – Picking unit at the greenhouse experiments; (a)
motor; (b) vacuum cleaner; (c) container and (d) vehicle. picking rotor in housing and (b) motor.

2.2. Prototype leaf picking device

A prototype of the device (Fig. 3) comprised a picking rotor

with a motor (model BD-120, Ryobi Co., Japan), a pipe, a
vacuum cleaner and a vehicle. The device was based on the
laboratory experimental apparatus. The device used the floor- Insertion Leaf picking unit
mounted heating pipes for guidance and support while Opening
Leaf direction
moving through the greenhouse.
The operator moved the picking unit horizontally towards a
leaf and inserted the edge of a leaf into the opening (Fig. 4).
The size of the picking unit was such that it could be
supported and operated by hand.
Fig. 5 – Schematic diagram of laboratory experiments.

2.3. Laboratory experiments

leaves of cucumber (Cucumis sativus cv. Euphoria) to be tested
The laboratory experiments (Fig. 5) were carried out in were cut at the leaf stalk base at a height of 1–1.5 m in the
October 2005 using the leaves obtained from a commercial canopy. The cut leaves from the plant stem were inserted into
greenhouse (3 ha) in the city of Loo, the Netherlands. The the opening of the picking housing, leaf tip first at the same
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384 BIOSYSTEMS ENGINEERING
centreline of the leaf and the opening until the leaf stalks
were inserted. The following tests were carried out:
(1) 5 different rotation speeds of 500, 750, 1000, 1250,
1500 min1;
(2) 4 different configurations of the rotor: 2 knives, 4 knives, 2
knives and 2 brushes, 2 brushes; and
(3) 5 different insertion speeds of 50, 75, 100, 125, 150 mm s1.
In each test, 20 leaves were inserted individually. The tested
leaves had a leaf width of 35–45 cm. The relationship between
the mechanical condition and the picking performance was
investigated.
2.3.1. Removal performance
To investigate the performance of the device, the removal
success rate was calculated by measuring the leaf weight
before the insertion and the weight of those parts of the leaf
that were not sucked into the vacuum cleaner. The removal
success rate R in % was defined as the following equation:
R ¼ 100 ðWa  Wb Þ=Wa , (1)
where Wa is a leaf weight in kg before the insertion trial and
Wb is a remaining leaf weight in kg.
Table 1 shows the failure categories observed during the
insertion process. The source and number of the removal
failures were observed and noted. The removal failures were
classified into 3 categories: category 1 was defined as ‘unable
to cut because the stem tangled around the rotor’, category 2
was defined as ‘unable to remove the full leaf because the
rotor inserted only part of the leaf’ and category 3 was defined
Table 1 – Failure categories observed during the insertion
process
Failure Description
category
1 Unable to cut because the stem tangled around
the rotor (tangled)
2 Unable to remove the full leaf because the rotor
inserts only part of the leaf (partial removal)
3 Unable to extract the leaf because the removed
leaf was clogged in the housing (clogging)
Table 2 – Cut surface types of the leaf stalk observed after
the insertion
Surface Description
category
1 Smooth
2 Smooth with a small part of the skin remaining
3 Rough
4 Leaf stalk was not cut and part of the leaf was
left on the stalk
98 (2007) 381 – 390
as ‘unable to extract the leaf because the removed leaf was
clogged in the housing’.
2.3.2. Cutting performance
Table 2 shows different cut surface types of the leaf stalk
observed after the insertion. The cut surfaces were classified
into 4 categories: category 1 smooth; category 2 smooth with a
small part of the skin remaining; category 3 rough; and
category 4 leaf stalk not cut and part of the leaf left on the
stalk.
2.3.3. Torque performance
The torque was measured during the insertion of the leaves
by the torque transducer. Data were transferred to the
computer through an amplifier. The maximum torque of
each leaf insertion was recorded.
2.3.4. Shredding performance
The shredded particle area after the suction into the cleaner
was measured by image-processing software (Cosmos32,
Library Co., Japan). After picking a single leaf, the shredded
leaf was removed from the vacuum cleaner. Images of the
particles were taken by a digital camera with a calibration
scale. The particles smaller than 1 cm2 area were eliminated
as noise.
2.4. Greenhouse experiments
2.4.1. Experimental greenhouse
Greenhouse experiments were carried out in October and
November 2005 in two commercial greenhouses in the cities
of Loo (3 ha) and Asten (7 ha), the Netherlands. The cucumber
variety in Loo and Asten was ‘Euphoria’ and ‘Confida RZ’,
respectively. In both greenhouses, cucumbers were grown in
the pinching training system. The vertical main stem of each
plant was twisted into a string. The vertical crop strings were
connected to the horizontal wire at approximately 2 m height
from the ground. The horizontal wire supported the side stem
of the plant. The horizontal crop wire was connected to the
greenhouse construction at the sidewalls and supported at
the trellis.
Table 3 shows the leaf features during the greenhouse
experiments. The picking device was tested by picking 135
leaves from the plants. The tested leaves were 35 large leaves
from the main stem in Asten, 50 medium leaves in Loo and 50
small-sized leaves in Asten. The average leaf widths of the
small leaf, the medium leaf and the large leaf were 219, 318
and 375 mm, respectively. The average leaf areas of the small
leaf, the medium leaf and the large leaf were 309, 753 and
1004 cm2, respectively.
2.4.2. Dropped leaves
In the greenhouse experiments, it was observed that several
parts of the leaves dropped onto the ground during picking.
The area of the dropped leaf particles was measured to
evaluate the picking performance in the greenhouse by the
image processing.
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BIOSYSTEMS ENGINEERING 98 (2007) 381– 390 385

Table 3 – Leaf features during the greenhouse experiments

Type Variety Average leaf Average leaf Average leaf Attached stem
width, mm length, mm area, cm2

Small Confida RZ 219 188 309 Side stem

Medium Euphria 318 316 753 Side stem
Large Confida RZ 375 336 1004 Main stem

100

Removal success rate, %

2.4.3. Cutting performance 80
Cut surfaces after picking were measured to evaluate the cut
performance by the same method in the laboratory experi- 60
ments (Section 2.3.2).
40

2.4.4. Execution time 20

The execution time for each picking test was measured by
video analysis. The start of the execution was defined as the 0
time when the leaf was inserted. The end of execution was 0 500 1000 1500 2000
defined as the time when nothing of the leaf was seen (a) Rotation speed, min−1
anymore. The number of insertions per leaf was counted.
100
Removal success rate, %

80
3. Results and discussion
60
3.1. Laboratory experiments
40
3.1.1. Removal performance 20
The average value of R was the highest at 1000 min1 (Fig. 6).
At the rotation speed of 500 min1, both the average and the 0
minimum values of R were the lowest. 2 knives 4 knives
2 knives 2 brushes
As for the different configurations of knives and brushes, 2 brushes
the data were measured at the rotation speed of 1000 min1 (b) Configuration of knives and brushes
and at the insertion speed of 50 mm s1 based on the result of
the value of R at the various rotation speeds (Fig. 6). The 100
configuration of two knives and two brushes had the highest
Removal success rate, %

average and the highest minimum value of R. 80

As for the various insertion speeds, the average value of R
tended to decrease slightly with increasing insertion speed 60
(Fig. 6). The minimum value of R also tended to decrease with
40
an increasing insertion speed. It was seen that faster
insertion speeds increased the amount of leaf that could
20
not be removed.
The relative number of failures was the lowest at
0
1000 min1 (Fig. 7). If the rotation speed was higher or lower 0 50 100 150 200
than 1000 min1, the number of failures increased. Category 2
(c) Insertion speed, mm s−1
failures were seen with all rotation conditions and category 1
failures were seen at 500, 750 and 1500 min1. It appears that Fig. 6 – Removal success rate (a) at various rotation speeds,
at lower speeds the device was unable to cut and shred the configuration of 2 knives and insertion speed 50 mm s1; (b)
leaf stalk as well as the leaf. As a result, the uncut leaf stalk at different configurations, rotation speed 1000 min1 and
and the leaf became tangled around the rotor. insertion speed 50 mm s1 and (c) at various insertion
Considering the different configurations, the number of speeds, rotation speed 1000 min1 and configuration of 2
failures with the configuration of two knives and two brushes knifes and 2 brushes; K, average success rate; J, minimum
at 10%, was the lowest for all configurations (Fig. 7). The success rate.
relative number of failures with the configuration of two or
four knives was larger than that of the configuration of knives
and brushes. It is considered that brushes increase the
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386 BIOSYSTEMS ENGINEERING 98 (2007) 381 – 390

50 100
Relative number of failure,

Relative number of cut surface

40 80
30
60
%

type, %
20
40
10
20
0
500 750 1000 1250 1500
0
(a) Rotation speed, min−1 500 750 1000 1250 1500
(a) Rotation speed, min−1
Relative number of failure,

30
100

Relative number of cut surface

20
80
%

10

type, %
60
0
2 knives

4 knives

2 knives
2 brushes

2 brushes

40

20

(b) Configuration of knives and brushes 0

2 knives 4 knives 2 knives 2 brushes
60 2 brushes
Relative number of failure,

50 (b) Configuration of knives and brushes

40 100
Relative number of surface
%

30 80
type, %

20
60
10
40
0
50 75 100 125 150 20
(c) Insertion speed, mm s−1
0
Fig. 7 – Relative number of failure (a) at various rotation 50 75 100 125 150
speeds, configuration of 2 knives and insertion speed Insertion speed, mm s−1
(c)
50 mm s1; (b) at different configurations, rotation speed
1000 min1 and insertion speed 50 mm s1; (c) at various Fig. 8 – Relative number of cut surface (a) at various rotation
insertion speeds, rotation speed 1000 min1, and speeds, configuration of 2 knives and insertion speed
configuration of 2 knives and 2 brushes; ’, tangled; , 50 mm s1; (b) at different configurations, rotation speed
partial removal; &, clogging. 1000 min1 and insertion speed 50 mm s1 and (c) at various
insertion speeds, rotation speed 1000 min1 and
configuration of 2 knives and 2 brushes; ’, smooth; ,
tension on leaves. However, using brushes only reduced smooth with a small part of skin remaining; &, rough; ,
cutting performance and caused clogging. leaf stalk was not cut.
As insertion speed was increased, the number of failures
increased (Fig. 7). Only when insertion speed was higher than
100 mm s1, clogging was observed. At higher insertion
speeds, more leaves were removed per second but the 3.1.2. Cutting performance
increased quantity caused clogging at the connection be- The cutting performance at various rotation speeds was
tween the housing and the suction pipe. In case of the ‘partial evaluated using the configuration of 2 knives and at an
removal’, only the central part of the leaf was inserted and insertion speed of 50 mm s1 (Fig. 8). The sum of ‘smooth’ and
removed, which was probably due to the feature that the ‘smooth with small skin’ cuts reached a maximum at 1000
opening is too small. Increasing the insertion speed did not and 1250 min1. The relative numbers of the surface type
solve the problem of partial removal. ‘rough’ reached a maximum at 500 min1. Therefore, it was
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BIOSYSTEMS ENGINEERING 98 (2007) 381– 390 387

concluded that the rotation speeds around 1000–1250 min1 1.2

were adequate for cutting the leaf stalks by a knife. A smooth
surface cut by the knives of the rotor will produce a similar 1

Maximum torque, Nm
surface to that cut manually by using scissors or a knife. As a
result, a smooth surface cut by the device will not increase 0.8
the likelihood of plant diseases any more than that due to
0.6
manual picking. Thin and ‘small skin’ cut surfaces will dry
quickly and will also not increase fungal diseases. However, 0.4
the effect of ‘rough’ cut surfaces on plant diseases has yet to
be investigated. 0.2
To investigate the type of cut surfaces with the different
configurations, the rotation speed and the insertion speeds 0
were set at 1000 min1 and 50 mm s1, respectively (Fig. 8). 0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750
The sum of ‘smooth’ and ‘smooth with small skin’ cut (a) Rotation speed, min−1
surfaces with the configurations of 2 knives, 4 knives and 2
1
knives and 2 brushes were approximately 90%. However,
more than 70% of the cut surfaces with 2 brushes were ‘rough’
0.8

Maximum torque, Nm
or unable to be cut. The brushes could not cut the leaf stalk
smoothly using their shearing action.
To investigate the relative numbers of the types of cut 0.6
surfaces at the various insertion speeds, the rotation speed
was set at 1000 min1 and with 2 brushes and 2 knives, 0.4
respectively (Fig. 8). It appeared that there was an optimum
insertion speed between 75 and 125 mm s1. 0.2

0
3.1.3. Torque performance 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175
The maximum torque data, which had a removal success rate
(b) Insertion speed, mm s−1
of 100%, were plotted (Fig. 9). The torque required appeared to
be less than 1.0 N m. The ranges of torque at 1500 min1 were Fig. 9 – Maximum torque (a) at various rotation speeds,
less than with the other speeds because data at 1500 min1 configuration of 2 knives and insertion speed 50 mm s1 and
were less than that at the other speeds. It appears that (b) at various insertion speeds, rotation speed 1000 min1
variations in leaf size caused the variations in torque. At 500 and configuration of 2 knifes and 2 brushes.
and 1500 min1, torque data greater than 0.6 N m were not
plotted, because at these speeds the large leaves, which might
cause the high torque, resulted in removal failure. The
et al., 2005). This has the advantage of enabling more leaves to
measured torque was much lower than reported values for
be retrieved.
other agricultural field machinery. For example, the torque of
No effect on the particles sizes caused by the different
a forage harvester was approximately 100–500 Nm (Savoie et
insertion speeds could be discerned (Fig. 10). Using the same
al., 2002). It was therefore concluded that a small electric
rotation speed of 1000 min1 and the configuration of two
motor could be used for the picking device in greenhouse use.
knives and two brushes, the average particle sizes were
As for the relationship between the insertion speed and the
5–30 cm2 at the different insertion speeds.
torque, the range of the torque of the insertion speed
Concerning the relationship between the configurations of
150 mm s1 was small (Fig. 9) and tended to decrease with
knives and brushes and particle size, there were no clear
the increasing insertion speed.
differences. Average particle sizes were 5–30 cm2 using the
Concerning the relationship between the configuration of
different rotor configurations, a rotation speed of 1000 min1
the rotor and the torque, the torque was less than 1 N m. No
and an insertion speed of 50 mm s1.
clear difference between the configurations was observed.

3.1.4. Shredding performance 3.2. Greenhouse experiments

The particle sizes at 500 min1 tended to be larger than the
particle sizes at the other higher speeds (Fig. 10). The reason
is probably that the rotor attacked the leaf too slowly,
resulting in larger particles compared to those at higher
speeds. At speeds from 750 to 1250 min1, leaf particle sizes
were smaller in area than around 20 cm2. Collecting shredded
leaves results in much smaller volumes being stored in the
collection container compared to when whole leaves are
collected. The volume of the leaves picked by the device was
about 20% of the volume of the leaves picked by hand (Ota
3.2.1. Dropped leaves
On several occasions during the greenhouse experiments,
parts of the leaves were dropped onto the ground from the
opening of the housing when they were into the housing
(Table 4). The relative numbers of the dropped leaves were
20–28%. It appeared that the relative number of the dropped
leaves did not depend on the leaf size. The average areas of
dropped leaves were 48–102 cm2 per leaf. The area of the
dropped particles was 10–16% of the average area of the
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388 BIOSYSTEMS ENGINEERING 98 (2007) 381 – 390

70 leaves. It is considered that these percentages of leaf particles

will not effect disease development. In greenhouses in the
60 Netherlands, the ground is usually covered with a synthetic
Particle size, cm2

50 liner. Most of the dropped particles will dry without causing

any disease. In greenhouses in Japan, the floor usually
40 consists of wet soil or a mulching film cover. In the case of
30 a wet soil, even a small number of leaves have to be removed
from the greenhouse.
20
10 3.2.2. Cutting performance
0 The relative numbers of ‘smooth’ cut surfaces for each leaf
0 500 1000 1500 2000 size were around the same value of 30% (Table 5). It is
(a) Rotation speed, min−1 considered that the relative number of ‘smooth’ does not
depend on the leaf size. The relative number of ‘rough’ cut
30 surfaces for large leaves was higher than for the other 2 leaf
sizes. The relative numbers of ‘rough’ cut surfaces for the
25 greenhouse experiments were higher than that for the
Particle size, cm2

laboratory experiment. The reason is that in the laboratory

20
experiment the leaf stalk was fixed on the slider of the linear
15 motion actuator during the insertion, but in the greenhouse
experiments, the leaf stalk was not fixed.
10

5 3.2.3. Execution time

The average number of insertions tended to increase with an
0 increasing leaf size (Table 6). The average execution time per
0 50 100 150 200 leaf was 1.2 s lower for smaller leaves than for larger leaves.
(b) Insertion speed, mm s−1 The average execution times of medium- and large-sized
leaves were around 2.3 s per leaf. The picking speed by the
Fig. 10 – Shredded particle size (a) at various rotation speeds,
device was almost the same as the manual cutting speed of
configuration of 2 knives and insertion speed 50 mm s1 and
1–3 s per leaf by using a knife, and faster than the manual
(b) at various insertion speeds, rotation speed 1000 min1
cutting speed about 3-5 s per leaf when using scissors.
and configuration of 2 knives and 2 brushes.
Around 84% of the small leaves were picked using one
insertion and 16% of leaves were fully picked by two
insertions (Table 7). The average execution time for one
Table 4 – Results of dropped particles of leaves for insertion was 0.9 s. This time was much shorter than the time
greenhouse experiments
measured from the insertion speed of 50 mm s1 used in
laboratory experiments. One reason is that the leaves used in
Leaf Number of Relative Average area
size dropped number of of dropped
particles of dropped particles per
Table 6 – Results of execution time for leaf picking
leaf, piece leaves, % leaf, cm2

Small 14 28 48 Leaf Average number of Average execution

Medium 10 20 86 Size insertions per leaf time per leaf, s
Large 7 20 102
Small 1.2 1.1
Medium 1.9 2.3
Large 2.9 2.3

Table 5 – Results of cut surfaces for greenhouse experi-

ments
Table 7 – Results of execution time for leaf picking of
small leaves and the number of insertions
Leaf Relative number of cut surface type, %
Size
Smooth Smooth with Rough Total No. of No. of Relative Average
small skin insertions leaves, no. of execution time
pieces leaves, % per leaf, s
Small 32 38 30 100
Medium 32 44 24 100 1 42 84 0.9
Large 34 29 37 100 2 8 16 2.0
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Table 8 – Results of execution time for leaf picking of ber leaf picking. Following the laboratory experiments, the
medium leaves and the number of insertions prototype picking device for the greenhouse use was further
developed and evaluated.
No. of No. of Leaves Average In the laboratory experiments, it was found that the highest
insertions leaves, removed, execution time removal success rate was achieved at a rotation speed of
Pieces % per leaf, s 1000 min1, using a rotor with the configuration ‘two knives
and two brushes’ and an insertion speed of 50 mm s1. With
1 23 46 1.1
2 15 30 2.2
this design, the relative number of the ‘smooth’ cut surfaces
3 9 18 4.1 of the leaf stalk together with the ‘smooth cut with small
4 2 4 7.2 skin’ surfaces was 90%. At this percentage the torque required
5 1 2 7.2 for leaf picking was from 0.09 to 0.96 N m. This torque is much
Total 50 100 lower than found in other field farming machines. The
average area of the shredded particle after leaf picking varied
from 7.3 to 21.2 cm2.
In the greenhouse experiments of the pinching training
Table 9 – Results of execution time for leaf picking of system, it was found that percentages of area of the dropped
large leaves and the number of insertions particles to the average area of leaves were 10–16%. It is
considered that this will not increase the risk of diseases
No. of No. of Leaves Average outbreaks in practise. The average execution time for one
insertions leaves, removed, execution time small leaf was 1.1 s per leaf. The average execution time for
pieces % per leaf, s medium-and large-sized leaves was 2.3 s. The device can
easily be adapted for the high-wire training system where it
1 8 23 0.9
2 13 37 1.9 will improve the picking efficiency more than with the
3 11 31 4.4 pinching training system, since with the high-wire training
4 2 6 5.6 system about three leaves per plant have to be picked each
5 1 3 8.6 week, while with the pinching training system only one or
Total 35 100 two leaves per plant have to be picked.
Only low torque is needed for leaf picking, which implies
that only a small motor is necessary for the device, which will
create a useful tool for manual operation. Because of its low
the greenhouse experiments were smaller than the leaves weight, the device could be used as a picking tool for robotic
used in the laboratory experiments. Another reason is that systems. The picking speed of the new device is comparable
the side stems were not fixed on the wire and the leaves had with what is required for leaf picking currently carried out in
flexible connections with side stems. As a result leaves were the Netherlands and significantly faster than that currently
extracted into the housing by the rotation of the picking rotor found in Japan.
and the vacuum at a greater speed. The peripheral speed of
the picking rotor was calculated as 5.2 m s1, which is much
faster than the adequate insertion speed of 50–100 mm s1. It
Acknowledgements
was an advantage that the leaves could be moved into the
housing at a greater rate, because the picking efficiency was
The cooperation within this project is a result of the
better than at the optimum insertion speed.
agreement on cooperation between the Wageningen Univer-
Nearly half of the leaves were picked in one insertion. Using
sity and Research Centre and the Bio-oriented Technology
one insertion leaves were picked in 1 s, which is almost the
Research Advancement Institution for which the authors are
same as for the small leaf (Table 8). One to five actions per leaf
very grateful. Further, the authors wish to thank the growers
picking were observed. When four and five insertions were
Toon van Sadelhoff, Willy and Gert van Bussel for providing
necessary, the leaves were usually larger.
plants, and especially leaves, and fruitful discussions on the
The relative number of leaves removed for one insertion
development of the leaf picking device; the staff members of
was 23% (Table 9). Large leaves were found on the main stem
PPW De Haaff for their care for the young cucumber plants
and leaves were tightly attached to the crop string. To pick a
and DLV advisory worker Jan Boersma for fruitful discussions
large leaf by one insertion, the width of the opening and the
and his initiatives to find cooperative growers.
housing would have to be larger than 350 mm, which would
make the operation handling of the head more difficult.
R E F E R E N C E S

4. Conclusions
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was developed and tested in a laboratory setting and in
greenhouses. The laboratory experimental apparatus was
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