Distribution of Active Volcanoes, Major Mountain Belts

Our country is situated in the Pacific Ring of Fire where the oceanic
plate and several smaller micro plates sub-ducting along the Philippine
plate and several microplates along the Philippine Trench to the East and
smaller trenches to the West. To date, as per report of the PHILVOCS
(Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology), there are 53
active volcanoes in the Philippines characterized by two major NS
trending arcs – the Luzon and Mindanao Volcanic Arcs. This makes the
country’s tectonic setting complex aside from having a number of small
plates squeezed between two convergent plate margins, separated by
small subduction zones and major transform faults.
Some volcanoes in the Philippines are active or dormant. We describe
volcanoes as dormant and active based from their frequency of
eruptions. Those that erupt regularly are called active and those that
have erupted in the past and are inactive are called dormant.
There are mountain ranges closest to a certain volcano. Say for example,
for Taal Volcano, they are Mount Macolod (3107 ft.) which is 7 miles
away from Taal, Mt. Talamitan (2310 ft.), 17.3 miles away from Taal,
Mount Panay (1,644 ft.) 22.2 miles from Taal and San Pablo Volcanic
Field (3576 ft.) which is 22.2 miles away from Taal. Can you name the
mountain ranges of other active volcanoes in the country?

Find the Epicenter

Compute the distance of the epicenter from each of the stations using
this formula:

d = time difference x 100 km

8 seconds
where: d = distance (km)
td = time difference in the arrival time of P-wave and S-wave (seconds)

Seismologist can determine the difference in arrival times

between the P-wave and the S-waves
Seismic waves are the waves of energy caused by the sudden breaking
of rock within the earth or an explosion. They are the energy that travels
through the earth and is recorded on seismographs. There are several
different kinds of seismic waves. These waves move in different ways.
Body waves can travel through the earth's inner layers while surface
waves can only move along the surface of the planet like ripples on
water. Earthquakes radiate seismic energy as both body and surface
waves. Traveling through the interior of the earth, body waves arrive
before the surface waves emitted by an earthquake. These waves are of a
higher frequency than surface waves. The first kind of body wave is the
P wave or primary wave. This is the fastest kind of seismic wave, and,
consequently, the first to 'arrive' at a seismic station. The P wave can
move through solid rock and fluids, like water or the liquid layers of the
earth. It pushes and pulls the rock it moves through just like sound
waves push and pull the air. P waves are also known as compressional
waves, because of the pushing and pulling they do. Subjected to a P
wave, particles move in the same direction that the wave is moving in,
which is the direction that the energy is traveling in, and is sometimes
called the direction of wave propagation.
Sesimologists use triangulation to find the epicenter of an earthquake.
When seismic data is collected from at least three different locations, it
can be used to determine the epicenter by where it intersects. Every
earthquake is recorded on numerous seismographs located in different
directions. Each seismograph records the times when the first (P waves)
and second (S waves) seismic waves arrive. From these, seismologist
can determine how fast the waves are traveling. Knowing this helps
them calculate the distance from the epicenter to each seismograph.
Distance - time graph is a graph wherein the gradient of the line is equal
to the speed of the object. The greater the gradient ( steeper line), the
faster the object is moving. If an object moves a along a straight line, the
distance travelled can be represented by a distance time graph.

Types of Plate Boundaries

Earthquakes occur along the fractures that appear as the plates move
apart.
The three types of plate boundaries are convergent, divergent and
transform. Convergent boundary a boundary in which two plates move
toward each other, causing one of the slabs of the lithosphere to subduct
beneath an overriding plate. Divergent boundary is a region where the
crustal plates are moving apart. Transform fault boundary is a boundary
produced when two plates slide past each other.
Below is a picture showing the fault lines in the Philippines. During
earthquake, it is presumed that plates along the fault line moved and the
occurrence of such earthquake can also affect far from the edges of
tectonic plates, along faults. Faults are cracks in the lithosphere caused
by the stresses created as sections of a plate (or two plates) which are
moving in different directions.
Processes that Occur Along Plate Boundaries
In some ways, our planet resembles like a giant jigsaw puzzle because
its outer surface is composed of about 20 tectonic plates with enormous
sections that roughly fit together and meet at places called plate
boundaries.
Plate boundaries are important since they are often associated with
earthquakes and volcanoes. When Earth’s tectonic plates grind past one
another, enormous amounts of energy can be released in the form of
earthquakes. Volcanoes are also often found near plate boundaries
because molten rock from deep within Earth can travel upward at these
intersections between plates.
When continental and oceanic plates collide, the thinner and denser
oceanic plate is overridden by the thicker and less dense continental
plate. The oceanic plate is forced down into the mantle in a process
known as "subduction." As the oceanic plate descends, it is forced into
higher temperature environments. At a depth of about 100 miles (160
km), materials in the subducting plate begin to approach their melting
temperatures and a process of partial melting begins.
When a convergent boundary occurs between two oceanic plates, one of
those plates will subduct beneath the other. Normally the older plate will
subduct because of its higher density. The subducting plate is heated as
it is forced deeper into the mantle, and at a depth of about 100 miles
(150 km) the plate begins to melt.
Magma chambers are produced as a result of this melting, and the
magma is lower in density than the surrounding rock material. It begins
ascending by melting and fracturing its way through the overlying rock
material. Magma chambers that reach the surface break through to form
a volcanic eruption cone.
In the early stages of this type of boundary, the cones will be deep
beneath the ocean surface but later grow to be higher than sea level. This
produces an island chain. With continued development the islands grow
larger, merge, and an elongate landmass is created.
When a divergent boundary occurs beneath oceanic lithosphere, the
rising convection current below lifts the lithosphere, producing a mid-
ocean ridge. Extensional forces stretch the lithosphere and produce a
deep fissure. When the fissure opens, pressure is reduced on the super-
heated mantle material below. It responds by melting, and the new
magma flows into the fissure. The magma then solidifies and the process
repeats itself.
Transform Plate Boundaries are locations where two plates slide past
one another. The fracture zone that forms a transform plate boundary is
known as a transform fault. Most transform faults are found in the ocean
basin and connect offsets in the mid-ocean ridges. A smaller number
connect mid-ocean ridges and subduction zones.
Transform faults can be distinguished from the typical strike-slip faults
because the sense of movement is in the opposite direction (see
illustration). A strike-slip fault is a simple offset; however, a transform
fault is formed between two different plates, each moving away from the
spreading center of a divergent plate boundary. When you look at the
transform fault diagram, imagine the double line as a divergent plate
boundary and visualize which way the diverging plates would be
moving.
Causes of Plate Movement
Do you know that there are number of competing theories that attempt to
explain what drives the movement of tectonic plates. Three of the forces
that have been proposed as the main drivers of tectonic plate movement
are:
1. Mantle Convection Currents
 warm mantle currents drive and carry plates of lithosphere along
a like a conveyor belt;
2. Ridge Push (Bouyant Upwelling Mantle at Mid-Ocean Ridges)
 Newly formed plates at oceanic ridges are warm, and so have a
higher elevation at the oceanic ridge than the colder, more dense
plate material further away; gravity causes the higher plate at
the ridge to push away the lithosphere that lies further from the
ridge
3. Slab pull
 older, colder plates sink at subduction zones, because as they
cool, they become more dense than the underlying mantle. The
cooler sinking plate pulls the rest of the warmer plate along
behind it.
Another is Plate Tectonics theory wherein it describes the large-scale
motion of seven large plates and the movements of a larger number of
smaller plates of the Earth’s lithosphere, since tectonic processes began
on Earth between 3.3 and 3.5 billion years ago. It deals with the
dynamics of Earth’s outer shell- the Lithosphere- that revolutionized
Earth sciences by providing a uniform context for understanding
mountain-building processes, volcanoes, and earthquakes as well as the
evolution of Earth’s surface and reconstructing its past continents and
oceans.
Others say that it is due to convection currents. Convection currents
beneath the plates are believed to be responsible for plate movement.
The source of energy responsible for generating the heat and convection
currents that move the plates is most likely radioactivity deep in Earth's
mantle. Mantle convection currents, ridge push and slab pull are three of
the forces that have been proposed as the main drivers of plate
movement.
On the other hand, recent research has shown that the major driving
force for most plate movement is slab pull, because the plates with more
of their edges being sub-ducted are the faster-moving ones. However
ridge push is also presented in recent researches to be a force that drives
the movement of plates. With these, try to do more research on these
ideas for you to have a full understanding on these concepts.
Article 1
As a substance like water is heated, the less dense particles rise while
denser particles sink. Once the hot less dense particles cool down, they
sink, and the other less dense particles rise. This continuous process is
called convection current. This is exactly what happens in the Earth’s
mantle. The hot, less dense rising material spreads out as it reaches the
upper mantle causing upward and sideward forces. These forces lift and
split the lithosphere at divergent plate boundaries. The hot magma flows
out of the mantle and cools down to form the new ocean crust. The
downward movement of the convection current occurs along a
convergent boundary where the sinking force pulls the tectonic plate
downward.
The convection currents rotate very slowly, as they move and drag the
plates along. Because of convection current, the tectonic plates are able
to move slowly along the tectonic boundaries, pushing each other,
sliding past each other and drifting away from each other.
As an oceanic crust moves away from a divergent boundary, it becomes
denser than the newer oceanic crust. As the older seafloor sinks, the
weight of the uplifted ridge pushes the oceanic crust toward the trench at
the subduction zone. This process is called ridge push.
Slab pull is the other possible process involved in the tectonic plate
movement. The weight of the subducting plate pulls the trailing slab into
the subduction zone just like a tablecloth slipping off the table and
pulling items with it. Now that you understand what happens inside the
Earth and its effects on the Earth’s surface, you should be able to realize
that the tectonic activities at the surface just like volcanic eruptions and
earthquakes are inevitable. You should view the Earth as a dynamic
planet and still the most fascinating planet for it offers you a home that
no other planet can. Since you can’t prevent these tectonic activities
from happening, the following performance task will enable you to
contribute meaningfully in minimizing the damage that these
phenomena can bring.
Article 2 : Importance of Plate Movement
Our planet is changing before our eyes, and as a result, many species are
living on the edge. Research by astronomers at the Harvard-Smithsonian
Center for Astrophysics, shows that if Earth had been slightly smaller
and less massive, it would not have plate tectonics - the forces that move
continents and build mountains. And without plate tectonics, life might
never have gained a foothold. "Plate tectonics are essential to life as we
know it," said Diana Valencia of Harvard University. "Our calculations
show that bigger is better when it comes to the habitability of rocky
planets."
Plate tectonics -the movement of huge chunks, or plates, of a planet's
surface- are crucial to a planet's habitability because they enable
complex chemistry and recycle substances like carbon dioxide, which
acts as a thermostat and keeps Earth balmy. Carbon dioxide that was
locked into rocks is released when those rocks melt, returning to the
atmosphere from volcanoes and oceanic ridges. "Recycling is important
even on a planetary scale," Valencia explained.
Valencia and her colleagues, Richard O'Connell and Dimitar Sasselov
(Harvard University), have examined the extremes to determine whether
plate tectonics would be more or less likely on different-sized rocky
worlds. In particular, focusing on "super-Earths"-planets more than
twice the size of Earth and up to 10 times as massive.
New research indicates that a massive impact may have happened to our
planet that may have made the Earth a friendlier place for life because it
corresponds with this planet's establishment of plate tectonics. About
3.26 billion years ago, an object between 23 and 26 miles wide (37 and
58 kilometers) crashed into the Earth somewhere and left geological
evidence behind in South Africa.
Article 3 :
In 1912, Alfred Wegener (pronounced as vey-guh-nuhr), a German
meteorologist, proposed a theory that about 200 million years ago, the
continents were once one large landmass. He called this landmass
Pangaea, a Greek word which means “All Earth.” This Pangaea started
to break into two smaller supercontinent called Laurasia and
Gondwanaland during the Jurassic Period. These smaller
supercontinents broke into the continents and these continents separated
and drifted apart since then. Wegener searched for evidences to support
his claim. He noticed the fit of the edges of the continents on the
opposite sides of the South Atlantic. His evidence to the Continental
Drift Theory includes the distribution of fossils in different continents,
rock features, and ancient climates.
Technology (192-1950)- the SONAR (Sound Navigation and Ranging)
system is a device that bounces sound waves off underwater objects and
then records the echoes of these sound waves. It allowed scientist to map
the mid-ocean ridges. In the 1950s scientists used magnetometers to
detect magnetic variations on the ocean floor. Age acting rocks helped
prove that mid-ocean ridges create new sea floor.
Arthur Holmes (1929) was a British geologist. He suggested that thermal
convection currents in the mantle were the force moving the continents.
Ship Atlantis (1931-1966)- Atlantis was the first ship built specifically
for marine biology, geology, and oceanographic. The first Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institution (WHOI) research ship. The ship began
working in 1931 and retired in 1966.
Hugo Benioff (1935) is an American seismologist. He is famous for his
work on deep focus earthquakes and how they are associated with
subduction zones. He was the first to propose that subduction zones
cause deep focus earthquakes.
Article 4 :
At first Alfred Wegener's idea about continental drift were rejected. It
was not until the 1960's where scientists began to except his ideas. One
of the largest geographic association called "American Association of
Petroleum Geologists" criticized his ideas. His father-in- law who was a
famous meteorologist also criticizes his ideas. Geophysicists and
American geologists such as George Gaylord Simpson and Sir Harold
Jeffrey also rejected his ideas about continental drift. They first rejected
him because he was not able to find an adequate mechanism to explain
continental drift. Later, when he suggested two mechanisms such as
"Pohlflucht" which means "flight from the poles," explains why
continents seemed to drift towards the equator. Another mechanism was
that explained that the tidal force was moving the continents. Even after
having those mechanisms, his ideas were disapproved. These people
rejected Alfred Wegener's ideas because they thought that the tidal force
was too weak to move the continents. Alfred Wegener's lack of age and
lack of experience in geology was another reason why his hypothesis
was rejected. After Wegener's death scientists started to accept his
hypothesis. Geologists like Harry Hammond Hess found proof of
accepting the concept of continental drift. He proposed an idea of
seafloor spreading. Paleomagnetism was developed in the 1950s which
showed "that rocks in different continents appeared to have different
directions of magnetization, as if continents had drifted apart from each
other." His ideas of seafloor explain that "the ocean floor is constantly
being created at underwater ridges in the middle of the oceans, spreading
outwards, and being consumed in trenches underneath the continents."
At last in the 1960s the continental drift had began to be accepted by the
entire earth science community. It took a lot of time for Wegener's
hypothesis to become the foundation for a revolution for geologist, but it
was accepted later.

Line of Evidences that support Plate Movement

Do you know some of the ideas presented by Alfred Wegener? He
proposed that the continents were not stationary but actually moving or
drifting away from one another. His primary sources of evidence
included 1. the tilt of the continents , 2. locations of fossil fuels 3. glacial
till deposits and 4. the shift of climates over time. These principles are
considered and accepted in 1970 after all the principles on magnetic
shifts, convection currents and sea floor spreading were integrated in the
so called Plate Tectonics Theory
Evidences of Plate Movement
 Plate boundaries are often the sites of significant volcanic
activity
 At spreading centers, magma is moving up to the surface,
creating new lithosphere as plates spread apart
 Magma generated in subduction zones can produce a chain of
continental volcanoes or volcanic island arc.
There is a variety of evidence that supports the claims that plate
tectonics accounts for (1) the distribution of fossils on different
continents, (2) the occurrence of earthquakes, and (3) continental and
ocean floor features including mountains, volcanoes, faults, and
trenches. The continents fit together almost like puzzle pieces forming
Pangaea (one supercontinent).
Fossils on different continents are similar to fossils on continents that
were once connected. When the continents split, different life forms
developed. Most continental and oceanic floor features are the result of
geological activity and earthquakes along plate boundaries. The exact
patterns depend on whether the plates are converging (being pushed
together) to create mountains or deep ocean trenches, (diverging) being
pulled apart to form new ocean floor at mid-ocean ridges, or sliding past
each other along surface faults.
Most distributions of rocks within Earth's crust, including minerals,
fossil fuels, and energy resources, are a direct result of the history of
plate motions and collisions and the corresponding changes in the
configurations of the continents and ocean basins.