Best Basics of Research Methodologies

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Course Outline Provided by

DR. HELEN B. AGGABAO
On the Subject, RESEARCH METHODS
Philippine Colleges of Health Sciences, Inc., Manila
School of Graduate Studies
Prepared by
CHRISTIAN LUTHER FABIA, B.S.N.,R.N.
Master of Arts in Nursing
Major in Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing
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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY, Prepared by C.LUTHER FABIA, B.S.N.,R.N.

Subject: RESEARCH METHODS, Professor: DR. HELEN B. AGGABAO
Philippine Colleges of Health and Sciences Inc., School of Graduate Studies | 1
As a Registered Nurse and a student at PCHS-Graduate School, I am expected to
understand the basic to complex processes of scientific research in preparation to conduct my
own scientific investigation in the future. This quest for higher learning I believe is intended to
base professional practice on emerging evidences from research, that is, to adopt an evidence-
based practice (which is broadly defined as the use of best clinical evidence in making patient
care decisions), and such evidences typically come from research conducted by nurses and other
health care professionals.
Through the guidance of my mentors at the Philippine Colleges of Health Sciences, I

am certain that I will be able to make a significant contribution to my profession
through research.
And, the realization of this aspiration begins with thoroughly understanding the concepts in
Research Methods.
The Student
About the Compilation
This compilation of various information on generally acceptable knowledge, concepts, principles, theories
and practices in RESEARCH. It adapts contents from various publicly acknowledged publications, authors, theorists,
authorities and practitioners whose works are commonly utilized in the academe and practice, and are frequently-tested
competencies locally and abroad.
The works of these authors, theorists, authorities and practitioners are indispensable in learning research methodologies
as they are indispensable in the completeness of this compilation.
Care has been taken to confirm accuracy of the information presented and describes generally accepted
practices. However the student who prepared this material is not responsible for errors or omissions or for any
consequences from application of the information in this compilation.
The primary goal of the student is to familiarize concepts in the subject RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES based
on the COURSE OUTLINE provided by his Graduate School Professor DR. HELEN B. AGGABAO. It is not
intended for commercial publication and resources were acquired legally.
It is his great pleasure that this compilation be reproduced for reference of other students aiming to thoroughly
understand RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES.

- Contents -
Part 1: Introduction to research and research utilization

Definition and significance of research
Link between research and practice
Overview of research utilization
Interdisciplinary and collaborative research
Overview of research methods
Part 2: Initial steps of the research process

Purpose and problem statements
Variables of the Study
Literature review
Framework and Paradigm of the Study
Research questions and hypotheses
Part 3: Research Design

Ethical design of research
Sampling
Designing the Research Instrument
Study validity and elements of good design
Validity and Reliability of the Research Instrument
Part 4: Measurement and data collection

Measurement concepts and strategies
Data Collection
Part 5: Data analysis

Statistical theory review
Types of statistics and their uses
Qualitative analyses
Interpretation of findings
Part 6: Communication of Findings and Utilization of Research

Ways to communicate research
Critiquing research
Theories of utilization
Barriers and solutions to utilization
Role in research utilization
Part 7: Preparing the Research Report

Technical Details: Style, Format, and Organization of the Research Report.
Check these helpful Graphical Bullets:
Means the concept proceeding is significant to Nursing
Means the proceeding concept is important

PART 1: INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH AND RESEARCH UTILIZATION
1.1 Definition and Significance of Research
The word research is derived from the old French word cerchier, meaning to seek or search.
The prefix “re” means “again” and signifies replication of the search. One seeks new knowledge or to directly utilize knowledge
specific to life situations.
It is a systematic inquiry that uses disciplined methods to answer questions or problems. Research is also defined as a studious
inquiry or examination, investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted
theories or laws in the light of new facts or practical applications of such new or revised theories or laws.
Research in the broadest sense is an attempt to gain solutions to problems so that its ultimate goal is to
develop, refine and expand a body of knowledge.
The Philippine Nurses Association defines research as: “An honest, scientific investigation undertaken for the
purpose of discovering new facts or establishing new relationships among facts already known which will contribute to the
present body of knowledge and can lead to an effective solution of existing problems. It involves careful or critical thinking to
revise or revalidate accepted conclusions and previously held concepts or to establish generalizations or principles (PNA,
1995)”.
Nursing research is a tool of science, its components are:
a. Order and system- process wherein the researcher moves in a systematic fashion, from identification of the
problem to the conclusions and recommendations.
b. Control- means the imposition of conditions in the research situation, to minimize bias and maximize the precision
and validity of data gathered.
c. Empiricism- refers to the gathering of evidence and relying on one’s own senses.
d. Generalizations- means that the research findings may be applied to a situation or population larger than the one
studied.
1.2 Link between research and practice
Research and its Significance to Evidence-based Practice (EBP)

The ultimate goal of nursing is to provide evidence-based practice that provides quality outcomes for patients, healthcare
providers and the healthcare system (Craig and Smythe 2007; Pearson et al., 2007).
Evidence-based Practice is the conscientious use of current best evidence of making clinical decisions about patient care. It
evolves from the integration of the best research evidence with clinical expertise and patient needs and values (Institute of
Medicine 2001; Sachett, et al., 2000)
It is a problem-solving approach to clinical practice that integrates:

Research- answering clinical questions utilizing relevant evidences (patient history, assessment methods, healthcare
resources) and scientific approaches; Clinical expertise; Patient’s preferences and values
Ultimately, the significance of research in nursing practice is to provide an evidence-based clinical decision for
better patient outcomes and create best practices.
Research and its Significance to Quality Assurance (QA)

The goal of QA programs is to continually monitor the quality of care in an institution and thereby generate data that can be
used as basis for determining institutional policies and procedures, administrative decisions and budget justifications. This
database can be used for future planning.

Nursing research therefore is a tool use to expand and generate knowledge through scientific investigation of
healthcare issues. By building findings of reported research, a study can be replicated or the applicability of results to practice
in a given institution can be determined.
1.3 Overview of research utilization


 “Research utilization is a process by which scientifically produced knowledge is transferred to
practice" (Brown, 1999).
Utilization of research in nursing refers to the actual systematic implementation of a scientifically sound, research-
based innovation in a health care setting with an accompanying process to access the outcomes of the clinical change .
Three categories of utilization are identified:

 Instrumental research utilization- Is a direct use of research knowledge, it is the concrete application of
research in clinical practice; either in making specific decisions about patient care, or as the knowledge
guiding specific interventions.
 Instrumental use- Research is often translated into a useable form (e.g., clinical practice guidelines or
protocols). Conceptual research utilization is the cognitive use of research where the research may be used
to change opinion or mind set about a specific practice area, but not necessarily particular actions. This
indirect application of research is believed to occur more often in practice than instrumental use, but in a less
perceivable way.
 Symbolic (or persuasive) research utilization- Addresses the use of research knowledge as a political
tool in order to influence or legitimate policies and decisions.
Important:
Although, I have discussed in the previous section about the significance of research to Evidence-based practice
as a tool of investigation, nurse researchers should not confuse EBP (Evidence Based Practice) with research utilization.
While research utilization overlaps with some of the same philosophic threadworks of EBP, EBP goes beyond just the rigorous
scientific research steps.
 Research Utilization refers to the review and critique of scientific research, and then the application of the findings
to clinical practice.
 Evidence-Based Practice (EBP) represents a broader concept. When clinicians use the EBP approach, they go
beyond the expertise of clinicians and researchers, and consider the patient's preferences and values to guide patient
care.
1.4 Interdisciplinary and collaborative research
Interdisciplinary involves the combining of two or more academic disciplines into one activity (e.g. a research project). It is
about creating something new by crossing boundaries, and thinking across them. It is related to an interdiscipline or an
interdisciplinary field, which is an organizational unit that crosses traditional boundaries between academic
disciplines or schools of thought, as new needs and professions have emerged.
Originally, the term interdisciplinary is applied within education and training didactics to describe studies that use methods and
insights of several established disciplines or traditional fields of study. Interdisciplinary involves researchers, students, and
teachers in the goals of connecting and integrating several academic schools of thought, professions, or technologies - along
with their specific perspectives - in the pursuit of a common task.
For instance, the epidemiology of AIDS or global warming require understanding of diverse disciplines to solve neglected
problems. Interdisciplinary may be applied where the subject is felt to have been neglected or even misrepresented in the
traditional disciplinary structure of research institutions, for example, women's studies or ethnic area studies.
The adjective interdisciplinary is most often used in educational circles when researchers from two or more
disciplines pool their approaches and modify them so that they are better suited to the problem at hand,
including the case of the team-taught course where students are required to understand a given subject in terms of multiple
traditional disciplines. For example, the subject of land use may appear differently when examined by different disciplines, for
instance, biology, chemistry, economics, geography, and politics.
Interdisciplinary and collaborative research is needed in most nursing researches. Nurse

researchers conduct studies that deal with human, his behavior, the environment and other factors affecting
health in which, he needs ideas and information by other healthcare disciplines.
1.5 Overview of research methods
Experimental and Non-Experimental Research Methods in Brief
o Experimental research: In experimental research, the aim is to manipulate an independent variable(s)

and then examine the effect that this change has on a dependent variable(s). Since it is possible to
manipulate the independent variable(s), experimental research has the advantage of enabling a researcher to
identify a cause and effect between variables.
For example: The research subject is composed of 100 students completing a comprehensive exam in Nursing
Management where the dependent variable was the exam mark (measured from 0 to 100), and the independent
variables were completion time (measured in hours) and intelligence (measured using IQ score). Here, it would be
possible to use an experimental design and manipulate the completion time of the students. The instructor could divide
the students into two groups, each made up of 50 students. In "group one", the instructor would allow the students to
complete the exam indefinitely. Alternately, "group two" could be asked to complete the exam in a definite time (eg. 1
hour maximum). The instructor could then compare the marks that the students achieved.
o Non-experimental research: In non-experimental research, the researcher does not manipulate the
independent variable(s). This is not to say that it is impossible to do so, but it will either be impractical or
unethical to do so.
For example, a researcher may be interested in the effect of illegal, recreational drug use (the independent variable(s))
on certain types of behavior (the dependent variable(s)). However, whilst possible, it would be unethical to ask
individuals to take illegal drugs in order to study what effect this had on certain behaviors. As such, a researcher could
ask both drug and non-drug users to complete a questionnaire that had been constructed to indicate the extent to which
they exhibited certain behaviors. While it is not possible to identify the cause and effect between the variables, we can
still examine the association or relationship between them.

PART 2: INITIAL STEPS OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS
2. 1 Purpose and Problem Statements
Introduction: Guidelines in the Formulation of a Research Problem
The initial step in the research process involves the formulation of the problem which includes the
conceptualization of the topic the researcher wants to study. There are two types of research problems, those which relate
to states of nature and those which relate to relationships between variables. At the very outset the researcher must
single out the problem he wants to study, he must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter that he
would like to inquire into.
A topic may be conceptualized in various ways, major of which are:

 Natural curiosity- a burning interest in a particular area may lead to formulation of a problem.
 Intellectual curiosity- enables the researcher to conduct study in the most creative and productive ways.
 Literature- the vast availability of literature allows the researcher to seek answers to questions and problems
others have already identified.
 Phenomena- in the nursing profession, topics are vast, such as those experienced in hospitals, communities or
clinics- where the patients are cared for. Specific topics may focus on the kind of patient care being given in
obstetrics, pediatrics, psychiatric, etc.. Other issues may involve health care costs, student training and continuing
education of practitioners.
A chosen research problem should satisfy the following criteria:
1. Feasibility- Means the probability for the study to be accomplished is great. This is determined by the following
factors:
a. Availability of the Study Subjects- The type and number of study subjects must be defined and their consent and
willingness to participate in the study must be secured. In research studies involving the nursing profession, the subjects
decision to participate most especially in health care institutions, depends to a large extent on the explanation the
researcher gives.
Informed Consent- includes the explanation of benefits and risks involved. The subject must be an adult of
sound mind who can give consent freely and voluntarily. Mentally-ill, vulnerable, unconscious and children should
have the consent of their guardian or significant other.
b. Funding- Adequate supplies, tools and facility must be available. Possible expenses would include transportation,
allowances, cost of materials, etc.
c. Cooperation of Others- Cooperation of other personnel within the study setting can be easily gained if they view the
study as important to them or their welfare. Full support of the people involved must be secured.
d. Approval from Higher Authorities- If the study subjects are within the control of an institution (eg. Learning,
Healthcare), permission must be sought from the highest authority within that agency.
e. Adequate Time- Before a study is conducted, the amount of the time needed to finish the study should be estimated,
factors are:
- Type, number and availability of study subjects
- Research design
- Methods of collecting data
- Study completion
- Research report writing
f. Other considerations- possible danger to the lives or physical and mental well-being of the subjects involved in the
study.
2. Significance to One’s profession- It is important to conduct study within one’s specialty- eg. Nurses conduct
researches that deal with healthcare delivery, diseases, drugs, etc. whereas teachers conduct study concerning
student behaviors, learning styles, etc.
3. The concept to be studied must relate to observable events:
Overt behavior- objectively verified (both by the researcher and other persons)
Covert behavior- elicited by reliable instruments developed for that purpose
4. The findings of a good researchable problem may be generalized in other areas- The problem is derived
from a sound conceptual framework or models to confirm, support, modify or reject the existing framework.
5. The purpose of the study is clearly defined- The study may possibly add to the field of nursing knowledge or
new approaches in handling misbehaved elementary students. Whichever the case is, the problem should clearly
state its purpose- to contribute knowledge, develop new procedures or replicate studies to confirm or modify
findings.
6. The researcher must be interested and qualified to do the study- Competence, technical skills in research
methodologies, sound judgment in coping with many decisions that have to be made throughout the research
process and innovativeness are vital attributes of a qualified researcher.
A. PROBLEM STATEMENT
Initially the problem may be stated in a broad general way and then the ambiguities, if any, relating to the
problem be resolved. Then, the feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered before a working formulation of the
problem can be set up. The formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem, thus, constitutes the first step in a
scientific inquiry.
Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research problem, understanding the problem thoroughly and
rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.
Statement of the Tentative Problem

A research problem is an enigmatic, perplexing or troubling condition, the purpose of which is to solve the problem or
contribute to its solution. It articulates the issues to the addressee and indicates the need for a study. It indicates the specific
research questions the researcher wants to answer or address
Problem statement should be formulated as specifically as possible. It should represent an action or

change. It may be geared toward practical real-life situation or it may represent a theoretical situation that would
expand nursing knowledge.
The problem may be stated in following ways:

1. A question and/or several questions
An Example of a single-question:
Do patients in open wards in general hospitals receive more nursing care than those in private rooms?
An Example of Single question followed by a series of questions:
What are the common methods of contraception practiced by 100 selected mothers in Brgy. X?
1. Is the selection of a particular method influenced by religion, socioeconomic status or
education?
2. What implications does this study have for public health nurses in the area?
2. Sentence/ declarative form

An Example of a single statement:
The study aims to determine the knowledge of cancer, attitudes towards cancer care and
cancer care practices among primary caregivers in Hospital G.
An Example of series of declarative sentences
This study seeks to assess the clinical learning experiences of nursing students of the college of
nursing in two affiliated hospitals. Specifically it aims to determine:
1. The extent to which the hospitals complied with the requirements of the nursing school
program in terms of philosophy and objective.
2. The extent to which clinical instructors have synchronized the learning experiences from
classroom to clinical areas.
3. Declarative sentence followed by a series of questions:

Eg.: The study seeks to determine the professional continuing education of nurses in Hospital Z.
Speciafically, the study seeks to answer the following:
1. What are the professional and personal characteristics of nurses in Hospital Z?
2. What programs could be proposed for adoption by continuing education providers in
Hospital Z?

B. PURPOSE
The problem deals with “what” is to be studied, and the PURPOSE with “WHY” the study is being undertaken.
Therefore, the purpose is the reason or justification why the study is being carried out.
The purpose statement establishes the general direction of the inquiry and captures usually-in one or two
clear sentences- the essence of the study
In the nursing profession, the purpose of a research study may be to contribute to nursing
education or administration.
The objective differs from the purpose as it relates to realistic short-term goals but both evolve from the
statement of the problem.
Stating the Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study is usually expressed as a declarative statement. Sometimes the investigator
combines “what” is being done and “why” it is being done. The purpose must be precise, clear, concrete and easy to
communicate.
The statement usually contains an ACTIVE VERB preceded by the preposition “to”. Thus it is common that
purposes begin with “to assess”, “to provide” and “to gain insight.” It is usually easy to identify a purpose statement
because the word “purpose” is clearly stated (other explicitly used words are “aim”, “goal”, “objective” and
“intention”.
A statement of purpose identifies the key study variables and their

possible interrelationships, as well as the nature of the population of
Statement of Purpose in a interest.
Quantitative Study Example- “The purpose of this study was to examine the incidence and
prevalence of lipodystrophy-related symptoms in persons with HIV and to
determine the impact of these symptoms on health-related quality of life”
In qualitative studies, the statement of purpose indicates the nature of
inquiry, the key concept or phenomenon, and the group, community or
Statement of Purpose in a setting under study.
Qualitative Study: Example- “The purpose of this study was to explore the memories of patients
who had a short term admission to the ICU, with particular focus on dreams,
nightmares and confusion”
Other Examples:
“The purpose of this study is to determine if a specifically planned program of reality orientation would decrease the
degree of confusion among elderly patients experiencing progressive dementia”.
“To assess the post-surgical patient’s knowledge in caring for his colostomy bag”.
“To provide information on how underlicensed nurses are being utilized in private hospitals”.
“The purpose of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of health teaching to hospitalized cardiac patients at
Philippine Heart Center.”

2. 2 VARIABLES OF THE STUDY
A. QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE VARIABLES
1. Quantitative variable is a variable that can be measured numerically, two types are:
 Discrete- Values are countable; can assume only certain values with no intermediate values (whole numbers); A
quantitative variable with possible values of only specific points on a scale; (Eg.: number of nursing personnel; bed
capacity; frequency of patient visit; heart rate 110 bpm)
 Continuous- Can assume any numerical value over a certain interval; variable where the scale is continuous and not
made up of discrete steps or distinct points on a scale; the values between the data have meaning; the data can be
broken into parts; (Eg: Temperature- 37.8 deg celcius; age- 25.4 years; height 150.7 cm)
2. Qualitative/ categorical variable is a variable that cannot assume a numerical value but can be
classified into two or more nonnumeric categories.
 Nominal variables are variables that have two or more categories, but which do not have an intrinsic order;
considered as the lowest level of measurement used when the data can be recognized but categories cannot be
compared or ranked; for mutual exclusive, but not ordered, categories.
Examples: gender, race, marital status, diagnoses
 Dichotomous variables are nominal variables which have only two categories or levels.
Examples: Sex-Male and Female ; Survey question like “Are you satisfied with the current policies and hospital procedures”
having only two answers “yes” or “no”).
 Ordinal variables are variables that have two or more categories just like nominal variables only the categories
can also be ordered or ranked. Data may be arranged in some order but differences between data values either
cannot be determined or are meaningless; the order matters but not the difference between values
Example: If a nurse researcher inquires is the nursing staff liked the new policies of the Nursing Service on work schedules,
responses on the list are: "Not very much", "They are OK" or "Yes, a lot" then you have an ordinal variable. Why? Because
you have 3 categories, namely "Not very much", "They are OK" and "Yes, a lot" and you can rank them from the most positive
(Yes, a lot), to the middle response (They are OK), to the least positive (Not very much).
For example, you ask patients to express the amount of pain they are feeling on a scale of 1 to 10. A score of 7
means more pain that a score of 5, and that is more than a score of 3. But the difference between the 7 and the 5 may not be
the same as that between 5 and 3. The values simply express an order.
Related concepts: Other Levels of Measurement*
 Interval is like the ordinal, with the additional property that meaningful amount of differences between
data can be determined.
For example, in measuring the patient’s body temperature, The difference between a temperature of 36.5 degrees
and 37.5 degrees is the same difference as between 38 degrees and 90 degrees.
 Ratio is the interval level modified to include the inherent zero starting point. For values at this level,
differences and ratios are meaningful; has all the properties of an interval variable, and also has a clear
definition of 0.0. When the variable equals 0.0, there is none of that variable. Variables like height and
weight are ratio variables.
Examples:
- A weight of 4 grams is twice a weight of 2 grams, because weight is a ratio variable.
- A temperature of 100 degrees C is not twice as hot as 50 degrees C, because temperature is not a ratio
variable.
(*There will be a more comprehensive discussion of these concepts in the proceeding sections)

B. VARIABLES IN A HYPOTHESIS
A variable in a hypothesis is a quality, property or characteristic of the person or thing to be studied that can be
quantitatively measured. It is any factor that varies.
Common specific variables used in conducting nursing clinical researches include temperature, vital signs, health
status and anthropometric data.
In a hypothesis, there is an INDEPENDENT VARIABLE (cause) and a DEPENDENT VARIABLE (effect). The independent
variable is the one manipulated by the investigator while the dependent variable is the response.
When a STIMULUS (INDEPENDENT) is applied to an ORGANISM (target population) will produce a RESPONSE
(DEPENDENT).
*Independent and Dependent Variables will be identified in the examples presented under hypothesis section.
2. 3 LITERATURE REVIEW
The literature review is an organized written presentation of what has been published on a topic. Broadly, the
review covers previous studies in the identified problem, background, studies, significance of the study and related theories.
Significant terms:
a. Theoretical literature- consists of concept analyses, models, theories and conceptual frameworks that support a
research problem and a purpose.
b. Empirical literature- comprises relevant studies in journals and books including unpublished studies such as
master’s theses (M.A. course requirement) and dissertations (extensive and original research project as a final
requirement for doctoral degree).
c. Abstract- summary of the study usually found at the beginning of the research study, it includes:
1. The introduction and objective
2. The research problem
3. The rationale for the study and the hypothesis
The methodology used is also included in the abstract and states the number and characteristics of the
participants; the setting of the study (location); the research design and how the study was conducted. The abstract shows
the relevance of the study to the one currently undertaken by the researcher in terms of methodology, as matched to the
research question, the selection of the participants and the outcomes.
What questions must be addressed?

1. What is known about the topic?
2. What research evidence is lacking, inconclusive or too limited?
3. What directions for the study are indicated by the works of other researchers?
4. What are the existing theories in the field of study?
5. What views need further testing?
6. What contribution can the present paper be expected to make?
7. What appropriate methods/ designs of previous studies seem unsatisfactory?

Process of Literature Review
1. Initial review- is done to have an overview of the problem area and eventually develop a frame of reference
(ideas, understandings, and background within which research will be done). A thorough review covers studies that
are published for the last five years. There should be full awareness of the basic facts and issues on which there is
agreement or disagreement, as well as on the theories that have attempted to explain behavior and interactions in
the problem area.
2. Second review- should focus on tested research approaches and methods, data collection instruments and
techniques of data analysis.
Purposes:
a. To define research questions, methods and tools that may prove useful in problem identification, research design and
instrument development.
b. To reveal difficulties experienced by previous researchers.
c. To provide clear information on the tasks carried out by previous researchers.
d. To locate findings that may be included in a similar study to confirm or refute earlier findings.
e. To provide comparative data in the analysis and interpretation of one’s own.
f. To identify studies that may be replicated or re-tested .
g. To compare one’s findings with other theoretical and conceptual frameworks.
Sources of Literature Review:

a. Primary source- written by a person who originated and is responsible for generating the ideas published (eg: the
person who conducted a research authors an article in a publication).
b. Secondary source- summarizes or quotes content from primary sources (eg: authors paraphrase the works of
researchers and theorists)
For Nurse Researchers, there are three especially useful electronic databases:
1. CUMMULATIVE INDEX TO NURSING AND ALLIED HEALTH LITERATURE (CINAHL)
2. MEDICAL LITERATURE ON LINE (MedLINE)
3. INSTITUTE FOR SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION (ISI) Web of Knowledge
Other helpful resources are: Journal of Advanced Nursing Practice; American Journal of Nursing; Nursing Research; American Journal of
Nursing
2. 4 Framework and Paradigm of the Study
Defining Theories, Models and Framework

Many terms have been used in connection with conceptual context for research, including theories, models, frameworks,
schemes and maps. There is some overlap in how these terms are used, partly because they are interrelated.
1. Theory (the terms is used in many ways). Theory in its broadest sense simply denotes an abstraction. Further, theory
refers to an abstract generalization that offers a systematic generalization about how phenomena are interrelated. For
example, nursing instructors and students frequently use the terms to refer to the content covered in subject areas, as
opposed to the actual practice of performing nursing activities.
Two Types of theories are:

 Traditional Theory- Scientific theories that involve a series of propositions regarding interrelationships among concepts;
two subtypes are:
Grand theories/ macrotheories: account for large segment of human experience (eg.: Nursing Process)
Middle-range theories: more restricted in scope; focusing narrow range of experience (eg.: Stress, self-care, health-promotion)

 Descriptive Theory- Less restrictive definition in which a theory can account for a single phenomenon and plays
an important role in qualitative researches; describe or classify characteristics of groups, specimen, situations or
events by describing commonalities found in discrete observations.
2. Model represents some aspects of reality, concrete or abstract, by means of a likeness that may be structural, pictorial,
diagrammatic or mathematical. It does not focus on phenomena but rather on their structure or function. It is a symbolic
representation of an idea, it may be complete but does not show how and why the parts are interrelated.
 Conceptual Models (syn.: Conceptual Frameworks, Conceptual Schemes)

Represent a less formal attempt at organizing phenomena than theories, like theories conceptual models deal with
abstractions (concepts) that are assembled by virtue of their relevance to a common theme. These models provide a
perspective interrelated phenomena, but are more loosely structured than theories
Much of the conceptual work that has been done in connection with nursing practice falls into the category of
CONCEPTUAL MODELS. These models represent conceptualizations of the nursing process and the nature of nurse-client
relationships.
 Conceptual Paradigm/ Schematic Models are often used in connection with symbolic representations of a
conceptualization. These are visual representation of some aspect of reality. These models use concept as
building blocks, but with minimal use of words. A visual symbolic representation of a theory or conceptual framework
often helps to express abstract ideas in concise and readily understandable form.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, an example of schematic model
3. Framework
Not every study is based on a formal theory or conceptual model, but every study has a framework- a theoretical rationale. In
study based on a theory, the framework is referred to as theoretical framework; whereas in study that has its roots in a
specified conceptual model, the framework is called conceptual framework.
________________________________________
The Five-step Process for Developing Conceptual (theoretical) Definitions:

a. Develop preliminary definition
b. Review relevant literature
c. Develop or identify exemplars (good example/ model)
d. Map the concept’s meaning
e. State the developed conceptual definitions
Criteria for Judging a Theory:

It is suggested that a theory be evaluated before it is used as basis for a research project. The theory must be evaluated based on the
following questions:
1. What is the significance of a theory? Does it address a problem of a particular interest to my profession and the society?
2. Does the theory offer the possibility of explaining or systematically describing some phenomena?
3. Is the theory testable? Can the concepts be observed and measured
Internal and External Criticism in Evaluating a Theory (Stevens)

Internal Criticism
a. Clarity- theory is presented in such a way that concepts and propositions and their relationships are easily understood.
b. Consistency- theory is must be consistent with the meaning of terms, interpretations, principles and methods of reasoning.
c. Logical development- the reasoning process must lead logically to its conclusion.
d. Level of theory development- the theory is understood within the context of existing knowledge about the subject.
External Criticism
If the criticism is used in nursing research, the theory is evaluated based on how it relates to the world of people, health
environment and nursing.

In general, the following are criteria in making an external criticism of a theory:
a. Adequacy- adequacy of principles, interpretations and methods
b. Utility- the theory is must be useful in education, research or practice, it must be operational and testable
c. Significance- the theory must address issues that are basic and relevant to one’s profession and aim towards increasing
knowledge
d. Discrimination- the theory must clearly relate to one’s profession (Eg.: In nursing research, the theory must clearly discriminate
between what nursing is and must be what it is not)
e. Scope- the scope indicates whether the theory has a narrow or broad focus
f. Complexity and Parsimony:
 Complexity in a theory examines the relationships among many variables.
 Parsimony is the decision criterion in which, when two or more theoretically sound solutions exist, the least complex solution with
the fewest assumptions should be selected.
2. 5 Research Questions and Hypotheses
A. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Research questions are, in some cases, direct rewordings of statements of purpose, phrased interogatively rather
than declaratively. The Question form has the advantage of simplicity and directness and it invites and answer and help to
focus attention on the kind of data that would have to be collected to provide that answer. Some research reports thus omit a
statement of purpose and state only research questions. Other researchers use a set of research questions to clarify or lend
greater specifity to a global purpose statement.
Research questions are phrased interogatively rather than declaratively:

Declarative The purpose of this study is to assess the relationship bewteen the dependency level of renal transplant
recipients and their rate of recovery.
Interrogative What is the relationship between the dependency level of renal transplant recipients and their
rate of recovery?
B. Defining Research Hypotheses
A hypothesis is a sharp guess or inference that is formulated and provisionally adopted; It is a statement between the
phenomenon and the variables being studied. Broadly:
a. A supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting point for further
investigation.
b. A proposition made as a basis for reasoning, without any assumption of its truth.
A hypothesis is a prediction about the relationship between two or more variables. A hypothesis thus translates a quantitative
research question into a precise prediction of expected outcomes; whereas in qualitative studies, researchers do not begin with a
hypothesis. In part because there is too little known about the topic to justify a hypothesis, and in part, in qualitative studies, researchers
want the inquiry to be guided by participants’ viewpoint rather than their own.
(Based on the above explanation, the following discussion focuses on hypothesis in a quantitative research
Its purposes are:
 To explain observed facts or conditions and to guide further investigation.
 To translate problem statements into predictions of expected outcomes and is a technique in answering a problem.
Hypothesis is tested, and if found to be true, accepted. If not, rejected.

It is not proved, it is only tested. Once proved, it becomes a theory.
Attributes of a good hypothesis:
1. It is strong enough to compel an inquiry and serve as its focus.
2. When substantiated through research, it moves to the domain of theory.
3. It can be used to guide phenomena, guide actions and predict outcomes.
4. It adequately explains observed facts.
5. It offers the simplest explanation under the circumstances.
6. It offers an explanation that is complex as necessary under the circumstances.
7. It can be brought into an agreement or disagreement with observations.
8. Is easily understood, specific, conceptually clear and tangibly measured.
9. It should be related to a body of theories so that the findings will be relevant and can provide valuable information.
Derivation of Hypotheses:
Inductive and Deductive
Inductive hypothesis is a generalization inferred from observed relationships. Researchers observe certain patterns, trends or
association among phenomena and then use the observations as a basis for predictions; begin with specific observations and move
toward generalizations.
Example of the use of inductive hypothesis:
A nurse might notice that presurgical patients who ask a lot of questions relating to pain or who express many pain-related
apprehensions have a more difficult time. The nurse could then formulate a testable hypothesis such as:
“Patients who are stressed by fear of pain will have more difficulty in deep breathing and coughing after
their surgery than patients who are not stressed”
Deductive hypothesis has starting point theories that are applied to particular situations. Since theories of how phenomena
behave and interrelate cannot be tested directly, a researcher can develop hypotheses based on general theoretical principles. The following
reasoning illustrate the process:
1. All human beings have red and white blood cells
2. Kris is a human being
3. Therefore, kris has red and white blood cells
Example of the use of deductive hypothesis:

In a qualitative study of PTSD due to childbirth, one of the researcher’s finding was that mothers suffering from PTSD were bombarded
with terrifying flashbacks in which they relived their traumatic births. A hypothesis that can be formulated from this qualitative finding can
be:
“ Women who experience PTSD due to birth trauma experience more flashbacks of their labor and delivery
than women who do not experience a traumatic birth”
Sources of hypotheses:
a. Observation of phenomenon within the environment
(In nursing, sources of hypothesis can be hospital settings, drugs, healthcare delivery system, healthcare cost, nursing staff, etc.)
b. Experiences
c. Other hypothesis that have been tested
Types of hypothesis:
Type Description Example (underlined- IV/ in bold- DV)
Associative Identifies the variables Performance in the college of nursing is related to success in the NLE.
that occur or exist
Analysis: This merely states that there is a relationship between the two variables
together in practice.
but it does not specify what it is (it does not specify passing or failing).
Hence, this is a non-directional hypothesis.
Causal Specifies the cause and People who smoke are more likely to have lung cancer than people who do not
effect between two or smoke.
more variables. It is
directional in nature Analysis: While not all smokers get lung cancer, the hypothesis predicts the
relationship between smoking and lung cancer.
Hence, this is a directional statement
Both associative and causal hypotheses predict relationships between the variables being studied. However, while the associative
hypothesis merely states there is a relationship (non-directional), the causal hypothesis specifies the prediction that the IV produces effects
on the DV (directional).

Pre-operative instructions minimize the pre-operative anxieties of
Simple Predicts the relationship patients facing major surgery.
between one IV and one (directional)
DV.
(It may be associative Pre-operative instruction is related to operative anxieties of patients
or causal) scheduled for major surgery.
(non-directional)
Complex Predicts the relationship Heredity, home environment and quality of instruction are related to
between two or more intelligence, motivation and performance in school.
variables IVs and DVs.
Is an assumption that
Null there is NO There is no relationship between smoking and lung cancer.
DIFFERENCE between
(Causal null hypothesis - the IV has no effect on the DV)
the studied variables.
No significant difference in the test measure will be found among students having
It is used for statistical a hospital clinical experience and those having a free day prior to test
testing outcomes. administration.
(It can be simple or
complex/ associative or (The researcher hopes to reject the statement of no difference)
causal.
Testing the hypothesis

The ultimate value of hypothesis is derived from whether or not it can be tested in real-life situation.
A testable hypothesis contains variables that can be measured or manipulated in practice.
a. Associative- tested and evaluated using statistical analysis
b. Correlational- tested using analysis of ordinal level data, interval and ratio
c. Null- tested to determine whether the IV has a significant effect on the DV. Research findings do not prove the
hypothesis to be true or not- instead, the results of the research hypothesis are described as being supported or not
supported. Findings can be:
 Accepted is results indicate NO relationship exists
 Rejected if there is difference/ relationship that exists

PART 3: RESEARCH DESIGN
Defining Research Design
The research design is a blueprint that delineates the factors that would interfere with a study’s design
outcome. It is a detailed outline of how an investigation will take place. A research design typically include how data will be
collected, what instruments will be employed, how the instruments will be used and the intended means for analyzing data
collected. The choice of the research design depends upon the problem, the purpose of the study, the researcher’s expertise
and the desire to generalize the findings.
In broadest sense, the type of design directs the selection of a population sampling procedure, methods of
assessment and a plan for data collection and analysis (Burns and Grave, 2009)
______________________________________________
A. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Quantitative research is a formal, objective and systematic process in which the numerical data are used to obtain
information. It is a scientific method of research which is based on logical empiricism in which the researcher has no active
interaction with the subjects to prevent bias. It is used to describe variables, examine relationships among variables, and
determine the cause and effect interactions between variables.
Quantitative research the most predominantly used method of scientific investigation in nursing.
Quantitative research requires the use of the following that generate NUMERICAL DATA:
a. Structured interviews, questionnaires or observations
b. Scales
c. Physiological instruments (eg: BP Apparatus)
Statistical analyses are conducted to reduce and organize data, determine significant relationships and identify differences among
groups. This process ensures that research findings may be applied not only to the study’s sample but to a larger population or from the
sample situation to a larger situation.
Types of Quantitative Research:

Descriptive Is a very popular research approach. It provides an accurate portrayal or account of characteristic of
particular individuals, situations or groups.
(Non-
It offers researchers a way to discover new meaning, describe what exists, describe the frequency of a
experimental) phenomenon or categorize information.
1. SURVEYS
Through a survey, data are gathered from a relatively large number of cases at a particular time.
Subtypes of surveys and purposes

a. Community Survey- to determine the trends and possibly carry out improvements
b. Normative Survey- conducted to determine the normal or typical condition of situations and people
c. Social Survey- aim to study and diagnose current problem, situation or population within a definite
place so as to formulate a social reform or constructive program
d. School Survey- instruments for evaluating and planning school progress; seeks to formalize
administrative planning for determining the next steps in school system and for evaluating efficiency
of the system and its personnel;
3 three types of school survey are:
Outside expert surveys- conducted exclusively by the research staff of a university/ institution in a
particular school
Self-surveys- conducted by members of a local school within the institution
Combined surveys- joint efforts of the local school and an outside consultant
3 kinds of topics in school survey can be:
Comprehensive- nature of pupils and their achievements, the curriculum, methods and instructional
aides
Educational- covers school activities related to the instructional program, policies and procedures, the
setting and the learning conditions
Building/ Structure- includes school plans and items such as location, lighting, ventilation, canteen,
library, play area, etc.
___________________________________________
2. Analytical Studies
a. Job and Activity Analysis- This method describes the activities of persons who are observed, classified and
analyzed.
b. Document Analysis- This is a critical analysis of the content of written and printed materials as sources of
data.
(Eg.: The use of concurrent chart audit to determine if nurses comply with the set standards of quality nursing
care)
c. Causal Comparative Studies- This is to discover the factors that contribute to some observable facts. The
method begins with the presence of several factors affecting certain observations from which the researcher
selects some for analysis.
Correlational research examines relationship between two or more variables and determines
Correlational the type (POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE) or degree (STRENGTH) of relationship:
Research
a. Ranges from -1 (perfect negative correlation) to;
Methods b. +1 (perfect positive correlation)
(Non- c. 0 (indicates NO relationship)
experimental) Positive relationship indicates that the variables either increase or decrease together
Negative/ inverse indicates that the variables vary in opposite directions
Eg.: There is a correlation between the leadership behavior of nurse managers and the performance of nursing
staff
In an experimental design, the researcher structures the situation so there will be a sound
Experimental basis for determining the effect of the independent variable and how much is due to change.
In an experimental research, the study subjects belong to either:
Design
 CONTROL group- subjects or group of elements NOT subjected or exposed to the experimental
treatment (point of reference).
 EXPERIMENTAL group- is the subject exposed to the experiment/ intervention.
It has FOUR distinguished strategies:

a. Manipulation of the independent variables.
b. Random selection of sample members of the control or experimental groups.
c. Use of an experimental group that is exposed to the independent variable or experimental factor
and another group that is not exposed to the independent variable or experimental factor.
d. Measurement of the effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable before and
after the manipulation of the independent variable.
Common types of Experimental Research:

1. AFTER-ONLY EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUE
In this technique, the investigator assigns the subjects to an experimental group and a control group but
collects the data only at the end of the treatment or exposure to the independent variable.
2. BEFORE AND AFTER EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUE

a. Single Group Design/ One-group
Uses only one group of subjects, involving the following steps:
i. pre-testing of the DV
ii. exposure of the subjects to the experimental variable
iii. post-testing of the subjects; and
iv. comparison of the results of the two tests to determine the effect of the IV

b. Two-group Before and After Technique
This second type of group experimentation involves two or more groups that are AS NEARLY EQUIVALENT
AS POSSIBLE. It makes use of two groups however, the EXPERIMENTAL GROUP is exposed to the
experimental factor and the CONTROL GROUP to the ordinary treatment.
This parallel-equated technique involves the following steps:

i. matching the subjects on the basis of a matching variables
ii. exposing the experimental group to the experimental factor and the control group to the ordinary
treatment
iii. testing both groups on the dependent variable, and;
iv. comparing the results to determine the effect of the experimental factor
*Diagrammatic examples are provided on the presentation for further understanding.
The purposes are:

a. identify causal relationships
b. to determine the significance of causal relationship
Quasi-
c. clarify why certain events happen
experimental (or a combination of above mentioned)
Research
(Experimental)
In nursing research, these studies test the effectiveness of nursing interventions that can be
implemented to control patient and family outcomes in nursing practice.
Distinguished feature:
There is NO CONTROL GROUP and the signature is the absence of randomization. Researchers are
commonly UNABLE to manipulate or control certain variables when studying human behavior or in nursing
research, clinical areas. Subjects are NOT randomly selected and are selected based on convenience.
So that, it has lower level of control in at least one of these areas:

- manipulation of the treatment or independent variable
- manipulation of setting
- selection of the subjects
Concepts Relevant to Quantitative Research:
1. Pure or basic research- The search for new knowledge includes establishment of fundamental
theories or relationships among facts not intended for immediate use in real-life situations. It usually
precedes or is the basis for applied research.
Eg.: Studies on newly-proposed interventions conducted on animals in laboratories (Cancer treatment tested in guinea pigs).
2. Applied Research- In nursing research, applied or practical research is common as it scientifically

investigates to generate knowledge that will directly influence or improve a clinical situation, make a decision, develop
or evaluate procedure, program or product.
Eg.: A nurse researcher studies the implementation of quality assurance programs in the nursing services of hospitals X and Y.
______________________________________________
B. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Qualitative research is a systematic, interactive and subjective approach used to describe life experiences and
give them meaning. It is an interpretative methodological approach to produce more of a subjective science than
quantitative research.
It evolves on behavioral and social sciences as a method of understanding the unique, dynamic and holistic nature of
human beings. Its philosophical base is interpretative, humanistic and naturalistic.

It believes that truth is both complex and dynamic and can be found only by studying persons as they interact with and within
the sociohistorical settings (Marshall & Rossman, 2006; Munhall, 2001).
In nursing research, it is commonly conducted to describe and promote understanding of human

experiences such as pain, caring and comfort.
The focus is broad and the researcher is an active participant in the study. It intends to give meaning to the whole
and the researcher’s values and perceptions influence the findings. Distinguished characteristics are as follows:
a. Uses unstructured observations and interviews to gather data.
b. There is a shared interpretation of the researcher and the subject and no attempts to control the interaction.
c. Data are collected and are analyzed in terms of individual responses, descriptive summaries or both.
d. The findings are unique to the study and are not intended to be generalized to apply to a larger population.
Types of Qualitative Research

Is a humanistic study of a study phenomenon that is conducted in a variety of ways
according to the philosophy of the researcher. The purpose is to explore an experience
as it is lived by the study participants and interpreted by the researcher. During the
study, the researcher’s experiences, reflections and interpretations influence the data collected
from the study participants. Thus, the participants’ lived experiences are expressed through the
Phenomenological
researcher’s interpretation.
Research
In nursing research, this method is effective in discovering the meaning of a complex

experience as it is lived by person, such as dealing with chronic illness and pain.
Grounded Theory An inductive research method and is useful in discovering what problems exist in a
Research social setting and the process people use to handle them. It emphasizes observation and
the development of practice-based intuition to formulate, test and re-develop prepositions until
theory evolves. The theory developed is “grounded” or has “roots” in the data from which it was
derived.
Provides mechanism for studying one’s own culture and that of others. It has been
regarded as part of various disciplines in social psychology, sociology, education, political science
and nursing.
Ethnographic
Ethnography describes and analyzes aspects of the way of life of a particular culture, subculture or
Research
subculture group. It enables the researcher to acquire new perspectives beyond his own
“portrait of a ethnocentric perspective.
people”
In nursing, one of the major contributions of ethnography may be to promote culturally-

specific care.
Is used if the researcher believes that the answer to his research lies in the past. It is
Historical believed that the greatest value of historical knowledge is greater self-understanding. This is
valuable in community planning that leaders will be able to consider the relationships exist within a
Research
community- from its simple communal living to today’s complex living situations.
Historical nursing research increases nurses’ understanding of their profession.

Sources of data:
 Primary- first-hand information serves as a clear evidence about the past (remains, relics,
oral/written testimonies)
 Secondary- second/third-hand accounts (history books, encyclopedias)
Tools for Evaluation:
 External criticism- authenticity/ genuineness of evidence/ originality (physical)
 Internal criticism- credibility, validity and the trustworthiness of statements and facts in relation
to the truth
Case Analysis Involves an in-depth investigation of a single unit of study, such as person, family, group,
community or institution or a small number of subjects who are examined intensively.
The case itself is central, it focuses on study determining the dynamics of why an individual thinks,
behaves or develops in a particular manner. This requires detailed study overtime.

Determining the Research Setting
(Essential to choosing the appropriate research design)
a. Natural settings- uncontrolled, real-life environments (schools, homes, communities); descriptive and
correlational studies are conducted in this settings.
(Eg.: A Study on the Practices on Health and Nutrition of Pregnant Mothers in Brgy. Y)
b. Partially-controlled settings- the environment is modified in some way by the researcher; usually used
in quasi-experimental studies.
(Eg.: Fears and Anxieties of Patients and Their Relatives Towards Major Surgery at Hospital X)
c. Highly-controlled setting- done in laboratories to test new innovations (drugs, chemicals, treatments)
(Eg.: Animal tests to evaluate the effectiveness of a new method in attacking cancer cells done in a
laboratory using mice)
3.1 Ethical Design of Research
Ethics is the science that deals with the nature of actions of intelligent beings in relation to their moral
qualities. As nurse, I would like to focus on ethical research concepts concerning my profession. In this regard, I will
thoroughly discuss Ethical Issues in Nursing Research.
Ethical Issues in Nursing Research

Ethics and Research:
Nursing research focuses on people- their health attitudes, experiences, values, coping behavior, support
systems, community networks and environmental stress. Thus, human subjects are almost always involved in nursing
research. Awareness of the rights of human subject is a major part of the nurses’ responsibility when it comes to research
studies or assisting one who is conducting research or evaluating a research article.
It is important that:
a. The nurse researcher’s desire for scientific knowledge is compatible with dignity and right of individual and social groups.
b. When performing moral judgment, the nurse researcher decides what is right or good and what he must do.
c. The nurses’ primary responsibility is to preserve life at all cost (PNA,Code of Ethics, 1993), therefore nurses involved in
research should bear in mind the importance of the subjects’ safety and welfare.
Characteristics of Ethical Research:

a. Scientific objectivity- being aware of personal values and biases without preconceived outcomes without engaging in any
acts of bad faith or misconduct/fraud in doing the research.
b. Cooperation with authorized review boards- means that the proposal has been reviewed and approved by the
appropriate review committee in the agency or institution so that the subjects’ rights may be protected (the approval is given
in writing).
c. Integrity of the nature of the study- The subjects’ right to information is upheld (eg.: possible risks and discomforts).
d. Equitableness- Acknowledging the works of others.
e. Nobility- Advocating the rights of human subjects, the researcher protect the subject from any harm , deceit, coercion or
invasion of their right to privacy.
f. Truthfulness- Reflected in in the study’s purpose, procedures, methods and findings.
g. Impeccability- Observance of the researcher’s role to anonymity and confidentiality.
h. Honesty- Disclosure about the study’s funding and sponsorship.
i. Illumination- The research should yield a fruitful result (did the study add new knowledge? solve a problem? or improve
skills?)
j. Courage- needed to clarify publicly any distortions that others may make of the research findings.
Basic Human Rights of Research Subjects: (Burns and Grove, 2009)
1. Right to self-determination
(Informed Consent is of prime importance, the four elements are-
1.disclosure of essential information; 2.comprehension; 3. Competency; 4. Volunteerism
Important- consent forms are stored with the master list of the subjects’ names and code numbers (it must be locked in
a safe place).

2. Right to fair treatment
Study subjects should be treated fairly and the agreement should be respected both by the researcher and the subject
(principle of justice). All subjects should receive benefits as promised and should be represented equally in the study.
3. Right to privacy
It includes the privacy of one’s thoughts, opinions, physical presence and the privacy of one’s records.
Important: Collection of data from observation without the subjects’ consent or knowledge is a clear violation of the
right to privacy.
4. Right to confidentiality and anonymity of data

Data entrusted by the research subjects must be protected and should be available ONLY to the research staff and
reported anonymously for that research purpose only.
Important: After the report is written, all data by which individuals can be identified should be destroyed (burned,
shredded)
5. Right to be protected from discomfort and harm

In the risk-benefit ratio, the risk should be outweighed by the benefits.
The subjects must be well informed about the possible harm that be encountered during the process of research
(physical, emotional, legal, financial, social harm). The subject has the right to refuse from participation if he experiences
undue anxiety related to research activities.
The 5th principle of Nuremberg’s Code* states that “No experiment should be conducted where there is a prior reason to believe that
death or injury will occur, except, perhaps, in those experiments where the experimental physicians (or other health professionals) also serve
as subjects.
* be thoroughly discussed on presentation
3.2 Sampling
Delineation of the Population/s to be Studied

(SAMPLING)
The researcher proceeds to define the population to be studied from which the sample subjects are selected. The sample is
selected on the basis of how much it reflects the characteristics of the population to be studied.
 Population refers to the largest body of individuals, in the case being researched on, that conform to a specific set
of particulars or eligibility criteria; It is the entire number or totality of the groups of people, objects, events or any
form of things being studied.
 Sampling is a process of selecting a portion of the population to represent the entire population.
 Sampling/ Eligibility Criteria include:

- The list of individuals who are focused on the research
- The list of characteristics essential to be a member of the target population
Factors that Determine Sample Size

1. Accessibility of sample participants (a sample is taken when it is not feasible to study the whole population)
2. Cost (only a limited number may be studied if no funds are available)
3. Amount of time available (if the time is limited, only a small sample size may be gathered)
A. Probability Sampling/ Sampling Methods- Developed to ensure some degree of precision to

estimations of the population parameters. Technically, it refers to the fact every member or element of the
population has a higher than zero probability of being selected for sample.
1. Simple Random Selection is done by chance (eg. Lottery draws)
2. Stratified Random Population is subdivided into areas/ section the random samples are taken from each
area/ section
(Eg.: dividing the students by year level and obtain random samples from each level)

3. Systematic Done by taking every nth person in the population
4. Cluster A small sample size is taken from various sections of the total population
(Eg.: obtaining small sample size from each hospital in Metro Manila to study attitudes of
hospital employees towards work)
B. Non-Probability/ Non-Random Sampling- This kind of sampling is purposely chosen for an in-
depth understanding of a particular experience, situation, cultural element or misconduct.
1. Convenience/ Data are collected from anyone most conveniently available; considered to be the
Accidental weakest from of sampling
2. Snowball/ Network Subjects suggest or refer other subjects who meet the criteria/ eligibility of the
researcher
3. Judgmental/ The researcher selects and studies a specific number of a special group that
Purposive represents the target population with regard to certain characteristics such as age,
sex or economic status. (Eg.: the researcher taps the deans of nursing colleges for
nursing education studies)
4. Cross-cultural The study is conducted in variety of cultural settings (eg.: Tagalogs, Visayans, etc.)
5. Longitudinal Given group of subjects is studied for an extended period of time , which is either:
Retrospective- studies from the past to the present
Prospective- studies from the present to the future
(Eg.: Study of a mastectomy patient from time of operation up to five years after
discharge)
6. Cross-sectional Subjects are observed at a given period

(Eg.: Professional preferences of Senior High School Students Upon Graduation)
7. Quota sampling The researcher identifies the population to be studied and determines the proportion
needed in the population.
(Eg.: selecting 80% of the class to participate in the study)
3.3 Designing the Research Instrument
Defining Research Instrument

Once the specific method and technique are selected, the researcher then develops the tool or instrument to gather data. An
instrument in a research study is a device used to measure the concept of interest in a research project. A research
instrument is a survey, questionnaire, test, scale, rating, or tool designed to measure the variable(s), characteristic(s), or
information of interest, often a behavioral or psychological characteristic. Research instrument is a major tool in a
research study.
"Careful planning for data collection can help with setting realistic goals. Data collection instrumentation, such as
surveys, physiologic measures (blood pressure or temperature), or interview guides, must be identified and described. Using
previously validated collection instruments can save time and increase the study's credibility. Once the data collection
procedure has been determined, a time line for completion should be established." (Pierce, 2009)
Instruments can be:

 Observation scales
 Questionnaires
 Interview schedules

An instrument must have the following qualities:
a. Reliability- refers to the accuracy or precision of the tool; when administered twice, the
instrument should provide identical data.
b. Validity- Refers to the relevance of the measurement to the study being done.
c. Sensitivity- Means that the fine lines of differences among the study subjects can be
determined from the measurements (eg.: ratings and thermometers)
d. Meaningfulness- Means that the measurement has a practical application.
e. Appropriateness- applicability to the subjects being studied
f. Objectivity- the tool is free from bias
g. Ethical- the tools selected does not violate the right of the human subject (discussed).
Where to Locate Instruments?

Realize that searching for an instrument may take a lot of time. They may be published in a book or article on a particular subject.
They may be published and described in a dissertation. They may be posted on the Internet and freely available. A specific instrument may
be found in multiple publications and has been used for a long time. Or it may be new and only described in a few places. It may only be
available by contacting the person who developed it, who may or may not respond to your inquiry in a timely manner.
There are a variety of sources that may be used to search for research instruments. They include books, databases, Internet search engines,
Web sites, journal articles, and dissertations.
Permission to Use Instruments:

If you plan to obtain an actual copy of the instrument to use in research, you need to be concerned not only with obtaining the instrument,
but also obtaining permission to use the instrument. Research instruments are copyrighted. To obtain permission, contact the copyright
holder to obtain permission in writing (print or email). Written permission is a record that you obtained permission.
It is a good idea to have them state in writing that they are indeed the copyright holder and that they grant you permission to use the
instrument. If you wish to publish the actual instrument in your paper, get permission for that, too. You may write about the instrument
without obtaining permission. If someone posts a published test or instrument without the permission of the copyright holder, they are
violating copyright and could be legally liable
3. 4 Validity and Reliability of the Research Instrument
Defining Validity and Reliability
Validity and Reliability are two statistical properties used to evaluate the quality of research instruments (Anastasi, 1986).
Hence, it is important that an instrument possess both:
1. Validity
The validity of the instrument used and validity of the research design as a whole are important criteria in evaluating the worth of the results
conducted.
Internal validity refers to the likehood that experimental manipulation indeed was responsible for the differences observed, whereas;
External validity refers to the extent to which the results of the study can be generalized to the larger population (Polit & Hungler, 1999)
Four types of validity are used to judge the accuracy of an instrument:

a. Content validity
- High level of validity indicates that test items accurately reflect the trait being measured.
Eg.: a questionnaire to assess anxiety would be high in content validity if it includes questions about known sysmptoms of which
such as muscle tension and a rapid pulse rate.
b. Predictive validity
- An assessment measure with high predictive validity is capable of making accurate predictions of future behavior even in a
different but related situation.
c. Concurrent validity
- If a test possess high degree of concurrent validity, then it can be expected to give results very similar to other measures of
same characteristic.
d. Construct validity
- The extent to which a theoretical construct such as personality trait can be empirically defined.

2. Reliability
Reliability of an instrument reflects its stability and consistency within a given context, consistency over time and giving identical results on
repeated tests. For example, a scale developed to measure intelligence might not be reliable for measurement of personality.
Three qualities are evaluated to test the reliability of an instrument:

a. Stability (Test-retest reliability)
- An aspect of reliability that is concerned with the extent to which an instrument yields the same results on repeated administration
(evaluated by test-retest reliability).
- refers to degree to which research participants response to change overtime.
- In this method, an instrument is given to the same individuals on two occasions within relatively short duration of time; A
correlation coefficient is calculated to determine how closely the participants’ responses on the second occasion matched their
responses on the first occasion.
b. Internal consistency (half-split reliability)
Refers to the extent to which all the instrument items are measuring the same attribute.
c. Notion of equivalence (interrater reliability)
- Applicable when different observers are using the same instrument to collect data at the same time.
- Coefficient can be calculated to see correlation of values.

PART 4: MEASUREMENT AND DATA COLLECTION
4.1 Measurement concepts and strategies
Measurement in Quantitative Studies

Measurement studies derive data through the measurement of variables. It involves the assignment of numbers to represent
the amount of an attribute present in an object or person, using a specified set of rules (quantitation).
Measurement involves assigning numbers to objects according to rules (eg.: measuring temperature, weight, blood pressure
and other physical attributes).
Rules for measuring many variables for nursing research studies however have to be invented. Whether the data are
collected by observation, self-report, or some other method, researchers must specify criteria for assigning the numeric values
to the characteristic of interest.
Example:
The nurse is studying attitudes towards distribution of condoms in school clinics and asked parents to express their extent of agreement
with the following statement.
“Teenagers should have access to contraceptives in school clinics.”

__ strongly disagree / __disagree / __ slightly disagree / __ neither agree nor disagree
__slightly agree / __ agree / __ strongly agree
Responses to this question can be quantified by developing a system for assigning numbers to them. Note that any rule
would satisfy the measurement- the most practical way is to assign 1 to “strongly disagree” and 7 to “strongly
agree”.
 Obtained scores from an instrument consist of a true score component (the value that would be obtained for a
hypothetical perfect measure of the attribute, or error of measurement that represent measurement inaccuracies.
 Reliability, one of two primary criteria for assessing a quantitative measurement, is the degree of consistency or
accuracy with which an instrument measures an attribute. The higher the reliability of an instrument, the lower the
amount of error in obtained scores.
Assessment methods are:
Reliability Coefficient based on the computation of relation coefficient that indicates the magnitude and direction of
a relationship between two variables.
Relation coefficient can range from -1.00, a perfect negative relationship through zero to +1.00, a perfect positive
relationship. Higher values reflect greater reliability.
 Methods
The choice of instruments to be used in collecting data depends on:
- The variables being studied
- The sampling units to be included
- The amount of time available to complete the study
- The amount of resources available
The instrument for data collection should be tested first before it is applied to subjects in actual study. The tests can be made
with subjects, representatives or their actual counterparts. This allows sufficient time for analyzing results so that necessary
changes can be made.
 Pre-test
A pre-test is used to validate the measures of the variables being studied by correlating them with outside criteria, and to
provide a “dry-run” of the actual administration of data collecting.

Strategies
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES APPROACH/CRITERIA
1. QUESTIONNAIRE
It is the most common - simple method questionnaires In constructing the questionnaire, the researcher
type instrument; written - less time is may lack should determine the content or information
form and distributed to required depth; probing critical to the research problem- making it too
the study subjects to - the researcher is not possible lengthy may lose the subject’s interest leaving many
secure responses:
is able to gather - respondent item unanswered, other considerations include
data from a may omit/
Two Types: widely scattered disregard or a. The questionnaire should not have too many items
a. OPEN-ENDED/ sample forced to select or take too much time for the respondent to answer.
FREE RESPONSE - the researcher some b. It should be interesting to the subject.
- why/ what/ how does not have responses c. It must not be too suggestive or stimulating.
- allows complete freedom in to see the - costly in d. The questions are asked in such a way that the
answering respondents terms of respondent is not embarrassed.
- difficult in terms of time and
personally printing e. Questions should elicit an in- depth but well-defined
expense for tabulating and
summarizing the results. - suitable for - respondents/ responses.
beginners sample is
limited to
b. CLOSE-ENDED/
those who are Order of Questions
STRUCTURED FORM literate
- Responses are prepared; 1. Each item should relate to the subject under study.
the respondent merely 2. Items should be organized- progression from one
checks, underlines or ranks type to another, from the simple to the complex, more
the responses as directed. difficult and thought-provoking.
- time saving 3. General questions should lead to specific ones.
- responses are limited to the
ones provided
2. INTERVIEW - complete - time and Categories

- is the second most answers are resources Interviews can be categorized into 5 groups in
common method for possible consuming which researchers may prefer one or two types
data collection: - - to use, these are:
a. Interview misunderstand interpersonal 1. Standardized- interviewer uses exact
schedule- (structured) ing can be relationship wordings of the interview schedule;
read to the respondent minimized between the structured
b. Interview guide- when subject and 2. Non-standardized- the interviewers has
unstructured; the questions are the the freedom to ask further questions as he
deems fit for data gathering.
interviewer is allowed explained by researcher is
to pursue relevant the researcher different for 3. Semi-standardized- specific number of
questions may be asked by the interviewer
ideas in depth; mp3 - some topics each
who may probe these questions further as
recording and other can be interview needed.
modern modes of pursued in- 4. Focused interview-the interviewer asks
recording can be used. depth Problems that a series of questions based on the previous
- higher may be understanding and knowledge of the
percentage of encountered: subjects. The interview begins with an outline
response is - Responses of topics and it allows freedom to deviate
possible may only be from the prepared agenda; partially-
- subject does opinions. structured/ semi-standardized
interview
not have to be - The
literate respondent 5. Non-directive- subject is allowed to
express his feelings without being questioned
may attempt
and without fear of disapproval; the
to seek the interviewer is not allowed to suggest ideas;
interviewer’s and since it allows complete freedom, the
approval. interview result is more comprehensive and
that the respondent’s values and thoughts
are more reflected.
3. OBSERVATION - inexpensive to - accurate Approaches
- Most direct means of employ prediction of a 1. Participant observation- the
studying the subjects - the researcher situation or investigator blends in the activity of the
when the researcher is is not event to be group study (eg.: disguise as a patient, rating
interested in their dependent on observed is not only the services he receives but all other
behavior (common in subjects who unlikely; activities).
nursing research wherein consent to therefore it is 2. Non-participant- the observer uses
the researcher assume answer difficult to be quantitative instruments (weighing scales,
several roles in observing - allows always present thermometers, ECG monitor, etc.). The
complete view to observe key
nursing situations- a of situation as it events observer stands outside the phenomena
visiting strager, a patient, develops and - researcher being studied.
an eager-learner, a affords inclusion has to wait for 3. The use of one-way mirror or
partipant or a non- of a sequence the hidden cameras
participant one) of events spontaneous 4. Anecdotal records- observation and
- can be occurrence of recording of situations that are as natural as
discontinued observed possible (eg.: classroom, nursing unit), free
and resumed situation from limiting conditions imposed by a
anytime - biases based prepared record; written down at the time of
on the occurrence (eg: personality traits, skills,
observer’s quality of work, etc); Useful in continuing
cultural individual records that can be utilized for
background guidance and clinical studies of students or
and personal
personnel.
interpretation
5. Critical Incident Technique
is likely
- the presence (a new technique); requires the written
of an observer account of respondents on a particular
gives the observed situation.
subject a
quality that is Factors to consider when performing
normally interview:
absent HALO EFFECT- the observer may have the
- some events tendency to rate certain subjects as consistently
occur so high or low on everything because of the good
rapidly that
impression the subjects give the rater.
recoding all
HAWTHORNE’S EFFECT- The people may
the details can
be difficult deliberately change their behavior because they
- requires know they are being studied or observed.
intensive
training
4. RECORDS - records are - it may be To establish authenticity and accuracy of
Provides readily available unbiased incomplete in records, 3 major criteria are necessary:
and valuable source of - covers a long which the 1. Authorship- identity of the person who
information period of time researcher conceived the material.
(libraries, offices, homes, - inexpensive, cannot add on 2. Body- is the outward form of the material.
institutions; convenient and it 3. Function- is the purpose for which it was
correspondences, patient’s time-saving - accuracy is compiled.
charts, census data, unknown
diaries) - records were
Considerations in the use of Records:
not collected - Employees in an organization may not want an outsider
from a specific (researcher) looking at their private files.
study - Files may contain names of individuals that the organization
may not want to disclose.
- Records may require special help in interpretation.
- To gain access, the researcher may have to guarantee
anonymity and present a copy of research findings to the
organization.
PHYSIOLOGICAL 1. Self-documentation - Is used when the subject cannot be monitored closely.
MEASUREMENT This includes experiences that cannot be measured by others such as pain, or
Common modality in degree of mobility.
nursing research This may reveal information not previously known which could build knowledge in
areas not yet explored which may contribute, modify or improve management of
patient care. (Eg.: the use of Ambulatory BP Monitor)
2. Laboratory Tests- Provide direct, precise and accurate measure of various
physiologic conditions. Informed consent must be taken and specific instructions
must be given to ensure accuracy of results.

4.2 Data Collection
DATA COLLECTION
The phenomena in which researchers are interested must ultimately be captured and translated into data for analysis. Any
research project needs a high-quality data collection approach to ensure accuracy of findings.
Data Sources
One of the first decisions that investigators make with regard to research data concerns whether to use existing data or to
collect data generated specifically for the study. Most researchers develop original data, but they often take advantage of
existing information (secondary and metanalyses for example make use of data gathered by others, the same case with
historical research).
The major disadvantage of the use original data (obtained by the researcher) compared with the use of existing data or
records is that obtaining data is expensive and time consuming.
The Use Existing Data/ Record

Advantages Disadvantages
- Economical. - Bias in records (“selective deposit-selective deposit” by
- Permits Examination of trends overtime (if the data the record keeper).
were obtained repeatedly). - Difficulty in gaining access to institutional records.
- Investigators do not have to rely on participant’s - authenticity, authorship and accuracy issues
cooperation.
The difference between using records and secondary analyses is that doing secondary analysis typically has a
ready-to-analyze data set, whereas using records have to assemble the data set, and considerable coding and data
manipulation usually are necessary.
Major Approaches in obtaining original data

Self-Reports, Observation and Biophysiologic Measures
If existing data are not available for the research question, researchers must collect new data. When developing a data collection plans,
researchers make many important decisions and consider multiple factors (discussed in the previous sections).
In nursing research, three approaches have been used most frequently- self-reports, observation and
biophysiologic measures.
The data collector must be able to communicate verbally. It requires directness and versatility.
- A major advantage is that it yields information that would be difficult to gather by other means (Eg.:
BEHAVIORS can be observed but only if the participants engage in them publicly. For example, it is
SELF-REPORTS
usually impossible for a nurse researcher to observe behaviors as contraceptive practices).
(Questioning)
- Possibility to gather retrospective and prospective data whereas observation provides
information occurring at the time of study.
However, the data collector should also be aware of the limitations about the validity and accuracy of
self-reports:
Self-preservation happens particularly if the answers would reveal embarrassing or socially
unacceptable behavior. It is one’s nature to preserve himself in the best light, and this may conflict
with the truth.
An effective approach to counteract this is:

Projective technique is a way of obtaining data indirectly, this is done by providing stimulus of low
structure (more relaxed, less demanding data collecting technique) which allows the participant to
“read in” and describe their own feelings.
(Eg.: A study to describe the feelings of a sexually abused children uses in-depth analysis through
interview and analysis of their drawings).
This requires effective use of human senses or with the use of technical apparatus such as video
equipment.
OBSERVATION
This is effective to use when the nurse researcher gathers evidences on the effectiveness of nursing
(an alternative to
self-reports to obtain measures and practices (eg.: how a psychiatric patient reacts when he is transferred to a seclusion to
information on manage destructive behavior). Observations may also be needed when subjects cannot describe
objective behavior adequately their own behaviors or unable to articulate their actions (eg.: preoperative manifestations
and characteristics) of anxiety; young children and mentally ill
A possible challenge on the use of this approach is a phenomenon called:

Reactivity* in which, the subject intentionally distorts behavior due to awareness that he is being
observed. This can be eliminated if the observations are made without the subject’s knowledge
through some type of concealment or one-way mirror (however, a truly informed consent is an issue
associated with these techniques).
(This was discussed and described as HAWTHORNE’S EFFECT in the previous section)
The trend in nursing research has been toward increased clinical investigations result to greater
utilization of this approach.
BIOPHYSIOLOGIC
The major advantage is that since it uses instruments that are readily available in heathcare settings
MEASURES
(quantitative- (eg.: BP apparatus; spirometer), the costs of this measure is minimal or nonexistent.
objective)
The major strengths are objectivity, relative precision and sensitivity.
(Eg.: two nurses reading the same thermometer at the same time to measure the effectiveness of a
drug on fever will produce identical readings; relative precision- eg.: the subject complains of extreme
pain and the he is bradycardic further confirms the intensity of pain ).
Yields exceptionally high quality data.
Researchers’ decision about research design usually is independent of decisions about data collection methods. For
example, a researcher using an experimental design can rely on self-report data- as researcher doing an ethnography (non-
experimental).
The RESEARCH QUESTION may dictate which specific method of data collection to use (but researchers often have vast
approaches in data collection plan and sometimes go beyond the conventional ones).
BIASES may interfere with obtaining data using any of the mentioned approaches. Particularly because of involvement
of emotions, prejudices, attitudes and values of the researcher, personal interest, anticipation of what is to be observed
among others. Biases cannot probably be eliminated but can be minimized through careful training.
Dimensions of Data Collection:

Structure, Quantifiability, Researcher Obtrusiveness and Objectivity
Regardless of what specific approach is used, data collection methods vary among these four important dimensions.
Structured- used in quantitative studies; data are easy to analyze (data can be computed in
terms of percentages for example) but limited in terms of explaining the underlying meaning of
responses; a formal instrument must be developed (or borrowed) such as questionnaire.
STRUCTURE
Unstructured- used in qualitative studies; it provides an opportunity for an in-depth
examination of a phenomenon- it allows thoughtful and deeper responses; data are difficult to
analyze and is not suited for respondents who are not good in expressing themselves; no formal
instrument is needed although a list of the type of information needed.
RESEARCHER obtrusiveness is most likely to be problematic/ triggered when:
a. participants have underlying vested interest in the study outcome
b. participant is engaged in socially unacceptable behavior
c. participant does not comply with instructions
d. participant have a strong need to “look good”
RESEARCHER
OBTRUSIVENESS
Researcher obtrusiveness most likely can distort data collection undermining the value of
research; when such is unavoidable, researchers should make an effort to make participants at
ease, stress the importance of naturalistic behavior and maintain a neutral and nonjudgmental
demeanor.

Data that will be analyzed statistically must be quantified. For statistical analysis, all variables
must be quantitatively measured- although variables are abstract and intangible phenomena that
QUANTIFIABILITY represent qualities such as hope, pain and body image.
Data that are analyzed qualitatively are collected in narrative form.

Objectivity refers to the degree to which two independent researchers can arrive at similar scores
or make similar observations regarding participant’s attributes which are not biased by personal
OBJECTIVITY feelings or beliefs.
Paradigmatic orientation requires a higher degree of objectivity whereas in;

Naturalistic paradigm, the subjective judgment of investigators is considered an asset because
subjectivity is viewed as an essential for understanding human experiences.
Converting Qualitative and Quantitative Data as Technique in Data Collection

The Use of Quantitative Data Qualitatively and Qualitative Data Quantitatively
Qualitative data are sometimes converted into numeric codes that can be analyzed quantitatively and it is also possible to treat data collected
in a quantitative data qualitatively.
Most data that are analyzed quantitatively actually begin as qualitative data, for
Quantitative to example:
Qualitative: If we ask cancer respondents if they have been severely, moderately or somewhat depressed- they answer
“Qualitizing in words not number. The words are transformed into numbers through coding into quantitative categories.
data” Numbers are analyzed statistically to determine percentages of each category.
(Qualitizing:) a researcher can extract data from above example and create an in-depth study
focusing on the patterns emerging in such quantitative analysis. Such case study may reveal factors
that lead to depression like life circumstances, problems and experiences of an individual suffering
from cancer.
Qualitative to Some amount of quantitizing is almost inevitable, every time researchers use terms such as a
Quantitative: “a few”, “some”, “many” or “most”, they are implicitly conveying quantitative information about the
“Quantitizing frequency of occurrence of a theme or pattern (Sandelowski, 2001).
data”
Quantitizing strategy is important in:
a. Generating meaning from qualitative data (eg.: displaying frequencies of a certain

phenomena; when qualitative data are analyzed in categories)
b. Documenting and confirming conclusions- the use of numbers can assure readers that
researcher’s assertions are valid; it addresses the major pitfalls of qualitative research which are
(1)giving too much weight to dramatic or vivid accounts; (2) giving too little weight to
disconforming cases; (3) smoothing out variation on human experiences.
Example:
A qualitative research which explored strategies nurses use to construct dying patient’s moral identities in
palliative care settings; moral identity is indeed a subjective human experience and is subjected to qualitative
approach, but it would be more accurate and reliable to collect data using numbers, eg:
“difficult” was used 58 times; followed by anxious, 28; “bad”, 25; and “confused” 21.
The use of numbers to confirm impressions like the example above is termed quasi-
statistics.
c. Re-presenting data and lives- Qualitative researchers are especially likely to use numbers to
describe features of their sample. Thus, qualitative reports may contain tables that show
characteristics of the sample as a whole (eg.: the average age) or characteristics of participants that
are categorized.
Developing Data Collection Plan in:

QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE STUDIES
A. DATA COLLECTION IN QUALITATIVE STUDIES

In qualitative studies, data collection is more fluid than in quantitative research, and decision about what to collect
evolve in the field. The researcher must be innovative enough as prearranged plans for data collection may suddenly fall
through, in which, creative solutions and new strategies that are workable are needed.
Data Collection Methods

The primary method of collecting qualitative research is through SELF-REPORT (interview of study participants). Observation is often a
part of many qualitative studies as well. Physiologic data are rarely collected in naturalistic inquiry, except if it requires description of
participants’ characteristics. There are usually relatively few forms of and protocols needed for gathering demographic and administrative
information. Preliminary questions to be asked or observations to be made during the initial collection are often useful.

Field Issues in Qualitative Research
 Gaining trust is needed to establish credibility among those being studied. “Be like” participants means that the
researcher should be sensitive to style of dress, modes of speech, customs and schedules. In ethnographic
research it is important NOT to take sides of any controversial issues and appear not to be too strongly affiliated
with prominent member and leaders of the community (gaining trust is usually not possible if the researcher appears
to be close with those in power).
 The pace of data collection must be an utmost consideration- data collection in qualitative approach is both a
powerful and exhaustive experience especially if the phenomenon being studied concerns an illness experience or
other stressful events. It requires intense concentration and energy in which emotional strain may be experienced.
This can be managed by setting realistic limits- for example; it may be prudent to conduct one or two interview a day
and to engage in emotionally-releasing activities between interviews. Debriefing with colleagues or advisor may also
be helpful.
 Emotional involvement with participants needs to be guarded by the researcher himself. “Going native” is
the term used to refer to this pitfall in which researcher gets too close to participants running several risks, including
their ability to collect objectively the most meaningful and trustworthy data.
It is important to be supportive and to listen carefully to people’s concerns and difficulties, but usually NOT advisable to
intervene and try to solve their problems, or share personal problems with them. If they need help, it is appropriate to advice where they
can get it than to give it directly.
 Reflexivity refers to researcher’s awareness of himself as part of the data he is collecting. One must be conscious of
the part he plays in the study and reflect on his own behavior and how it can affect the data collection.
 Active listening techniques include the need to hear all what is being said rather than trying to anticipate what is
coming next. The researcher must create an atmosphere that safely allows for the sharing of experiences and
feelings. Respect and aunthentic caring are critical.
Recording and Storing Qualitative Data

To ensure that interview data are actual verbatim responses of study participants, it is recommended to record interviews
using state-of-the art recording equipment then subsequently transcribe rather than relying on just the interviewer notes.
Written notes tend to be incomplete and may be biased by the interviewer’s memory. Taking notes can also be distracting
to both the researcher and the respondent. Time and environmental factors should also be considered- at the respondent’s
convenience and a quiet setting is ideal. The use of observation to collect data may require video capture, in which the
researcher must ensure the functioning of such equipment.
TIP: Scan with Qr Barcode Scanner to install Easy Voice Recorder App (iOS/ Android)

DATA COLLECTION IN QUANTITATIVE STUDIES
*Note: The following diagrammatic table is originally prepared by the student based on narratively presented steps in valid resources. It ensures reliability.
QUANTITATIVE STUDIES: Data collection plan for quantitative studies should ideally yield accurate, valid and meaningful data that
are maximally effective in answering research questions.
#1: Are data needs extensive?
DETERMINE if yes, prioritize the needs then if no,
proceed to # 2 proceed to #2
what data need
to be gathered
#2: DETERMINE the type of measure to be used for each variable
(self-report, etc.), then proceed to #3
Yes, it does
(proceed to #4)
#3: YES,
DETERMINE there is an Will the No, it doesn’t.
existing
if there are instrument!
instruments
yield high Do I have skills and resources to
existing quality develop new instruments?
data?
instruments to
capture the
conceptual NONE. There is no existing
I do not have skills and
Yes, I have skills and
resources.
definitions of instrument S T O P !!! resources…
DO NOT PROCEED develop pretest measure then
variables Do I have skills and resources to (REVISE PROBLEM) proceed to step #4
develop new instruments?
NO? Do I have skills and resources to develop new instruments?
#4: NO. It is not feasible Can the instrument be modified and adapted to
DETERMINE yield more suitable measures?
the feasibility If YES
of the (do appropriate modification and proceed to #5)
instrument in
YES.
terms of: (Obtain permission, then proceed to #5)
Cost; availability; YES. It is feasible Is permission
to use the
norms, etc. instrument NO need. I have developed the
needed? instrument myself
(proceed to #5)
#5 1. Arrange measures in an appropriate sequence.

2. Make necessary revisions to instruments or sequencing
Perform in 3. Develop data collection forms and protocols; develop data management
sequential manner procedures.
Can data be collected by researcher alone?

YES. If NO. Identify, hire and train data collectors.
Then proceed to #6 Then proceed to #6

#6 PERFORM DATA COLLECTION AND MANAGE DATA ACCORDING
TO DATA MANAGEMENT PLAN
PRE-TESTING DATA COLLECTION PACKAGE
Researchers who develop new instrument in methodologic studies must submit to pretesting to evaluate and refine the
instrument. The adequacy of a data processing instrument can be best determined by pretesting it before it is applied to
the subjects in the actual study, its purposes are:
1. To determine the time it takes to administer the entire instrument package, this estimation is important for developing budget
plans.
2. To determine the extent of informed consent necessary.
3. To identify any instruments or questions which the respondent may find offensive or objectionable.
4. To determine needs of data collection staff.
5. To determine whether measures yield data with sufficient variability.
6. Allows necessary changes to be made in the data collecting procedures.
7. Validate the measures of the variable being studied by correlating them with outside criteria.
8. Provides a “dry run” of the total administration of the data as well as the tabulation phase.
PRE-TESTING OF QUESTIONNAIRES:
A very important part of the questionnaire contruction process is its piloting, known as pretesting. This involves testing your research
instrument in conditions as similar as possible to the research, but not in order to report results but rather to check for glitches in
wording of questions, lack of clarity of instructions etc. - in fact, anything that could impede the instrument's ability to collect data in
an economical and systematic fashion.
Pretests should be conducted systematically, with potential respondents and using the same method of administration. The
temptation to hurry over them, using just a convenience sample, should be avoided.
It is also beneficial to pretest the questionnaire with specialists in question construction, who may be able to pick up potential
difficulties which might not be revealed in a pretest with respondents.
If there are a variety of respondent types, all should be included in the pretest, and if the questionnaire is to be in several languages,
it should be tested in each language.
The validity and reliability of the data collecting instruments must be established during pre-test.
Developing Data Collection Forms and Procedures

After the instrument packages have been finalized, the researcher performs administrative tasks.
 APPROPRIATE FORMS that are attractively designed and formatted, legible and inviting to use must be developed,
these include:
Screening forms to determine eligibility; Informed Consent forms; Records of attempted contact with participants; Forms for recording
actual data; Contact information sheets; Administrative logs for recording receipt of data
Care should be taken to design forms to ensure confidentiality (eg.: a page containing names and other personal
information of the respondent is detached and is separated from the data sheet/ “coding system.
 The Right Research Personnel/ Data Collectors

The research personnel should have prior experience in data collection, and if not, he must be able to readily acquire the necessary skills. The
staff should match certain characteristics of the subject like cultural background. They should not be too young or very old, they should dress
appropriately- not extremely casual or very formal. They should be available during the entire period of data collection.
 Training of the Data Collectors
The personnel should be briefed on the background and the purpose of the study and they should be trained on how the data will be
collected, skills include:
Proper documentation; Locating study subjects; Arranging appointments; Take informed consent to participate in the study; Answer the
respondent’s questions; Establish appropriate relationship; Avoiding bias; Obtaining full responses; Observing confidentiality of data
 Seeking Permission to Collect Data
The researcher himself should seek permission to collect data from the authorities concerned, the letter should contain:
- The purpose of the study and how it will benefit the subjects concerned.
- Assurance of anonymity of the respondents and confidentiality of information that will be gathered.
- Pre-arranged schedule of probable visit or appointment.
 Pilot Study
Involves a small scale test of the entire study, which is a testing not only of instruments but also of the sampling plan, the intervention and
the study procedures.
TIP: Whenever possible, try to avoid reinventing the wheel. It is inefficient and unnecessary to start from scratch- not only in
developing instruments but also in creating forms, training materials, etc. Ask seasoned researchers or your mentors at the PCHS Graduate
School if they have materials you could borrow or adapt.

PART 5: DATA ANALYSIS
5.1 Statistical Theory Review
The Theory of Statistics
The theory of statistics provides a basis for the whole range of techniques, in both study design and data analysis that are
used within applications of statistics. The theory covers approaches to statistical-decision problems and to statistical inference,
and the actions and deductions that satisfy the basic principles stated for these different approaches. Within a given
approach, statistical theory gives ways of comparing statistical procedures; it can find a best possible procedure
within a given context for given statistical problems, or can provide guidance on the choice between alternative procedures.
Apart from philosophical considerations about how to make statistical inferences and decisions, much of statistical theory
consists of mathematical statistics, and is closely linked to probability theory, to utility theory, and to optimization.
Statistical theory provides an underlying rationale and provides a consistent basis for the choice of methodology.
The Importance of Statistics

Without statistics, quantitative data would be a chaotic mass of numbers. Statistical procedures enable researchers to
organize, interpret and communicate numeric information. Its applications are:
1. To explain cause-and-effect phenomena
2. To relate research with real-world event
3. To predict/ forecast the real-world phenomena based on research
4. Finding answers to a particular problem
5. Making conclusions about real-world event based on the problem
6. Learning lesson from the problem
Mathematical talent is not required to use or understand statistical analysis- only logical thinking ability is needed.
5.2 Types of Statistics and Their Uses
Descriptive and Inferential Statistics

Statistics are either descriptive or inferential. Descriptive statistics are used to describe and synthesize data. Examples are
averages and percentages. Inferential statistics are based on the laws of probability, provides a means for drawing
conclusions about a population.
 Parameters are indexes (from descriptive statistics) that are calculated from a population.
 Statistic is a descriptive index from a sample.
Research questions are about parameters, but researchers calculate statistics to estimate them and use inferential
statistics to make inferences about the population.

A. Descriptive Statistics
*Note: Although, I have mentioned the following concepts in relation to variables in the previous section (part 2, section 2), I am reiterating
the same and comprehensively present these concepts in relation to statistics.
LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
Involves assigning numbers to classify characteristics into categories. These assigned numbers have no
quantitative meaning- numbers are merely symbols.
Nominal
Lowest level of Eg.: coding MALE (1) and FEMALE (2)- the number 2 does not mean more than 1
measurement Nominal measurements provide NO information about an attribute except equivalence and non-
equivalence.
For example, if we are to measure the gender of BEN, LEILA, TONY and FE- we assign the codes 1,2,1,2
respectively, this means BEN and TONY are equivalent on the gender attribute but are not equivalent to
LEILA and FE.
The numbers in NOMINAL measurement cannot be mathematically treated, given the above
example, it is nonsensical to calculate the average gender of a sample but we can state the frequency
of occurrence within the categories- we can say that 50% are male and 50% are female . No further
mathematic operation is meaningful with nominal data.
Involves sorting objects based on their relative ranking on an attribute. It goes beyond mere
categorization and attributes are ordered according to some criterion. So that ordinal measurement
Ordinal captures information not only about equivalence but also about relative rank among subjects.
Next in the
measurement Eg.: Measuring patient’s ability to perform activities of daily living- we use a scheme for coding as follow-
hierarchy (1) completely dependent; (2) needs assistance- person/mechanical; (3) completely independent. The
numbers signify incremental ability to perform activities of daily living meaning if patients X and Y were
both assigned with numbers (3)- they are equivalent in terms of functional ability but not with Z and A
who were both assigned with number (1).
However, it does not tell us anything how much greater one level is than another, given the above
example, we do not know if being completely independent is twice as good as needing some assistance-
another person/mechanical. It only tells us the relative ranking of the attribute’s levels.
Mathematical operation is restricted- averages are usually meaningless. Frequency counts, percentages
and other statistical procedures may be used.
Occurs when the researchers can specify the rank ordering of objects on an attribute and can assume
equivalent distance between them. Interval measures are more informative than ordinal;
Interval
Eg.: (Fahrenheit scale) a temperature of 60 deg F is 10 deg F warmer than 50 deg F. A 10 deg F
differences similarly separates 40 deg F.
However, interval measures do not give absolute magnitude;
Eg.: It cannot be said that 60 deg F is twice as hot as 30 deg F, or three times as hot as 20 deg F. And
that zero on the thermometer does not signify a total absence of heat- in interval scales, there is no real
or rational zero point. Most psychological tests are based on interval scales.
Ratio scales have rational, meaningful zero. It measures provided information concerning the ordering
of objects on the critical attribute, interval between objects and the absolute magnitude of an attribute.
Ratio Many physical measures provide ratio-level data;
Highest level of
measurement Eg.: A person’s weight is measured on a ratio scale because zero weight is an actual possibility- it is
acceptable to say that someone who weighs 200 pounds is twice as heavy as someone who weighs 100
pounds.
Because ratio scales have an absolute zero, all arithmetic operations are permissible. Addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division can be applied in a ratio scale. All statistical treatments suitable
for interval-level data are also appropriate on this measurement.

TO FURTHER UNDERSTAND THE RATIO as the highest level of measurement, take this example:
(The example presents people’s weight)
SUBJECTS RATIO-LEVEL (LBS) INTERVAL-LEVEL* ORDINAL-LEVEL** NOMINAL***
BEN 125 LBS 15 4 2
LEILA 110 LBS 0 1 1
TONY 120 LBS 10 3 1
FE 115 LBS 5 2 1
RATIO-LEVEL shows the actual weight in pounds- it is the highest level of measurement and as the table proceeds to interval, ordinal and
nominal, there is information loss making nominal the lowest level of measurement.
* Interval-level: I assigned the lightest individual a score of 0 and 5 to the subject who is 5 lbs heavier and so forth, note that the
results are amenable to addition and subtraction; differences in in pounds are equally far apart, even though they are in different parts of
the scale. However, the data no longer tell us anything about the subject’s weight, for example, is TONY a 10 lbs infant? Or a 120 lbs
adult?
** Ordinal-level: I did rank the subjects according from the lightest (1) to heaviest (4) to yield an ordinal measure. Now, even more
information is missing. The data does not indicate how much heavier is BEN compared to LEILA.
*** Nominal- I presented the subjects in which they are classified as either (2) heavy (121 lbs and above ) and (1) light (120 lbs and
below). Within a category, there is no information as to who is heavier than whom. Therefore, LEILA, TONY & FE are equivalent with
regard to the attribute heavy/light as defined by the classification criterion.
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS, CENTRAL TENDENCY AND VARIABILITY

A set of data can be described in terms of three characteristics: the shape of distribution of values, central tendency and variability.
a. FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS
Unanalyzed quantitative data are overwhelming. It is not even possible to discern general trends until some order is imposed on the data.
Consider the example below:
Anxiety Scores of 10 Preoperative Patients:

30 27 26 27 26
29 29 29 30 28
Construction Frequency Distributions:

Frequency Distribution of Patients’ Anxiety Scores
Score (X) Tallies Frequency (f) Percentage (%)
26 II 2 20%
27 II 2 20%
28 I 1 10%
29 III 3 30%
30 11 2 20%
N= Total sample size X= observed values N=10=∑ ∑ 100%
f= frequency of cases at each value
Note: The sum numbers in the frequency column must equal the sample size
∑ means the sum of (signified by the Greek letter sigma) the frequencies (f) equals the sample size (N).

b. CENTRAL TENDENCY
Because an index of “typicallness” is more likely to come from the center of a distribution than from an extreme (either of two ends), these
indexes are called measures of central tendency. Lay people use the term “average” to designate central tendency , this is an ambiguous
term because there are three types of which- these are the mode, the median and the mean.
Most frequently occurring score value in a distribution. The mode is determined by inspecting a frequency distribution.
In the same example below, we can readily see that the mode is 29:
MODE
30 27 26 27 26
29 29 29 30 28
Modes are a quick way to determine a “popular” score, but are rather unstable. It means that modes tend to fluctuate
widely from a sample to sample drawn from the same population: (given this values: 59 13 13 86 92 59 59 75 29 23- the
mode is 59 but the other values seem to be too apart from other values in the same set of data).
The mode is used primarily to describe typical values for nominal-level measures (Eg: “The typical (modal) subject is a married,
tagalog woman”
If there is no number is repeated in the set of values, then there is no mode for the list.
MEDIAN The median is the point in a distribution above which and below which 50% of cases fall.

30 27 26 27 26
29 29 29 30 28
The median is the middle value, so I will have to re write the above list in order:
26, 26, 27, 27, 28, 29, 29, 29, 30,30
Formula: (number of data points)+1/2
Using this formula to find the median, 10 + 1 / 2 = 5.5

(So the median is the 5th number and the fraction .5), giving us 28.5 as the median
However, you can just count in from both ends of the list until you meet the middle. Either way will work.
MEAN
The mean- often symbolized as M or ; average; It is the most widely used measure in central tendency. When
researchers work with interval-ratio or ratio-level measurements, the mean rather than the median or mode is usually the
statistic reported. It is the most stable and most useful measure of central tendency.
Formula:
= sum of all scores/ number of scores

30 27 26 27 26
29 29 29 30 28
30 + 27 + 26 + 27 + 26 + 29 + 29 + 29 + 30 + 28
10
Mean = 28
c. VARIABILITY
Variability of distribution pertains to how spread out or dispersed the data are. Researchers compute an index of variability to express the
extent to which scores in a distribution differ from one another. The most common indexes are the range and standard deviation.
RANGE The range is simply the highest score minus the lowest score in a distribution. The chief virtue of range is its
computational ease, it is just a difference between the highest and lowest values.
Highest score – Lowest score = RANGE

30 27 26 27 26
29 29 29 30 28
Highest score= 30
Lowest score = 26
30-26 = 4
However, range being based on only two scores is highly unstable. From sample to sample drawn from the same population,
the range tends to fluctuate widely. Another limitation is that it ignores variations in scores between the two extremes, for
this reason it is widely used as a gross descriptive index. given the two examples below:

Obtained scores of sections A and B in the Preliminary Examination, Nursing Care Management 205,
PCHS BSN Level 4
Section A Section B
60 75 85 92 98 98 92 94 95 96 55 72 56 59 93 90 65 62 89 56
Range = 98 – 60 = 38 Range = 93 – 55 = 38
Despite clear differences in heterogeneity (in terms of scores obtained by each section) the range is the same for both.
Standard With interval or ratio-level data, the most widely used in measure of variability is the standard deviation. It
Deviatio in indicates the average amount of deviation of values from the mean. Like the mean, the standard deviation is
n calculated using every score. Standard deviation (represented by the Greek letter sigma, σ) shows how
much variation or dispersion exists from the average (mean), or expected value. A low standard deviation
indicates that the data points tend to be very close to the mean; high standard deviation indicates that the data
points are spread out over a large range of values.
Formula

30 27 26 27 26
29 29 29 30 28
Note: The mean of the above data as computed earlier was 28
The first step in calculating the standard deviation is to compute the deviation scores of each subject. A deviation score
(symbolized as x) is the difference of an individual score minus the mean and square the result of each (col. 2);
compute the average of these values and take the square root.
X x = X – mean x2
26 26 – 28 = -2 1.41
26 26 – 28 = -2 1.41
27 27 – 28 = -1 1
27 27 – 28 = -1 1
28 28 – 28 = 0 0
29 29 – 28 = 1 1
29 29 – 28 = 1 1
29 29 – 28 = 1 1
30 30 – 28 = 2 1.41
30 30 – 28 = 2 1.41
∑ = 10.64
SD = 10.64 = √ = 1.0315
10
 VARIANCE (SD2) is simply the value of STANDARD DEVIATION before a square root has been
taken, in the above example, the variance is 1.064 (or 1.03152)
Significance of Standard Deviation:

A standard deviation is more difficult to interpret than other statistics, like the mean or range. In our example we
calculated SD=1.0315, but what does the number mean? Standard deviation as earlier defined is a variability
index for a set of scores or simply standard deviation is an average deviation from the mean. SD tells
the researcher how spread out the responses/ values are -- are they concentrated around the mean, or
scattered far & wide? Did all of your respondents/ values are in the middle of your scale?
To appreciate the importance of SD, we compare it with mean, take this example*:
Obtained scores of sections A and B in the Preliminary Examination, Nursing Care Management 201,
PCHS BSN L2
Section A Section B
89 89 87 75 74 72 90 74 72 85 99 99 97 95 94 32 90 54 52 95
Mean= 80.7 Mean = 80.7
SD= √ = 1.63 SD= √ = 2.10
ANALYSIS: At first glance (looking at the means only) it would seem that both sections performed equally, when in fact the
highest obtained score in Section A was 89 only compared to the 99 highest score in Section B. How about the lowest score of
Section B that is 32, significantly lower than the lowest score of Section A which is 72? Thus, Looking at the mean alone tells
only part of the story, yet all too often; this is what researchers focus on.

The distribution of scores is important to consider and the SD provides a valuable descriptive measure of this. Looking at
the SDs of both, you can already tell that SECTION A is more homogenous in terms of obtained grades- meaning the scores
of each student in the sample set are closer to the mean (80.7) compared to section B- whose scores are more scattered along
the scale.
Again: Standard deviation is a number used to tell how measurements for a group are spread out from
the average (mean), or expected value. A low standard deviation means that most of the numbers are very
close to the average. A high standard deviation means that the numbers are spread out.
Other Uses of Standard Deviation:

Standard deviation is also used to measure how close a reported number is to being exactly right. For example, the standard
deviation is used to find margin of error in opinion poll numbers. The reported margin of error is usually two times the
standard deviation and gives the range for the true poll number.
Scientists commonly report the standard deviation of numbers from the average number in experiments. They often decide
that only differences bigger than two or three times the standard deviation are important.
Tiring isn’t? But we have a long way to go to master research and its vital concepts including statistics- it will be all worth it!,
REMEMBER…this in not about mathematics, this is about common sense and a lot of hardwork…
Take a coffee break!...
__________________________________________________
B. Inferential Statistics
Researchers usually want to do more than describe their data. Inferential statistics, which are based on the laws of
probability, provide a means for drawing conclusions about a population based on a given data from a sample; they offer a
framework for deciding whether the sampling error that results from sampling fluctuation is too high to provide reliable
population estimates.
To clearly understand Inferential Statistics, I first focus on:
Comparing Inferential with Descriptive Statistics
Both descriptive and inferential statistics rely on the same set of data. Descriptive statistics rely solely on this set of data,
whilst inferential statistics also rely on this data in order to make generalizations about a larger population.
As thoroughly discussed in the previous section, Descriptive Statistics is the term given to the analysis of data that helps
describe, show or summarize data in a meaningful way such that, for example, patterns might emerge from the data.
Descriptive statistics do not, however, allow us to make conclusions beyond the data we have analyzed or reach
conclusions regarding any hypotheses we might have made. Descriptive Statistics is simply a way to describe our data.
In the previous example* (*Obtained scores of sections A and B in the Preliminary Examination, Nursing Care Management
205, PCHS BSN L4), We have seen that descriptive statistics provide information about our immediate group of data
(Obtained scores of ten BSN Students) . For example, we calculated the mean and standard deviation of the exam marks
for the ten students and this could provide valuable information about this group of ten students. Any group of data like this,
which includes all the data you are interested in, is called a population. A population can be small or large, as long as it
includes all the data you are interested in. For example, if you were only interested in the exam marks of ten students, the ten
students would represent your population. Descriptive statistics are applied to populations, and the properties of
populations, like the mean or standard deviation, are called parameters as they represent the population (ten students).
For example, you might be interested in the exam scores of all students at PCHS College of Nursing. Often,
however, you do not have access to the whole population you are interested in investigating, but only a limited number of
data instead. It is not feasible to measure all exam marks of all students in the whole of PCHS (assuming there are 500
students and the feasibility is low) so you have to measure a smaller sample of students (e.g., 20 randomly selected
students), which are used to represent the larger population of all PCHS-BSN students. In this case, properties of samples,
such as the mean or standard deviation, are not called parameters, but statistics.
Inferential statistics is concerned with making predictions or inferences about a population from observations and
analyses of a sample. These are techniques that allow us to use samples to make generalizations about the populations
(Eg.: All PCHS BSN Students) from which the samples (20 randomly selected BSN Students) were drawn. It is, therefore,
important that the sample accurately represents the population. In other words, Inferential Statistics tell us the probability
that the results of the analysis could have occurred by chance when there is no relationship at all between the variables we
studied in the population we studied.
Inferential statistics arise out of the fact that sampling naturally incurs sampling error and thus a sample is not expected to
perfectly represent the population.
Methods of Inferential Statistics

The methods of inferential statistics are (1) the estimation of parameter(s) and (2) testing of statistical hypotheses.
1. Parameter Estimation
Is used to estimate a population parameter- for example a mean, a proportion or a mean difference between two groups
(eg.:experimental and control subjects).
Two forms are:
 Point estimation- involves calculating a single statistic to estimate the population parameter.
For example: To continue with the previous example, if we calculated the mean scores in that specific exam of five
sections at PCHS College of Nursing and found out it was 80, then this would be the point estimate of the population
mean.
 Interval estimation- indicates a range of values within which the parameter has a specified probability of lying.
With interval estimation, researchers construct a confidence interval (CI) around the estimate; the upper and
lower limits are called confidence limits.
Constructing a confidence interval around a sample mean establishes a range of values for the population value as
well as the probability of being right- the estimate is made with a certain degree of confidence. Researchers usually
use either a 95% or a 99% confidence interval purely by convention.
2. Testing of Statistical Hypotheses

Statistical hypothesis testing provides objective criteria for deciding whether hypotheses are supported by data.
Example: Suppose we hypothesized that participation of PCHS-BSN Level 4 in a non-conventional course audit program before the final
examination would increase their scores in the said examination. The sample is 25 control group students who did not participate in the
program and 25 experimental subjects who do. The mean and post experimental exam score for experimental subject is 83 and that
for control is 78. Should we conclude that the hypothesis was correct? Group differences are in the predicted direction, but the results
might simply reflect sampling fluctuations. The two groups might happen to be different by chance regardless of the intervention.
Perhaps with a new sample, the group means would be nearly identical.
Statistical hypothesis testing allows researchers to make objective decisions about whether study results likely reflect
chance sample differences or true differences in a population.
 Null Hypothesis
Hypothesis testing is based on negative inference. In our example, we found out that the subjects participated in the
intervention have higher mean scores than control group subjects. There are two possible explanations: (1) the intervention
was unsuccessful in increasing the exam scores ; or (2) the differences resulted from chance factors, such as group diffrences
in terms of comprehension level among subjects even before the experimentation. The first explanation is our research
hypothesis and the second is the null hypothesis (may be recalled as a state of no relationship between variables):
 Statistical hypothesis testing is basically a process of rejection
 It cannot be demonstrated directly that the research hypothesis is correct, but by using theoretical sampling
distributions, it can be shown that null hypothesis has a high probability of being incorrect.
 Researchers seek to reject the null hypothesis through various statistical tests.
The Null hypothesis is that the mean population score for experimental group subjects is the same as that for controls
The alternative hypothesis (research hypothesis) claims the means are not the same

Type I and Type II Errors
Researchers decide whether to accept or reject a null hypothesis by determining how probable it is that observed results are
due to chance. Researchers lack information about the population, and so cannot know with certainty whether a null
hypothesis is or is not true. They can only conclude if that hypothesis are probably true or probably false, and there is always
a risk for error; the following figure summarizes this concept:
The actual situation is that the null

Outcomes of Statistical Decision
hypothesis is:
making
TRUE FALSE
The researcher TRUE
calculates a (Null
Correct Type II error
test statistic Accepted) Decision (false negative)
and decides
that the null
FALSE
(Null Type I error Correct
hypothesis is: Rejected) (false positive) Decision
5.2 Qualitative Analyses
Noticing, Collecting and Thinking model

(Seidel 1998)
Is a useful model to explain the basic process of qualitative data analysis. The
model consists of 3 parts: Noticing, Collecting, and Thinking about
interesting things. These parts are interlinked and cyclical. For example while
thinking about things you notice further things and collect them. Seidel likens
the process to solving a jigsaw puzzle. Noticing interesting things in the data
and assigning ‘codes’ to them, based on topic or theme, potentially breaks
the data into fragments. Codes which have been applied to the data then act
as sorting and collection devices.
In this section, I will dissect this model and present concepts that
are useful in the course of learning research methods
Qualitative Analysis
The purpose of data analysis is to organize, provide structure to, and elicit meaning from research data. In
qualitative studies, data collection and analysis usually occur simultaneously, rather than after data are collected. The
search for important themes and concepts begins from the moment collection gets underway.
Qualitative analysis is a labor-intensive activity that requires creativity, conceptual sensitivity and sheer hard work.
Quantitative analyses mostly deal with numeric data in which information are summarized in tables, graphs and tables.
Whereas in Qualitative analysis data are forms of information gathered in a nonnumeric form.
Common examples of such data are; Interview transcript, field notes (notes taken in the field being studied), video,
audio recordings, images and documents (reports, meeting minutes, e-mails).
Such data usually involve people and their activities, signs, symbols, artifacts and other objects they imbue with meaning.
The most common forms of qualitative data are what people have said or done.
The Three Challenges

1. No universal rules for analyzing qualitative data. The absence of standard analytic procedure makes it difficult to
explain how to do such analyses, and how to present findings in a way that their validity is apparent.
2. Enormous amount of work required in which the analyst must organize and make sense of every page of
narrative materials.
3. Data reduction for reporting purposes considering the need to be concise with the need to maintain the richness
and evidentiary value for their data. Unlike in quantitative analysis where results can be summarized in a few tables.
Qualitative Data Analysis (QDA)

Qualitative Data Analysis (QDA) is the range of processes and procedures whereby we move from the qualitative data
that have been collected into some form of explanation, understanding or interpretation of the people and situations we are
investigating. QDA is usually based on an interpretative philosophy. The idea is to examine the meaningful and symbolic
content of qualitative data. For example, by analyzing interview data the researcher may be attempting to identify any or all
of:
 Someone's interpretation of the world
 Why they have that point of view
 How they came to that view
 What they have been doing
 How they conveyed their view of their situation
 How they identify or classify themselves and others in what they say

The Process of QDA
The process of QDA usually involves two things, writing and the identification of themes. Writing of some kind is found in almost all
forms of QDA. In contrast, some approaches, such as discourse analysis or conversation analysis may not require the identification of themes.
Nevertheless finding themes is part of the overwhelming majority of QDA carried out today.
1. Writing
Writing involves writing about the data and what you find there. In many cases what you write may be analytic ideas. In other cases
it may be some form of précis or summary of the data, though this usually contains some analytic ideas.
2. Coding into themes

Looking for themes involves coding. This is the identification of passages of text (or other meaningful phenomena, such as parts of images)
and applying labels to them that indicate they are examples of some thematic idea. At its simplest, this labelling or coding process enables
researchers quickly to retrieve and collect together all the text and other data that they have associated with some thematic idea so that they
can be examined together and different cases can be compared in that respect.
Coding
I find this concept, coding to be very important in qualitative analysis, allow me to present an example and further discuss ideas that I
find relevant and useful.
Example of a coded text:

In this example a wide margin on the right is used, so that code labels and other comments can be written there. Print
out your transcriptions in whatever way supports your preferred approach to coding the text.
The codes used in this example are still essentially descriptive but begin to move away from simply summarizing what the
respondent has said. Using brackets to the right of the transcribed text, they also code much larger chunks or passages of
text. This form of coding is most useful when you go on to make retrievals, (eg.: gather together all the text about one
topic – that is to say, all the text that is coded the same way). With larger chunks, the retrieved text is less likely to be
decontextualized. The analyst has also used a highlighter to identify words that refer to feelings and these words suggest
that the passage about living alone is actually about the emotions and feelings associated with living alone.
Coding
Coding is the process of combing the data for themes, ideas and categories and then marking similar passages of text
with a code label so that they can easily be retrieved at a later stage for further comparison and analysis. Coding the data
makes it easier to search the data, to make comparisons and to identify any patterns that require further
investigation.
Codes can be based on the following that are found on the data:
 Themes, Topics; Ideas, Concepts
 Terms, Phrases; Keywords
Usually it is passages of text that are coded but it can be sections of an audio or video recording or parts of images. All
passages and chunks that are coded the same way – that is given the same label – have been judged (by the
researcher) to be about the same topic, theme, concept etc. The codes are given meaningful names that give an
indication of the idea or concept that underpins the theme or category. Any parts of the data that relate to a code topic are
coded with the appropriate label. This process of coding (associating labels with the text, images etc) involves close reading
of the text (or close inspection of the video or images). If a theme is identified from the data that does not quite fit the
codes already existing then a new code is created.
As the researcher reads through their data set the number of codes they have will evolve and grow as more topics or themes become
apparent. The list of codes thus will help to identify the issues contained in the data set.
What to look for when you are coding (Charmaz, 2003)

Most typically, when coding, researchers have some codes already in mind and are also looking for other ideas that seem to
arise out of the data.
 What are people doing?; What is going on?; What is the person saying? What do these actions and statements take for granted?
 How do structure and context serve to support, maintain, impede or change these actions and statements?"
 A more detailed list of the kinds of things that can be coded are Table 1 below. The examples of each kind tend to be descriptive
because it makes it easier to explain the phenomena. However, when you are coding it is advisable to move from descriptive codes
to more analytic ones as quickly as possible.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
NO. WHAT CAN BE CODED EXAMPLES
1 Behaviours, specific acts Seeking reassurance, Bragging
2 Events – short once in a lifetime events or Wedding day, day moved out of home for
things people have done that are often told as a university, starting first job
story.
3 Activities – these are of a longer duration, Going clubbing, attending a night course,
involve other people within a particular setting conservation work
4 Strategies, practice or tactics Being nasty to get dumped,

Staying late at work to get promotion
5 States – general conditions experienced by Hopelessness “I’ll never meet anyone better
people or found in organisations at my age” settling for someone who is not
really suitable
6 Meanings – A wide range of phenomena at the core
of much qualitative analysis. Meanings and
interpretations are important pars of what
directs participants actions.
a. What concepts do participants use to The term ‘chilling out’ is used by young
understand their world? What norms, values, and people to mean relaxing and not doing very
rules guide their actions much
b. What meaning or significance it has for Jealousy “ I just felt why did she get him”
participants, how do they construe events what
are the feelings
c. What symbols do people use to understand A PhD is referred to as ‘a test of
their situation? What names do they use for endurance’ (because finishing a PhD is a
objects, events, persons, roles, setting and challenge)
equipment?
7 Participation – adaptation to a new setting or About new neighbours “In my new house I have
involvement to keep my music down at night as the
neighbours have young children”.
8 Relationships or interaction Seeing family “ Now my sister lives in the

next road she visits more and we’ve become
much closer.
9 Conditions or constraints Lose of job (before financial difficulties),
moving away (before lost contact with old
friends)
10 Consequences Confidence gets dates, positive attitude
attracts opportunities
11 Settings – the entire context of the events University, work place, housing estate
under study
12 Reflexive – researcher’s role in the process, Probing question “How did you feel when he
how intervention generated the data said that?”
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Other techniques to identify themes and codes (Ryan and Bernard, 2003)
 Word repetitions – look for commonly used words and words whose close repetition may indicated emotions
 Indigenous categories (what the grounded theorists refer to as in vivo codes) – terms used by respondents with a particular
meaning and significance in their setting.
 Key-words-in-context – look for the range of uses of key terms in the phrases and sentences in which they occur.
 Compare and contrast – essentially the grounded theory idea of constant comparison. Ask, ‘what is this about?’ and ‘how does it
differ from the preceding or following statements?’
 Social science queries – introduce social science explanations and theories, for example, to explain the conditions,
Interpreting and Organizing
Interpreting
It is easy, when starting QDA both to write and code in ways that are nothing more than descriptive summaries of what
participants have said or done. Inevitably even description involves some level of interpretation though the trick is to move
away from the kinds of descriptions and interpretations that people would use in the milieu, community or setting you are
investigating to a categorization and analytic understanding that begins to explain why things are as you have found them.
Organizing
The data sets used in QDA tend to be very large. Though samples may be quite small compared with those used in
quantitative approaches such as surveys, the kinds of meaningful data collected (field notes, video recordings and interviews,
for example) tend to be very lengthy and require the kind of intensive examination, understanding and reading that
only humans can do. In order to keep a clear mind and not become overwhelmed by the sheer amount of data and analytic
writings, the analyst needs to be organized.
Researchers tend to approach this organization in one of two ways.
a. Manual methods
Notes and interviews are transcribed and transcripts and images etc. are copied. The researcher then uses folders,
filing cabinets, wallets etc. to gather together materials that are examples of similar themes or analytic ideas. This facilitates
easy retrieval of such linked material, but necessitates two things:
1. Making multiple copies of the original data as the same data may represent two or more themes or analytic ideas.
2. A careful method of labeling the material in the folders or files so that it is possible to check back and examine the
broader context in which that data occurred. The analyst needs to know where the snippets of data in the files came
from so that they can be re-contextualized.
b. Computer based
With the advent of the personal computer, mobile applications (Android and iOS) that are proven excellent at manipulating
text, it was clear that with the right software or application, much of the manual organization could be done efficiently with a
computer or mobile application. Thus many researchers have replaced physical files and cabinets with computer based
directories and files along with the use of word processors to write and annotate texts. Many analysts now also use dedicated
computer assisted qualitative data analysis (CAQDAS) packages that not only make the coding and retrieval of text easy
to do, but can add other functions like searching that computers do quickly but which takes humans ages to do or in some
cases, which humans have never done. At first the focus of CAQDAS was on text since that was easy to handle on PCs, but
now that much audio and video is in digital form too, software has been developed to support the analysis of audio and video
data.
TIP: Check the annex of this compilation for direct download of my suggested mobile apps which I find useful in data collection and
analysis. These Apps can be freely downloaded with iOS or Android with Qr Barcode reader.
5.4 Interpretation of findings
Interpretation of Findings
Interpretation of findings refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after an analytical and or experimental study.
It is concerned with relationships within the collected data, partially overlapping analysis. It also extends beyond the data of the study to
inch the results of other research, theory and hypotheses.
 Significance of Interpretation
It is through interpretation that the researcher can well understand the abstract principle that works beneath his findings.
It leads to the establishment of explanatory concepts that can serve as a guide for future research studies; it opens new
avenues of intellectual adventure and stimulates the quest for more knowledge. Researcher can better appreciate only through
interpretation why his findings are what they are and make others understand the real significance of his research findings.
 Technique of Interpretation
Interpretation involves the following steps:
a. Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relationships which he has found and he must interpret the lines of
relationship in terms of the underlying processes and must try to find out the thread of uniformity that lies under the
surface layer of his diversified research findings.
b. Extraneous information, if collected during the study must be considered while interpreting the final results of research
study, for it may prove to be a key factor in understanding the problem under consideration.
c. Consultation will result in correct interpretation and, thus, will enhance the utility of research results.
d. Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only after considering all relevant factors affecting the problem to
avoid false generalization.
Precautions in Interpretation
a. Researcher must pay attention to the following points for correct interpretation:
- The data are appropriate, trustworthy and adequate for drawing inference
- The data reflect good homogeneity; and that
- Proper analysis has been done through statistical methods
b. The researcher must remain cautious about the errors that can possibly arise in the process of interpreting results. He
should be well equipped with and must know the correct use of statistical measures for drawing inferences concerning his
study.
c. Interpretation is intertwined with analysis and cannot be distinctly separated.
d. He must never lose sight of the fact that his task is not only to make sensitive observations of relevant occurrences, but also
to identify and disengage the factors that are initially hidden to the eye. This will enable him to do his job of interpretation on
proper lines. Broad generalization should be avoided as most research is amenable to it because the coverage may be
restricted to a particular time, a particular area and particular conditions. Such restrictions, if any, must invariably be specified
and the results must be framed within their limits.
e. The researcher must remember that ideally in the course of a research study, there should be constant interaction between
initial hypothesis, empirical observation and theoretical conceptions. It is exactly in this area of interaction between
theoretical orientation and empirical observation that opportunities for originality and creativity lie. He must pay special
attention to his aspect while engaged in the task of interpretation.
Presentation of Findings
The order of presentation of results should be systematic and logical. This part of of the study should never contain
raw data and should begin with a statement of more general findings then move to the more specific data results. More important
results should be described first. The reported data must be relevant to the research problem and sufficient to answer the research
question. For this, the outcome measures or dependent variables should be clearly defined.
Statistics appropriate to the research design must be reported. It should be clear from the designs which statistics are
relevant to each research question. Results should be organized and presented in a way that the reader would clearly understand which
statistics bear on which research hypothesis. How the scores are obtained should be described explicitly.
The report should also show if some aspects of the method used to analyze the data appear to have violated some of the assumptions of
the statistical tests used. If an analysis of variance is performed, the investigator must check the data for homogeneity of variance, if this
is not done, interpretation of results becomes problematic and conclusions drawn should be regarded with skepticism.
Care should be taken in the presentation of tables and figures. Titles, labels and captions should be appropriate and complete. The
information in each table or figure should be referred to in narrative report. As with other sections of the report, this too, should be
presented in a reasonable, logical order. Ideally, the discussion should follow the same sequence as the one used to report the results of
the study. Discussion of more general and important results should precede discussion of specific and less important rules.
Each finding should be discussed in terms of the original problem. All reported findings should be discussed. Conclusions
should be stated followed by a discussion of the relevant data and the argument that establishes the conclusion. The findings should be
compared with other relevant findings in the literature in terms of implications for further research. If data do not seem to warrant
discussions, they probably should not have been included in the reported results.
Acceptance or Rejection of Hypothesis

When looking at the data, the researcher should be able to say if the hypothesis is accepted or rejected. If the researcher is using
statistics, he should say at what level the hypothesis is accepted or rejected and what are the correlations are. Testing the hypothesis is
the whole point of the research effort, so it is extremely important that the investigator is able to report, in definite terms, just what the
test reveals.
Suppose a null hypothesis is used and findings reveal that it is rejected, then the difference should be stated. On the other hand, is a
directional hypothesis is used, it should also be reported whether such is accepted or rejected.

PART 6: COMMUNICATION OF FINDINGS AND UTILIZATION OF RESEARCH
6.1 Ways to Communicate Research
Communicating Research Reports
A research report is not an essay. It is an account on how and why a problem was studied, and what was discovered as a
result. The report should not include overtly subjective statements, emotionally laden statements or exaggerations. This is not
to say that the researcher’s story should be told in a dreary manner. Indeed, in qualitative reports, there are ample
opportunities to enliven the narration with rich description, direct quotes and insightful interpretation. Authors of quantitative
reports, although somewhat constrained by structure and the need to include numeric information, should strive to keep the
presentation lively.
Quantitative researchers often avoid personal pronouns such as “I”, “my”, and “we” because impersonal pronouns, and the
use of passive voice suggests greater impartiality. Qualitative reports, by contrast are often written in the first person and
in active voice. I f a direct presentation can be made without suggesting bias, a more readable product usually results.
It is not easy to write simply and clearly, but these are important goals of scientific writing. The use of technical jargon does
little to enhance the communicative value of the report, and should especially be avoided in communicating findings. The style
should be concise and straightforward. If writers can add elegance to their reports without interfering with clarity and
accuracy, so much the better, but the product is not expected to be a literary achievement.
A common flaw in reports of beginning researchers is inadequate organization. The overall structure is fairly standard, but the
organization within sections and subsections needs careful attention. Sequences should be in an orderly progression with
appropriate transitions, Continuity and logical thematic development are critical to good communication.
TRIVIA: Methods and results should be described in the past tense. For example it is inappropriate to say “Nurses who
receive special training perform triage functions significantly better than those without training.” In this sentence, “receive” should be changed
to “received” and perform to “performed” to reflect the fact that the statement pertains only to particular sample whose behavior was
observed in the past.
Types of Research Reports

I will be describing four major approaches in communicating research reports: theses and dissertations, traditional journal articles, online
reports and presentations at professional meetings.
Most universities have a preferred format for their dissertations. Until recently, most schools used
a traditional IMRAD format:
Theses and
Dissertations IMRAD (Introduction, Methods, Research [and] Discussion) is a mnemonic for a common
format used for academic ['scientific'] research papers. While used primarily in the hard sciences,
like physics and biology, it is also widely used in the social and behavioral sciences. The IMRAD
format is also known as the APA format, as the American Psychological Association uses the
IMRAD headings in its APA stylesheet. IMRAD is simply a more 'defined' version of the "IBC"
[Introduction, Body, Conclusion] format used for all academic writing.
A Brief IMRAD Research Example

Following is an example of using the IMRAD format for a report based on field research
concerning the “FOUR O’CLOCK HABIT AS A PREVENTIVE MEASURE TO DENGUE MOSQUITO”.
The research question is: How did the students feel about the activities related with the
program: FOUR O’CLOCK HABIT?
Your research — based on observation, interviews and/or surveys — will provide the data to
answer the question. Your answer will be a hypothesis (proposed thesis) that you will attempt to
prove. Your data will be the evidence for your 'proof'.
The IMRAD format would include the following basic sections.
Introduction (including a title)

The title is centered at the top of the first page.
Below the title, but without a heading of its own, is the introductory section. This comprises one
or several paragraphs which outline the research question and its significance within the topic
being discussed, making it clear what the relevance of the question and topic are for readers of
the paper.

(*Review of Background, Known Information)
*This section is not part of the 'IMRAD' mnemonic, as it is considered to be self-evident]
What is the history of the PROGRAM? Who sponsors it, and why? Who/what are these
organizations? How long have there been programs related to dengue prevention? How
widespread is the program being implemented in the Philippines? How 'successful' have past
programs were (as defined by what criteria)? In what sense might the program or its concept be
controversial (in whose eyes, and why)? (etc.)
Method
Describe how you gathered the information. What events did you observe involving students,
teachers and staff during the program implementation? Who did you interview? Why did you
interview these particular people? What sort of information did you expect to get from them? If
you interviewed people who didn't observe the program, where did you find them? What did you
expect they'd tell you? Were attitudes of students, teachers and staff different from those outside
the school vicinities? In what ways? How do you know? If your paper includes interviews or
surveys, here is where you would describe their design and procedure.
Results
What did you find out from the method you had employed? Here's where you would include your
description of the program implementation, and the various opinions received by different means
from different respondents. This is the main section of your paper.
Discussion
What do the findings presented under "Results" above mean? Specifically, how do your findings
prove your thesis? What patterns do you see in the data? How do they correlate with what had
been 'known' about the event, and/or what you had expected to find? Did you find what you had
expected to, or were you surprised? (Often the parts that surprised you are the most significant,
and the most interesting.) Is further research desirable? If so, what, and how? Researchers often
use this section to promote interest for their next research project.
Limitations on the Research Design and Material

Often a separate subdivision of the research discussion is a description of the limitations inherent
in your research method, the material available for the research, or other such factors. Viewed
after the fact, what would you have done differently (if you had been able to) to obtain more
objective and 'reliable' results?
All research projects will have such "limitations": this does not diminish the findings of
what was discovered, confirmed or disproved with the plan and material which was used; it
simply recognizes that, had it been possible to conduct the project differently (with more
complete material, a longer time frame, etc.) the results could or would have been different.
Conclusion, Notes, Works Cited and Appendices

While the IMRAD format presumes the paper's conclusion to be a subsection of the Discussion,
there should be a distinct closing to the paper of several paragraphs that briefly summarize what
the paper has proposed, discussed and concluded. Following this would be) possible [author]
Notes, the paper's Works Cited, and possible Appendices.
------------------------------------------------------------
Converting a Traditional Dissertation to an acceptable Manuscript format.
If an academic institution does not use paper format theses, students will need to adapt their dissertations
before submission to a journal:
Suggested changes to convert theses to manuscripts (Johnson, S.H. 1996)

Thesis Style Manuscript Style
Long literature review Summary of past literature
Thesis headings like “definitions” Headings follow journal’s research format
Focus on the past Focus on the future
Detailed descriptions of statistical measures Statistical measures explained
Short implications section Detailed implications section
Focus on school requirements Targeted to the reader
Excessive use of references Uses selected references
References in school style References in journal style
Academic writing style Scholarly but not pedantic style
Excessive number of charts Selected charts summarize data
50 or more pages long Target of 10-20 pages long

Progress in evidence-based practice depends on research efforts to share their work.
Dissertations, which are too lengthy and inaccessible for widespread use, are read only by handful
Journal Articles of people. Publication is a professional journal that ensures broad circulation of
research findings, and it is professionally advantageous to publish (Eg.: Philippine
Nurses Association’s Quarterly Journal).
It may be useful to send a query letter to a journal to ask the editor whether there is
interest in a manuscript. It should briefly describe the topic and methods, a preliminary title
and submission date. Consider that journals differ in prestige, acceptance rates and circulation.
The researcher should adhere to the publication’s guidelines- eg.: typically a manuscript for
journals must be no more than 15-20 pages , double-spaced with one-inch margin. In a typical
article, the greatest space is allocated to methods and results. Care should be taken in suing
citations.
Electronic publication is advantageous in that dissemination can occur more rapidly, cutting down
Electronic Publication on publication lag time. One can publish his findings by creating his own website or publish in
already existing ones (Eg. Online Journal of Issues in Nursing) with minimal fee of any. Most
journals that are published in hard copy formats now also have online capabilities.
The mechanism for submitting a presentation is simpler than for journal submission. The
Presentations at association sponsoring the conference ordinarily publishes an announcement or Call for
Professional Abstracts in its newsletter, journal or website 6-9 months before the meeting date. Most
Conferences conferences require prospective presenters to submit abstracts of 500 – 1000 words rather than
complete paper. Abstracts are evaluated based on the quality and originality of the research and
appropriateness of the paper for the conference audience. If accepted, researchers are committed
to appear at the conference to make presentation.
Presentation usually follows the IMRAD FORMAT. The time allotted for presentation in
most scientific meetings I attended was an average of 10-15 minutes, with up to 5 minutes for
questions from the audience. Thus, only the most important aspects of the study, with special
emphasis on the results can be included. Familiarity and comfort with the script is important to
deliver effectively in an informal and conversational manner rather than verbatim.
6.2 Critiquing research
Research Critique
A research critique is a critical estimate of a piece of research using scientific criteria, to carefully and systematically appraise
its general features. A research review on the other hand, merely identifies and summarizes the major features and
characteristics of a study.
A research critique determines what the researcher has tried to do and evaluates the strategies selected. It presents both
criteria and evidence for its judgments. The purpose of the research critique is to help refine and improve an
investigation’s method of inquiry. The critique helps consumers decide how to use the findings from the study. It therefore
represents a contribution to knowledge.
Constructive criticism should offer insightful, stimulating comments that would motivate the researcher to continue his work
on the study. In contrast, destructive criticism tends to dampen the researcher’s interest in work. The careful choice of
words in a critique is one of the most important features of artful and sensitive criticism, including the researcher to benefit
from rather than be defensive about the study.
Educating oneself to be a consumer is a continuous process. Each reader is different, with his/ her own experiences, expertise
and degrees of interest. Reports, too, vary widely with respect to subject, methodology and statistical treatment of data.
Regardless of the type and terminology, all research reports have the following major sections: problem, review of literature,
method (procedures used to carry out the research), results or findings, discussion and conclusions.
The study should explain clearly the reason why it was done and indicate its importance. The potential value of a
research can be easily judged if it can solve a problem relevant to nursing, if the facts collected are useful nursing and
contribute to nursing knowledge. Nurses should be able to analyze reports of healthcare research to judge the applicability of
findings to their practice. A knowledgeable consumer is able to identify the strengths and weaknesses of published research
reports.
Research Report Evaluation Checklist
Although, the following present a step by step checklist by which reports are evaluated, they may not include complete guideline. By knowing
what each section of a research report should contain in general, and by mentally asking oneself a number of questions as one reads the
report, the reader can draw some conclusions about the value and validity of the study.
GUIDELINES FOR CRITIQUING A QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH STUDY

Elements influencing the believability of the research
Elements Questions
Writing style Is the article well written- concise, grammatically correct, avoids use of jargon? Is it
well laid out and organized?
Title Is the title clear, accurate and unambiguous
Abstract Does the abstract offer a clear overview of the study including the research problem,
sample, methodology, findings and recommendations?
Elements influencing the robustness of the research

Elements Questions
Purpose/research problem Is the purpose of the study/research problem clearly identified?
Logical consistency Does the research report follow the steps of the research process in a logical
manner? Do these steps naturally flow and are the links clear?
Literature review Is the review logically organized? Does it offer balanced critical analysis of the
literature? Is the majority of the literature of recent origin? Is it mainly from primary
sources and of an empirical nature?
Theoretical framework Has the conceptual or theoretical framework been identified? Is the
framework adequately described? Is the framework appropriate?
Aims/objectives/research Have aims, objectives, a research question or hypothesis been identified? If so are
question/hypotheses they clearly stated? Do they reflect information presented in the literature review?
Sample Has the target population been clearly identified? How were the sample
selected? Was it a probability or a non-probability sample? Is it an adequate
size? Are the inclusion/exclusion criteria clearly identified?
Ethical considerations Were the participants fully informed about the nature of the research? Was the
autonomy/confidentiality of the participants guaranteed? Were the participants
protected from harm? Was ethical permission granted for the study?
Operational definitions Are all the terms, theories and concepts mentioned in the study clearly
defined?
Instrumentation Is the instrumentation used to assess subjects described? Were instrument reliability
and validity discussed?
Procedures Is there a description of the procedures used to administer the instrument?
Are any of the study’s administrative or procedural limitations discussed?
Variables Are variables adequately described? Was a rationale provided for their use? Were the
variables chosen appropriate for answering the research question(s)?
Data analysis/results What type of data and statistical analysis was undertaken? Was it
appropriate? How many of the sample participated? Were tables and graphs
presented in clear and understandable fashion? Significance of the findings?
Discussion Are the findings linked back to the literature review? If a hypothesis was identified was
it supported? Were the strengths and limitations of the study including generalizability
discussed? Was a recommendation for future research made?
References Were all books, journals and other media alluded to in the study accurately
referenced?

GUIDELINES FOR CRITIQUING A QUALITATIVE RESEARCH STUDY
Elements influencing the believability of the research
Elements Questions
Writing style Is the article well written- concise, grammatically correct, avoid use of jargon? Is it well
laid out an organized?
Title Is the title clear, accurate and unambiguous
Abstract Does the abstract offer a clear overview of the study including the research problem,
sample, methodology, finding and recommendations?
Elements influencing the robustness of the research

Elements Questions
Purpose/research problem Is the purpose of the study/research problem clearly identified?
Logical consistency Does the research report follow the steps of the research process in a logical
manner? Do these steps naturally flow and are the links clear?
Literature review Is the review logically organized? Does it offer balanced critical analysis of the literature?
Is the majority of the literature of recent origin? Is it mainly from primary sources and of
an empirical nature?
Theoretical framework Has the conceptual or theoretical framework been identified? Is the
framework adequately described? Is the framework appropriate?
Method and philosophical Has the philosophical approach been identified? Why was this approach/method chosen?
underpinnings Does the author describe or reflect upon their role or positionality?
Research setting Was the setting properly and completely described? Were the circumstances
under which the data was collected described?
Sample Is the sampling method and sample size described? Is the sampling method
appropriate? Were the participants properly and completely described? Were the
participants suitable for informing the research purpose as described?
Ethical considerations Were the participants fully informed about the nature of the research? Was
the autonomy/confidentiality of the participants guaranteed? Were the
participants protected from harm? Was ethical permission granted for the
study?
Data collection/data analysis Are the data collection strategies described? Are the strategies used to analyze the data
described? Did the researcher follow the steps of the data analysis method identified?
Was data saturation achieved?
Rigor Does the researcher discuss how rigor was assured? Were credibility,
dependability, and transferability described?
Findings/discussion Are the findings presented appropriately? Was sufficient descriptive information given to
allow the reader to conclude that the author’s interpretations were grounded in the
data? Does the researcher address internal validity through “triangulation,” that is,
verification of the findings via member checks/other documentation/other sources/other
researchers? Does the author acknowledge the lack of generalizability of the study
findings, and/or suggest a replication of the study? Has the original purpose of the study
been adequately addressed?
Conclusions/implications Are the importance and implications of the findings identified? Are
and recommendations recommendations made to suggest how the research findings can be
developed?
References Were all books, journals and other media alluded to in the study accurately referenced?

6.3.Theories of Utilization
We first understand:
The Difference between Dissemination and Utilization (D&U)
Many researchers, when they begin planning for dissemination and utilization, think primarily about the "D." Dissemination
(D) is the important item on most people's agendas: how to get research results to intended audiences in the most
effective, cost-efficient manner.
But utilization (U) is a critical element in increasing the effective reach of research outcomes. Focusing only on the "D" in
D&U is like dialing nine numbers of a ten-digit telephone number: You may be 90 percent finished, but unless you dial that last
digit, you'll never make the intended connection.
So it's helpful to pull the two ideas apart, to assure that each can be addressed explicitly. I have thoroughly made research and
came up with the following statements in which ideas are from reliable resources, you will find them useful in a way of thinking
about D&U:
 Dissemination speaks primarily to the process of knowledge transfer – the who, what, when, and how of
moving ideas and information from the source(s) to intended recipient(s).
 Utilization speaks primarily to purpose and to impact—why you want people to get the research outcomes
you're putting forth, what use you want people to make of the ideas, information, or products, and how people are
actually using them.
Both dissemination and utilization activities must be planned and conceived to meet the needs of a specific user if each is to be
efficient and ultimately successful. Utilization that may occur through activities that are not structured—for example, through dissemination
activities—may just happen. This approach to utilization is not, however, desired for researchers to consistently use and assume will be
effective in moving research to practice. A need exists for clear ways to link dissemination and utilization for the purpose of moving research
findings into the hands and minds of those that can most benefit from them. Facilitating such utilization requires a structured, planned
approach.
Theories of Utilization
“User” Model Theory

Traditionally, D&U theories and strategies have focused primarily on the message, or content, to be disseminated (the
specific "innovation," in terms of new research findings, programs, or devices) or on the medium of dissemination (the
channels used to get the message out including news releases, electronic networks, webcasts, or interactive video). Traditional
approaches acknowledge that utilization is affected by characteristics of the dissemination source (including intermediary
information sources, called linking agents). But the primary determiners of utilization are the "users" themselves.
They are the most critical element in the D&U process. The effectiveness of any "utilization model" rests upon the degree to
which it "fits" a particular potential user group. The degree to which an intended user group has diversity and wide-ranging
characteristics, the greater the necessity of having a range of "utilization models" to accommodate those differences
(Douthitt, 1995; Flowers, Edwards & Pusch, 1996).
Experts now perceive knowledge use as a cognitive function or, in other words, as a learning activity. Research on
utilization and social cognition has converged to provide deeper understandings about how people process new
information as well as what is required for utilization to occur.
Constructivist Learning Theory and Utilization

Current perspectives on knowledge utilization draw from a theory of learning known as constructivism. According to
constructivist principles, knowledge is not a "thing"—a static, inert object to be sent and received. Rather, knowledge is
a fluid set of understandings shaped both by those who originate it and by those who use it. "This casts the user as an
active problem-solver and a constructor of his or her own knowledge, rather than as a more passive receptacle of information
and expertise" (Hutchinson and Huberman, 1993).
This implies that utilization is most likely to occur when potential users determine that they have a need for particular
information. This constructivist orientation is the basis for modern day evaluation of procedures (eg.: clinical or
educational approaches in nursing) as well as in marketing research and associated techniques designed to influence a user's
perception of "need," and similarly, utilization models must recognize "need" as a powerful force in producing and
shaping outcomes.
Past and faulty "models of knowledge utilization" have been based upon a variety of beliefs about how learning takes
place. For example one "model" suggested the human mind was a blank slate to be written upon. This knowledge
utilization model also has been called "the bucket theory of the mind" (Buchman, 1982), in which the brain was viewed as an
empty vessel into which knowledge was poured.
Another common and, again, faulty "utilization model" was the notion that people acted as sponges, "soaking up"
knowledge, a role that is somewhat more active than that of an empty vessel. However, this model fails as well as the learner
is considered to absorb knowledge taken in wholesale, without filtering or processing.
Yet another notion often used in this era of technology is that of the brain as a computer, which processes in an orderly,
systematic fashion the information that is received from outside sources.
None of these "models" adequately describes the ways in which learners process information. New knowledge is
not merely filtered and sorted, but transformed by the learner's pre-existing experiences and understandings. This
conceptual framework suggests the building and shaping of new structures as a part of the knowledge utilization
process.
6.4 Barriers and Solutions to Utilization
Identified Barrier in Research Utilization:

GAP BETWEEN RESEARCH AND PRACTICE COMMUNITY
The purpose of research is to be of use—to change current practice, or to confirm it. Yet the process of moving new
understandings and new products from research to practice usually takes years, decades, or even generations. Although
there are good reasons for moving carefully—new research needs to be evaluated, replicated, and refined—too often the
pace of change is set, not by a rigorous process of review and refinement, but by the gap between the research
community and the world of practice.
Research on dissemination, or knowledge utilization as it is sometimes called, has yielded a wealth of information about
what does and does not work. But, due to this gap, those understandings for the most part have not moved from the
research community—those who study the process of knowledge use—to the practice community—those responsible
for adopting and applying research outcomes. As a result, most dissemination practices are still based on a mechanistic,
linear conception of dissemination as a process of "getting the word out."
Suggested Solution to Barrier:

“AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION” MODEL (An approach to Information Dissemination)
Approaches designed to promote knowledge utilization traditionally have been drawn from the agricultural extension
model, whose basic presumption is that people will use research-based products only if they have access to
information about them. The success of the agricultural extension model, along with other experience, tells us that this
presumption is true, in some cases, and under specific circumstances. However, the agricultural extension system has
proved to be much less effective when the research-based outcomes to be disseminated stray from agricultural production
technology into areas calling for attitudinal or behavioral changes.
Identified Barrier in Research Utilization:

COMPLEXITY
As a number of experts point out, most research "is not used as a can opener is used" (Huberman, 1987). A good research
may fail to communicate its outcome and its intention to its target users. In cases where change is conceptually complex,
and in cases where substantive change is demanded in individual or organizational beliefs or behaviors, the process of
knowledge use is vastly more complicated.
Suggested Solution to Barrier:

ADDRESING UTILIZATION GOALS
Below is a list of findings from research on knowledge use that suggest a few of the complexities in identifying utilization
"models" and encouraging their application by others. Researchers are frequently not addressing utilization goals with
sufficient detail to overcome these complexities:
 The actual quality of a research design is less important, in terms of its likelihood of being adopted and used, than the
extent to which it fits with users' established beliefs and experience.
 The source producing research outcomes is more important than the quality of the research design. People tend
to trust sources with whom they have established relationships and/or for whom they have high levels of respect.
 The degree of credibility of information sources is related to two factors: perceived expertise and perceived
trustworthiness. The more intensely people are involved with an issue; the more likely they are to question both the
expertise and the trustworthiness of those whose information contradicts their own current understandings.
 When research outcomes do get used in real-world settings, the resulting practices, programs, or products are
often quite different from the researcher's original conception. While researchers often produce new information, they
do not routinely provide demonstrations or other utilization assistance to interpret how it "fits" into real-world

environments. Additionally, utilization requires that some adaptations be made to apply new models into existing
contexts.
 The extent to which the intended beneficiaries of particular research are involved in the research process, the more
likely a researcher will have stories, examples, and general information that is couched from the "user" perspective.
This information is often critical in promoting utilization.
Knowledge Transfer Models

Many researchers (Dixon, 2000; NCDDR, 2001) in the knowledge utilization and management area describe the appropriate choice
of knowledge transfer activity to be critically linked to the leveraging of knowledge from one group to another. Some examples
and descriptions of knowledge transfer models follow:
1. Serial knowledge transfer model – in this model, transfer is leveraged from one work "team" to a very similar
work team in another similar work setting. Knowledge is transferred from individual members of the team, to the
team as a whole, i.e., integrated into a commonly–held perception of what worked. This constitutes the basis of what
can then be transferred to another similar team member or group.
2. Best practice knowledge transfer model – in this model, transfer of knowledge occurs from a team with
commonly—held knowledge to all elements of the organization within which the team exists. This transfer model is
usually inspired within a competitive organization that is looking to increase its "edge" on the competition. Knowledge
that is transferred is generally accepted as "best practices" within the organization, thus, encouraging utilization.
3. Exemplary knowledge transfer model – in this model, the knowledge transfer is from the organizational level,
and the transfer is intended to impact other organizations that may or may not be similar in scope and function. In
this case, what an organization has done well is the "knowledge" subject to transfer, and generally, competitive
secrets are not given away in the process.
4. Strategy–based knowledge transfer model – in this model, the knowledge encompasses an overall strategy or
approach in addressing a specific and often non–routine problem. Transfer is based around other entities that may
recognize a similar problem and be in need of developing a responsive and effective strategy.
5. Expert knowledge transfer model – in this model, individuals that may have been known to have experienced
and overcome similar problems, are viewed as experts. This expertise becomes known and valued and is called upon
when "problems" generally related to the original "problem" occur.
These examples of knowledge transfer models provide a conceptual framework upon which the dissemination and utilization of research results can be based.
Some of these knowledge transfer models can be accomplished best through face-to-face contact. Others, however, do lend themselves to the use of electronic
network and Web-based information sharing techniques.
6.5 Role in Research Utilization
The Role in Information Dissemination
The person whose responsibility includes dissemination for the purpose of utilization of research outcomes must consider
that dissemination is not synonymous with publication. Merely creating documents or innovations and sending out
information, whether via an article in a scholarly journal or the World Wide Web, will not create a "utilization model." This
type of model must be developed around the intended users—their worries, beliefs, constraints, and priorities, and the
people and organizations whose opinions they tend to value.
Utilization models must incorporate intended users' needs, contexts, and readiness for change for application of
the new research-based knowledge to occur. The degree of detail in this portion of a utilization model rests upon the
level of detailed understanding about the intended user group(s) and the nature of the research result being disseminated for
use. The level of diversity and options in a utilization model depends upon the extent of diversity within a particular target
audience.
A successful utilization model must rely on effective and well-defined interactions between basic process elements of the
potential user, the content of the message, the context required to obtain the message, the medium of the message, and the
source of the message/research result(s).

Suggested Researcher’s Guide in Research Utilization
Elements/User Questions Characteristics Determining Utilization of Research Results
• Perceived competence of researchers and research organization

• Credibility of experience of researchers
SOURCE • Credibility of motive
Where does it come from? • Sensitivity to user concerns and applications
• Relationship to other sources trusted by users
• Orientation toward use or application
• Credibility of research and development methodology

• Credibility of outcomes
• Comprehensiveness of research outcomes
• Utility and relevance for potential users
CONTENT
• Capacity to be described in terms understandable to users
What is it about? • Cost effectiveness
• Research design and procedures
• Relationship between research outcomes and existing knowledge or available products
• Competing or similar research-based knowledge or products
• Relationship between outcomes and existing knowledge or products

CONTEXT • Current issues in the field
How does it relate? • Competing knowlege or products
• General economic climate
• Physical capacity to reach intended users

• Timelines of access
• Accessibility and ease of use, user friendliness
MEDIUM • Flexibility
How can I get it? • Reliability
• Credibility
• Cost effectiveness
• Clarity and attractiveness of the information "package"
• Perceived relevance to own current needs

• User's readiness to change or try something new
• Information sources trusted and valued
USER • Format and level of research-based information needed
How can I benefit from it? • Level of contextual research-based information needed
• Dissemination media preferred
• Capacity to use and benefit from research-based information or product (resources, skills, and
support)

PART VII: PREPARING THE RESEARCH REPORT
Technical Details: Style, Format, and Organization of the Research Report
Research Proposal
Before a research study is done, the researcher prepares a tentative working outline for discussion with the head of the
Graduate School, his professor or the head of the agency. This outline is called research proposal.
A proposal is a written document specifying what a researcher intends to study; proposals are written both by students
seeking approval for dissertation and theses and by seasoned researchers seeking financial or institutional support. The set of
skills associate with learning about funding opportunities and developed proposals that can be funded is referred to as
grantsmanship . Good proposals quickly and easily answer the following questions:
 ● What do you want to do, how much will it cost, and how much time will it take?
 ● How does the proposed project relate to the sponsor's interests?
 ● What difference will the project make to: your university, your students, your discipline, the state, the nation, the world,
or whatever the appropriate categories are?
 ● What has already been done in the area of your project?
 ● How do you plan to do it?
 ● How will the results be evaluated?
 ● Why should you, rather than someone else, do this project?
These questions will be answered in different ways and receive different emphases depending on the nature of the proposed
project and on the school or agency to which the proposal is being submitted. Most colleges, universities and agencies
provide detailed instructions or guidelines concerning the preparation of proposals (and, in some cases, forms on which
proposals are to be typed); obviously, such guidelines should be studied carefully before you begin writing the draft.
Parts of a proposal
Graduate School of different colleges and universities has variations and follow specific format in both research proposal and
thesis writing. Proposals for sponsored activities generally follow a similar format, although there are variations depending
upon whether the proposer is seeking approval, support for a research grant, a training grant, or a conference or curriculum
development project. The following outline covers the primary components of a research proposal. Your proposal will be a
variation on this basic theme.
The proposal is not a fixed blueprint. One cannot predict one's findings beforehand or mechanically stick to an
argument since the research will inevitably alter or even unseat one's initial expectations. There is no fixed formula for writing
a proposal.
However, your challenge is to convince members of the scientific community that you
 have identified a scientific problem
 have a theoretical background and a methodical approach to solve the problem
 within a realistic time frame and at reasonable expenses.
First, consult your advisor on length, layout (typeface, line spacing, font, etc.), format, as well as a table of contents and
page numbers. Members of the selection committee may have to read a large number of research proposals so good
construction and legibility of your proposal is to your advantage. At the time of writing of this compilation, I have
sought the help of the Office of PCHS- Graduate School to obtain a copy of the school’s standard format on
research proposal and thesis writing, I will post it in my website as soon as I have a copy.

Suggested Format for Preparing Research Proposal
Title Page
Titles should be comprehensive enough to indicate the nature of the proposed work, but also be brief.
 Personal data (name, academic title, your position at your own university, date of
birth, nationality, your contact information, institutional contact.
 (Working) Title of your planned dissertation or research report.
words in the title should be chosen with great care, and their association with one another must be carefully
considered. While the title should be brief, it should be accurate, descriptive and comprehensive, clearly indicating
the subject of the investigation.
In order to develop a clear title, you must also be clear about the focus of your research!
Strive for the title to be ten words or 60 characters: focus on or incorporate keywords that reference the classification of
the research subject
Abstract
This section focuses on the research topic, its new, current and relevant aspects. Strive for clarity; your greatest challenge
might be narrowing the topic. It is a brief summary of the proposal. It should contain the statement or purpose or
objective.
Narrative
The narrative part states the problem and purpose of the study and the procedure or specific design. The problem
and purpose should be clearly expressed, including the hypothesis, the definition of terms and the variables to be
studied.
 The specific aim should lead towards contribution to knowledge.
 The significance of the study relates to the background and the problem and its importance.
 The theoretical framework and review of related literature present the basis of the study, including its
assumptions, definitions and methodological procedures.
 The literature should be relevant to the important and recent developments in the area being studied. It should
be clear how the proposed study evolved from prior work.
 The narrative should also state whether the study is experimental or otherwise. The selection of the sample
population and tools for data collection are included.
 A timetable of workplan should show that proposed research has been carefully and realistically made.
Selection of personnel, budget, facilities and resources- the people who will participate in the study, the estimated
expenses and the facilities and equipment to be used such as libraries and computers, are also stated in the proposal. The
required secretarial support and other organizations or institutions to be tapped, aside from the setting in which the study
will be conducted are also identified.
Enclosures
Also enclosed in the proposal are related literature,; agreement with the agencies concerned; and data gathering
instruments.
Usually the professor or a group of teachers, evaluate the proposal. Their criteria include scientific and technical
significance, originality, adequacy of the research methodology, qualifications of the principal investigator and staff,
availability of resources, justification for the proposed budget, time frame and protection of study subjects. The reviewers
then recommend either approval or disapproval of the study. Is the study is disapproved. The researcher meets with the
review panel to determine the basis of disapproval. Otherwise, another study may be proposed.

Thesis Proposal
The biggest problem perhaps, of graduate students is the preparation of their thesis proposal. May students finish their
academic requirements but are bogged down in the thesis writing stage.
The success in thesis writing depends on several factors:

 Determination and persistence in seeing the proposal through
 Time- it may be necessary to take a leave to have enough time to make the proposal, conduct the study, analyze
the results, make the necessary recommendations and proofread the manuscript several times before submission
and defense.
 Adequate resources to be used
 A good background in research and statistics
 Mastery of the English Language
The content and structure of the thesis proposal is usually contained in the first three chapters of the study
In an attempt to emphasize the standard format of The PCHS-Graduate School, I am attaching the Table of Contents of the DISSERTATION
AFFECTIVE BEHAVIOR PROFILES OF SENIOR STUDENTS IN THE SCIENCE –ORIENTED SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN THE
DIVISION OF OLONGAPO CITY SY 2001-2002 (H.B. Aggabao, 2002)
TECHNICAL DETAILS in the actual paper the EXAMPLE SOURCE (in Microsoft Word Format)
Font: Times New Roman
Font Size: 14
Line Spacing: 2.0
Margins: Top 1.9” / Left 1.8” / Bottom 1” / Right 1.1”
Paper Size: 8.5” x 11”
Title Page
The title of the study must be brief, concise and researchable; it contains the title, the kind of research work or paper
(research proposal, thesis or dissertation) the faculty/ person whom it will be presented or submitted, the school or agency,
the degree granted, the full name of the researcher, and the month and year the proposal was submitted.
The title is typed in an inverted pyramidal style.
DIVISION OF OLONGAPO CITY SY 2001-2002
___________________
A DISSERTATION
Presented to
The Faculty of the Graduate Studies and Research
Philippine College of Health Sciences, Inc.
Manila
___________________
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Education
__________________
by
Helen B. Aggabao
2002

The Table of Contents is a helpful guide to picture the chronology and technical details. I am presenting the FIVE
CHAPTERS of the said dissertation to be able to understand and appreciate the context.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page
Title Page ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… i
Approval Sheet …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ii
Acknowledgement …………………………………………….………………………………………………………………… iii
Thesis Abstract …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… v
Table of Contents ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… xvi
List of Tables ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… xviii
List of Figures ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………... xxiii
Chapter
1 THE PROBLEM
Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 1
Statement of the Problem ……………………………….………………………………………………………………….. 9
Scope and Delimitation of the Study ... ……………………………………………………………………………… 11
Research Locale……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 11
Importance of the Study…….…………………………………………………………………………………………… 18
Definition of Terms………………………………...………………………………………………………………… 19
2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
Foreign Literature ……………………………………….………………………………………………………………… 28
Local Literature ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 35
Foreign Studies …………………………………………. 44
Local Studies …………………………………………… 55
Relationship of the Reviewed Literature

and Studies ……………………………………….….………………………………………………………………… 65
3 RESEARCH DESIGN
Methodology …………………………………………….………………………………………………………………… 67
Selection of Respondent ……………………………….………………………………………………………………… 69
Instrument Used …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 70
Statistical Treatment of Data ………………………… 72
1. PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

OF DATA ………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………… 78
2. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary ………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………… 112
Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 120
Recommendations …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 121
BIBLIOGRAPHY ………………………………………………. 123
APPENDICES
128
Research Instrument…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
128
Letter of Request to the Division Superintendent ……….………………………………………………………………… 134
Approval of Permit to Conduct Study…………………………………………………………………………………… 135
CURRICULUM VITAE ………………………………………...…………………………………………………… 136

1. The Problem and Its Background
It is common in some research papers to use such titles as “INTRODUCTION”. The function of the introductory chapter is to
focus attention on the background of the problem and to give “bird’s eye” view of the study. The problem and its
background are contained in the first chapter of the proposal which also includes:
 The problem statement- must be stated clearly and expressed explicitly:
Chapter 1
THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING
Statement Of The Problem:
This study determined the affective behavior profiles of senior students in the science and technology -oriented secondary schools in the
Division of Olongapo City for the school year 2001-2002. It likewise looked into the differences in the affective behavior profiles such as scientific
attitudes and self-concept with factors on emotionality , personal worth , identity and accepting attitudes of the students enrolled in the Regional Science High
School and in the Engineering and Science Education Program in Olongapo City National School , Olongapo City.
The following research questions were raised:
1. What is the profile of senior students in the science and technology –oriented secondary schools in the Division of Olongapo City in terms of the
following variables such as;
a. Age
b. Gender
c. Parents’ educational attainment and
d. Family Income ?
2. What are the perceptions of the senior students in the science and technology –oriented secondary schools in the Division of Olongapo City in terms
of the following affective behavior profiles such as ;
a. scientific attitudes
b. self –concept with factors on emotionality, personal worth, identity, and accepting attitudes
3 . Are there significant differences in the perceptions of the senior students in the two (2) science and technology –oriented secondary schools as regards
their scientific attitudes and self-concept with factors on emotionality, personal worth, identity, and accepting attitudes ?
4. What educational implications the study can offer in terms of the developmental goals and needs of the students ?
*Example Source:
DIVISION OF OLONGAPO CITY SY 2001-2002 (H. B. Aggabao, 2002)
 Hypothesis- Is based on the problem statement; The null hypothesis is commonly used because it denies that there
is difference in effect that is otherwise easy to accept (please see comprehensive discussion on previous sections).
Hypothesis
In connection with the foregoing problems, the following null
hypothesis was tested at the .05 level of significance:
There are no significant differences in the perceptions of the senior students in the two (2) science and technology –oriented secondary schools as regards their
scientific attitudes and self-concept with factors on emotionality , personal worth, identity, and accepting attitudes.
*Example Source:
 Scope and Limitations- Scope means the extent of the study while the limitations are it perceived weaknesses,
which are beyond the control of the researcher. The scope of the study includes previous researches, issues and
concerns, the duration of the study, and its constraints.
Scope And Delimitation Of The Study
This study determined the affective behavior profiles of senior students in the science and technology oriented secondary schools in the Division of Olongapo City for
the school year 2001-2002.
Likewise , it determined the significant differences on the perceptions of the senior students in the two (2) science and technology oriented secondary schools in the
Division of Olongapo City in terms of their affective behaviors such as scientific attitudes and self-concept with factors on emotionality , personal worth, identity, and accepting
attitudes .
The subjects of the study were the senior students enrolled under the Engineering and Science Education Program (ESEP) in the Olongapo City National High School
and the Special Science Curriculum in the Regional Science High School both in Olongapo City.
These groups of respondents were selected using the random sampling method.
In order to elicit the desired information on the affective behavior profiles and variables such as age, gender, and parents’ educational attainment, and family income of
the respondents , three instruments were developed and tried out in order to determine the internal consistency of the items.
The final forms of the scientific attitude inventory and self-concept scale were administered to the subjects of the study in order to obtain the needed data as regards their
self-concept and scientific attitudes.
The final form of the questionnaire was also administered to the subjects to obtain the variables such as age, gender, parents’ educational attainment, and family
income.
For statistical treatment, frequencies, percentages , means and standard deviation of the obtained data were computed.
The t-test was employed to obtain the significance of differences in terms of the affective behavior profiles such as scientific attitudes and self-concept with
factors on the emotionality , personal worth, identity, and accepting attitudes.
*Example Source:

 Significance of the study- The significance of the study determines its importance to the agency; to the nursing
service, to its administrators and staff; to nursing education, to the college, dean, faculty members and students; to
the clients; to the community; and to nursing in general.
Significance of The Study
This study aimed to determine the affective behavior profiles of senior students in the science and technology -oriented schools. It focused on the premise that the graduates of these
schools offering the special science based curriculum are really producing scientifically inclined students equipped with positive affective behavior who will comprise the new breed of
Filipinos prepared for the challenges of the new millennium, adept at critical thinking , creative and humane individuals.
Experts in the field of education believe that the gifted and the talented youth are ideally suited for scientific and technological leadership. Piagetian research has shown that
the stage of formal operations, which is essential for scientific and mathematical understanding comes earlier for talented children. It further shows that hypothetical-deductive reasoning,
and separation and control of variables emerge as early in upper elementary grades in talented students with scientific interest. However, in scientific leadership , human abilities alone tell
only part of the story. Like plants , these bright youngsters will flower and flourish only in a fertile environment.
Several studies show that there are certain elements in the environment that relate to scientific achievement. Roe (1995) studied factors in family background and individual
development of eminent scholars . Knapp and Goodrich (1993) checked the educational background of individuals listed in the American Men of Science and discovered unexpectedly
large proportions of scientists coming from particular undergraduate institutions. From these data, one can infer, that early st imulation in a particular program is of great significance.
These researches as well as those of Piaget, suggest that there is a need for an early programming in the science and mathematics for talented children.
It is in this context that the researcher pursued this study, because it is her belief that these students who are products of these science-based curriculum are expected to
provide leadership in science and technology .

*Example Source:
 The theoretical/ conceptual framework- The theoretical framework, being the basis of research problem, is
carefully evaluated to show congruity with the proposed problem (please see comprehensive discussion on previous
sections).
Conceptual Framework
The concept of “creativity” and “critical thinking ability” are considered the bases of the framework of this study. The framework is drawn from the conceptions on the characteristics of
scientifically -inclined students . It is a common knowledge that for a student to thrive and survive in a school with science–based curriculum, he is equipped with all the potentials of a creative,
intelligent and critical thinking individual .
Creativity according to Michael Drury, “is not so much of an aptitude but as an attitude”. Creativity is thus applicable anywhere ,whether one is a cook, a clerk, a bank teller, a homemaker, a
teacher, an author or an astronaut. Creativity, psychologist and progressive educators maintains not a special gift of a favor edge few just as productivity is not a monopoly of the talented. Creative
products no matter how crude they may look to adults reveal much of the inner works of their young minds, Through his work. The child reveals his desires, dreams, fears, frustrations and ambitions.
In children, creativity is a universal factor, no human being is born without some creative potential. Children’s creativity is manifested early and takes a variety of forms of expressions. It is generally agreed
that all children are potentially creative, that creativity can be nurtured, that all curriculum areas are embryos of creativity and that the nurture of all children is a major responsibility of the educational
enterprise. In some
children, the creative urge is so strong that it seeks expressions very early. In others, it is under surface ; If creativity is nourished, it thrives and it flourishes, if it is oppressed it declines and withers.
Considering the theories and studies made by Cagle (1995) gives a detailed progression of the creative process : (1) perceiving the problem ;(2) modifying the problem ; (3) suspending
judgment; (4) incubation effect; (5) sticking with an idea ; (6) envisioning results; (7) selecting the best solution; (8) acceptance of uncertainty.
Each step involves a creative divergent , or expanding part followed by converging or decision making which provides the input formation for the next step in the process. This suggests that
creative processes are used to supplement the basic scientific processes. Thus, scientifically inclined students are creative and possesses high critical thinking skills .
It further suggests that creative process consists of three dimensions of thought operating within an abstract and a concrete domain of thought . These dimensions, in general, are mental
attitudes, stages of creative thought and types of creative thought.
Man has sought to enrich his life by engaging in a variety of creative activities. He has used creativity for substantial learning and as a means of fostering mental health. Creativity flowers
most where there is freedom and encouragement. Individuals who can create works of art in spite of an atmosphere of repression and discouragement exceedingly there's no stopping them, Creative
experiences also contribute to emotional development which is inseparable part of basic concepts, attitudes, appreciation and the thinking process. Thus creative activities should be made a part of
instruction.
Figure 1 presents the conceptual paradigm of the research study . It portrays the interplay of variables in nurturing the innate creative thoughts of a child. These variables are considered to be
contributory to the total development of the child into a productive, useful and right thinking individual which will contribute to the development of the nation.
Affective
Behavior
Environment Student Science-Based

al Variables with Variables
Creativ Creativity
e
Socio-
Demographic
Profile
Figure 1. conceptual Paradigm
*Example Source:

 Assumptions- Assumptions are statements describing facts or conditions that are accepted as true
Research Locale
This study was conducted in the two science –oriented secondary schools in the Division of Olongapo city during the School Year 2001-2002 namely Olongapo City National High School
with its curricular offering , the Engineering and Science Education Program (ESEP) and the Regional Science High School based in Kalayaan, Subic Bay Metropolitan Authority .
Olongapo City
Olongapo, according to history, was formerly identified as part of the municipality of Subic, Zambales before the U.S. Reservations Administration times. It was consisted of
several sub-barrios and sitios when the U.S. Naval Station was established and expanded several of these sub-barrios and sitios were embraced within the area occupied by the U.S. Naval Station. Some
were relocated to other sites of the town to facilitate administration and control. Later on, these sub-barrios were reclassified and divided into regular barrios comprising the town of Olongapo.
By now, Olongapo has seventeen barrios called by virtue of Presidential Decree no. 557 promulgated on September 21, 1974, occupied by more than 200,000 residents speaking different
languages, but bound by common ideas and aspirations: that making Olongapo a progressive and ideal place to live in.
Figure 2 shows the map of the city which highlights the two (2) science - oriented secondary schools .
Olongapo City National High School
Olongapo City National High School was established in 1946, the time when Filipinos were at the height of rehabilitation from World War II. It started as the Reservation High School
with an initial enrolment of 320 students under the United States (US) Naval Reservation Administration. The growth and development of the school runs parallel with the growth and development
of the city of Olongapo.
The school was later turned-over to the Republic of the Philippines by virtue of RP-US base agreement in 1954, and was renamed Olongapo High School. By virtue of Executive Order
number 336 issued by President Carlos P. Garcia , the school was reconverted to a municipal school under the division of Zambales. It
later became a provincial high school in 1962. When Congressman Ramon Magsaysay worked for the approval of Republic Act 4645 converting Olongapo into a chartered city on June 1,
1966, the school was renamed Olongapo City High School. It became a national high school on September 2, 1972, carrying its present name.
th
Olongapo City National High School is located in the central part of Olongapo City along Rizal avenue corner 14 street, East Tapinac, with a total service area of 18,993 square meters.
It is 2.3 kilometers away from the Department of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS) Division Office, Olongapo City. Today the population of the school after 53 years has reached 6,000 .
The school has four (4) curricular offerings the New Secondary Education Curriculum (NSEC) under the SEDP which started in 1989, Engineering and Science Education
Project started on June 7, 1993; Special Program for the Arts (SPA ) which started last June ,2000 ; Special Education for the Hearing Impaired (SPED-HI) started last June 1999 and to commence on
June, 2001 is the Distance Learning Program (DLP) which will cater to the out-of school youth who are deserving, less privileged who can not attend regular classes due to economic reasons. Presently,
the school likewise caters to the needs of the Regional Science High School, a newly established secondary school specializing in science curriculum for secondary students in terms of its faculty and
personnel requirement.
In spite of the fact that the school receives allocations from the government which is intended only for the needs of the students in the New Secondary Education Curriculum, the administration
has successfully implemented and provided the needs of students enrolled under the special curricular offerings ,thus has accomplished much out of the meager funds from the government.
The faculty is composed of competent teachers who have taken up Masters and doctoral course subjects and have been recommended as scholars in Science and Mathematics(PASMEP)
Foreign Fellowship grants (HRD), Values Education (MAVE) and other local scholarship programs in Music and Arts.
With the present set-up, OCNHS has 235 teaching staff, 52 personnel headed by the principal. Giving assistance to the administrative post is an administrative officer and 13 department
heads. Four private security guards being paid by the Parents-Teachers association . This association strongly supports the administration by augmenting the meager fund releases of the government.
The administration strives to provide an environment wherein the students discover their skills, sharpen and refine their talents to equip them with the intellect to face the challenges of
the innovations of the world today. It is therefore the target of the school to produce graduates who will be prepared and ready to face the demands of the 21st century.
However, the school, big as it is, is still in dire need of more buildings and classrooms to house the growing enrolment which is divided into two shifts of class sessions to solve classroom
shortage. It has 106 academic classrooms for 129 sections, each having 42-45 students. Buildings are a combination of the old and new structures. The new ones were completed in 1992, giving a new
image after the wrath of the historical eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in 1991.
Recently, another building was handed over by the city government despite the shortage of facilities, OCNHS was proclaimed Outstanding Secondary School of Region III and the seat
for the 7th regional press conference and national secondary schools press conference during the school years 1985-1986 and 1997. In the school year 1988-1989, it was chosen as the regional leader
school in Mathematics and Science and Technology for the NSEC program.On November 4, 1992, the school was elected as an outstanding regional leader school (RLS). The school ranked second
place in the regional search for the most effective public high school in 1992 and this year 2001 .To date the school continuously reaps laurels for its outstanding accomplishments in all key results
areas and has been chosen to pilot almost all major projects of the Department of Education Culture and Sports.
Olongapo City National High School is the pioneer high school in the city where the Subic Bay Metropolitan Authority (SBMA) Freeport zone is established. It used to be a school where
a mixture of American and Amerasian children study when the US Naval Base was in existence until November 1992. The community is a melting pot of families who came from all sectors of the
country.
Table 1
List of Secondary School Principals of Olongapo City National High School
SCHOOL YEAR NAME OF PRINCIPAL OFFICIAL NAME OF SCHOOL

1946-1947 Maximo Adamos Reservation High
1947-1949 Guillermo Alonzo Reservation High
1949-1950 Alfredo Pascasio Olongapo Reservation High
Zacarias Beltran Olongapo High School
1950-1952 Martin B. Austria Division of Zambales
1952-1962 Quirino Barbo Olongapo High School
1962-1965 Zacarias Beltran Olongapo High School
1965-1966 Filemon Legaspi Olongapo Provincial High
1966-1972 Filemon Legaspi Olongapo City High
Division of Olongapo City
1972-1983 Lydia de leon Salas Olongapo City National HS
1983-1990 Veronica L. Cava Olongapo City National HS
1990-1991 Norma P. Castillo Olongapo City National HS
1991-1997 Rosalina N. Gabrito Olongapo City National HS
1997-present Helen B. Aggabao Olongapo City National HS
Table 1 presents the list of Secondary School Principals who served the school from 1946 and the incumbent school administrator who is also the author of this research proposal.
The school is a contributor to the popularity of the SBMA because of the work volunteerism performed by the students and the men and women behind this school.
Regional Science High School
The Regional Science High School in Central Luzon has become operational since 1994 by virtue of DECS Order 69 s. 1993 signed by the Honorable Secretary Armand V. Fabella.
This institution was temporarily house at Olongapo City National High School on June 1994. The growing number of students prompted the Mother school to request its transfer, so on
September 23, 1996 the Regional Science High School later transferred to the former sub-com building of the Subic Bay Freeport Zone through the efforts of the City Mayor and the former Chairman of
SBMA. Then, after two years, the facilities of the Sub-com building could no longer accommodate the increasing needs of the school; thus, on June 1998, the school moved its temporary house in East
Kalayaan also in the Freeport zone, occupying the former Kalayaan Elementary School. It sprawls in a 1.5 hectare lot with six buildings and has the following function rooms for students use: Science and
Mathematics laboratories, computer rooms, library, extensive reading room, audio-visual room, museum, gymnasium, CAT headquarter and an office of the Supreme Student Council. The Regional
Science High School occupies the said site in the next five years as agreed upon in the Memorandum of Agreement duly signed on November 11, 1999 by Dr. Vilma Labrador, DECSROIII Regional
Director and Hon. Felicito Payumo, Chairman of the Subic Bay Freeport Zone.
Though the school remains to be under the umbrella of the Mother School, OCNHS, it has an approved papers for legal separation signed by the Acting Secretary Erlinda Pefianco lasr
February 6, 1998. It has already a plant site as certified by the donation of the city through the approval of Mayor Katherine H. Gordon.
Six years ago, the RSHS started from the bundles of nothing. Up to now it has nothing except the prestige, laurels of honor and recognition out of loaned buildings, loaned teachers and
students who are still seeking their right place under the sun. Despite the above – mentioned conditions, the RSHS affirms its commitment to support the ideals of the Department of Education, Culture
and Sports in the promotion of quality education and academic excellence.
*Example Source:

 Definition of key terms.- The key terms used in the study are defined operationally for better understanding by the readers.
These are arranged alphabetically.
Definition Of Terms
To facilitate understanding of this study, terms that were consistently used are hereby defined in relation to the research context.
Affective Behavior Profiles. Refers to the self-concept and scientific attitudes of the students in the science and technology oriented secondary schools in the Division of
Olongapo City .
Environmental Variables. Refers to the socio-demographic factors such as ; age, gender , parents occupation , socio-economic status ,educational attainment , birth order
and family size.
Science and Technology- Oriented Secondary Schools. Refers to the two secondary schools in the Division of Olongapo City who are offering the science-based
curriculum namely the Olongapo City National High School and the Regional Science High School..
Engineering and Science Education Project. An educational program initiated by the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) and subsequently transferred the
supervision to the Department of Education, Culture and Sports .The Olongapo City National High School, Olongapo City is currently implementing this program.
Regional Science High School. . A DECS supervised secondary school with science and technology enriched curriculum presently based at SBMA, Olongapo City.
Scientifically –Inclined Students. Refers to the students who are inclined in science concepts and those possesses scientific attitudes.
Scientific Attitudes. Refers to the ability of an individual to interpret a situation according to its empirical support. It likewise refer to learned disposition to evaluate in
certain ways objects, actions, situations or propositions involved in the learning of science, as well as rationality, honesty and styles of thinking.
Self-Concept. Refers to the dimension of personality which is related to a student’s personal adjustment and concept of knowing one’s self. It concerns the following factors
on emotionality, personal worth, identity, and accepting attitudes
Critical Thinking Ability. Refers to the ability of a student in the conception and organization of educational activities . It is the very source of serious intellectual activity
and means of getting nearer to the truth. It is a way by which one cares deeply what the answer of a question is, and exercises even greater care to examine the evidence than if the answer
is of no personal consequence.
Environmental Influences. Refers to the factors in the environment which are needed in the nurturance of human potential . It is on based on the premise that the type of
environment available will determine the kinds of talent that society is willing to make in cultivating them. These societal conditions are critical in stimulating the gifted child’s pursuit of
excellence.
Socio-Economic Status. This refers to the living conditions of the family in terms of income and standards of living.
Parents Occupation. This refers to the occupation of parents as the source of income and livelihood for the family.
Educational attainment .This refers to the educational level profiles of parents which are indicators that correlates positively there was also some indicators that children's
scholastic achievement test scores were more directly associated with fathers’ than mothers’ level of education.
*Example Source:
2. Review of Related Literature
The review of related literature is usually placed in Chapter II. This section enables the researcher to focus on tried
approaches and methods, instruments that have been developed, techniques of data analysis, and how best to utilize these to
conduct the proposed research. The arrangement of related literature, readings and studies may be chronological. The
proponent has to cite the relationships, bearing or difference of the literature cited for the proposed study.
Chapter 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
The following were presented in the example source:

DIVISION OF OLONGAPO CITY SY 2001-2002 (H. B. Aggabao, 2002), PLEASE OBTAIN FULL TEXT.
Foreign Literature
Local Literature
Foreign Studies
Local Studies
Relationship of the Present Study With the Reviewed Literatures and Studies
A comparative review of the foregoing studies indicated that the study of Wallach and Kogan is found related to the present study with respect to both writers
approach to treat the methodology statistically. However, Wallach and Kogan’s study pertained comprehensively on the creativity and intelligence while the present
study dealt with the affective behavior aspect of the child. . Like the previous investigator, Pagaro and Arlin’s work concentrated on the nature of the general concept
of intelligence. This however differed with the present sudy which dealt with the social and demographic variables. .
Similarities were noted between the present investigation and those studies made by Baumer ,Berger and Vitrogen which likewise dealt with the scientific attitudes of
the students. They differed however with the respondents because the present study involved the secondary students while the former utilized primary grades .
One study that clearly showed similarities with the present study, was presented by Brookhaus ,Dean ,Beery and Louvister which dealt with the self –concept
and achievement level of the students . It only differed on the aspect that the present study utilized the variables such as age, gender , parents’ educational attainment , socio-
economic level of family ,birth order and family size.
The present study was found similar to Zaratan ,Socrates and Perez, which conducted an investigation of the parental correlation, socio-economic
status , educational attainment of the parents . The only difference showed in the present investigations was the choice of the subjects and other variables such as
family size, birth order , age and gender .
*Example Source:
3. Research Design
The researcher chooses the design most appropriate to conduct the study and explains why he has chosen this.
Research design is either experimental or non-experimental.
It also presents the following which were comprehensively discussed in the previous sections:
Methodology; The sample size, type and sampling technique; Study Subjects; The Research Instrument; Validation of the
Research Instrument; Data Gathering Procedure; Statistical Treatment of Data
Chapter 3
RESEARCH DESIGN
This part of the study deals on the research methods and materials used in the study. It discussed specifically the method of research to used, the subjects, the instruments and their
preparation and administration.
Methodology
This study made use of the descriptive method of research.. According to John Best (1992) descriptive research involves relationship between existing non-manipulated variables. In
addition, Good and Seates (1990) pointed out that a descriptive investigation includes facts concerning the nature and status of anything whether it be a group of persons, a met of objectives, a set of
conditions, a class of events, a system of thoughts or any kind of phenomenon which one may wish to study.
In the same vein, Cannu ( 1999), stressed that the descriptive method involves collection of data to test the hypothesis or to answer questions concerning the current status of a subject.
It is a direct source of knowledge. . .The method is necessary to gather information about existing condition. He further explained that it follows the broad method of arrangement or outline of research
procedure that is basically the same no matter what academic discipline gives rise to the research.
This research used a descriptive method in the sense that it determined the affective behavior profiles of senior students in the science and technology - oriented secondary schools in the
Division of Olongapo City for the school year 2001-2002.
This study determined the affective behavior profiles of senior students in the science and technology oriented secondary schools in the Division of Olongapo City for the school year
2001-2002.
Likewise , it determined the significant differences among the senior students in the science and technology oriented secondary schools in the Division of Olongapo City in terms of
their affective behaviors such as scientific attitudes and self-concept with factors on emotionality , personal worth, identity, and accepting attitudes.
The subjects of the study were randomly selected from the total enrolment of senior students for the school year 2001-2002 in the two (2) science - oriented secondary schools in
Olongapo City namely in Olongapo City National High School with its curricular offering , the Engineering and Science Education Program (ESEP) and the Regional Science High School based in
Kalayaan, Subic Bay Metropolitan Authority .
The distribution of respondents by school is shown in table 2:
Table 2: Distribution of Respondents by School

Gender OCNHS- ESEP RSHS
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
Male 61 39.1 37 43.5
Female 9 60.90 48 56.5
Total 156 100 85 100
Sampling Technique
The random sampling procedure was utilized to choose the subjects of the study.
The subjects of the study were drawn from the total enrolment of senior students for the school year 2001-2002 in the two (2) science - oriented secondary schools in Olongapo City
namely in Olongapo City National High School with its curricular offering , the Engineering and Science Education Program (ESEP) and the Regional Science High School based in Kalayaan, Subic
Bay Metropolitan Authority .
Research Instruments
In order to elicit the desired information on the affective behavior profiles and variables such as age, gender parents’ educational attainment, and family income of the respondents ,
three instruments were developed and tried out in order to determine the internal consistency of the items.
The initial draft of the questionnaires were presented to her dissertation adviser. Suggestions and comments were incorporated in the questionnaire. The improved draft was tried out
to the third year students enrolled in the ESEP curriculum in Olongapo City National High School, Olongapo City.
The final forms of the scientific attitude inventory and self-concept scale were administered to the subjects of the study in order to obtain the needed data as regards their self concept
and scientific attitudes.
The final form of the questionnaire was also administered to the subjects to obtain the variables such as age, gender, parents’ educational attainment, and family income .
Data Collection Technique
Problem No.1 was answered by determining the profile of senior students in terms of the following variables ; age , gender, parents’ educational attainment, and family income. A
questionnaire-checklist was utilized to collect the data for this particular problem.
Problem No. 2 was answered in terms of the following affective behavior profiles such as ; scientific attitudes and self-concept with factors on emotionality , personal worth , identity
and accepting attitudes . The Self Concept Rating Scale and Scientific Attitude were utilized to determine the self – concept and scientific attitude profiles of the subjects of the study.
Problem No. 3 was described as to the existence of significant differences between the perceptions of the senior students in the two (2) science and technology -oriented secondary
schools in the Division of Olongapo City in terms of their affective behavior profiles such as scientific attitudes and self-concept with factors on emotionality, personal worth, identity, and
accepting attitudes .
Statistical Analysis
For statistical treatment, the frequencies , percentages , means and standard deviation of the data obtained were computed.
The data on the affective behavior variables such as self- concept and scientific attitudes were obtained using the final forms of the self-concept scale and scientific attitude inventory
which were administered to the subjects of the study. The average weighted point (AWP) of each item and the average of the AWPs of all the items in the two instruments were computed. This
represented the overall AWP .
The equation for the AWP is as follows:
AWP = (fA x 2 ) + (fS x 1 ) + (fN + 0 )
No. of Respondents- The responses were tallied according to the respondents answers to the items in the instruments. Each response in the two instruments such as the scientific
attitude inventory and self- concept scale were given a numerical value such as :
Scientific Attitude Inventory

“ Strongly Disagree” - 1
“ Disagree “ - 2
“ Uncertain “ - 3
“ Agree “ - 4
“Strongly Agree” - 5
The maximum and minimum items of the two (2) groups of students in the science-oriented secondary schools in Olongapo City were compared and analyzed. The responses were
compared to identify congruence and commonalities in the responses. The Self-Concept scale was used through a 5-point frequency scale ranging from “ never” to a ”always” .In this instrument the
respondent is asked to indicate how often he feels the trait applied to him. The statements indicated in the scale were divided into groups of identified factors such as “Emotionality”, “Personal Worth”,
“Identity”, and “Accepting Attitudes”. Under these factors were statements pertaining to personal characteristics of the respondents which appropriately describe their self- concept .
Self-Concept Scale
“ Never “ -1
“ Rarely “ -2
“ Sometimes” - 3
“ Often “ -4
“ Always” - 5
The obtained AWPs in each of the instruments were interpreted using the following scales.
Scientific Attitude Inventory
DescriptivE Category Assigned Weights Scale
Strongly Agree (SA) 5 4.20 - 5.00

Agree (A) 4 3.40 - 4.19
Uncertain (U) 3 2.60 - 3.39
Disagree (D) 2 1.80 - 2.59
Strongly Disagree 1 1.00 - 1.79
Self -Concept Scale

Descriptive Category Assigned Weights Scale
Always (A) 5 4.20 - 5.00
Often (O) 4 3.40 - 4.19
Sometimes (S) 3 2.60 - 3.39
Rarely (R) 2 1.80 - 2.59
Never (N) 1 1.00 - 1.79
The data on the variables such as age, gender , parents’ educational attainment, and family income were analyzed using means , frequencies and percentages .
1. Percentage
f
P = ------ x 100
N
where : P = Percentage
F = Frequency
N = Total Number of Respondents
100 = Constant Number
2. Mean
X
M = ---
N
where : M = Mean
X = Total Weighted Average
N = Total Number of Item Evaluated
3. Weighted Average was employed to determine the quantitative analysis

EXw
Xw = -- - - -
X
where: Xw = Weighted Average
E = Summation or Sum of
X = Responses
The t– Test. was used to find out if there is any significant difference between the perceptions of the senior students in the two (2) science and technology -oriented secondary schools in
the Division of Olongapo City relative to their affective behaviors such as scientific attitudes and self concept with factors on emotionality , personal worth, identity, and accepting attitudes .
Downie and Heath (1984) proposed that the t-test often results in probability statements that are extremely of homogeneity of variance and normality of the underlying distribution are
untenable.
*Example Source:
4. PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

Results should be interpreted in a systematic, logical order with the data relevant to the research problem and sufficient to
answer the research questions. Each finding should be presented in terms of the original problem. The findings should be
compared with other relevant findings in the literature to establish references for further research. Honesty should be
observed in analyzing data. The results of analysis is presented in verifiable form.
Chapter 4
PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA
The tabulated data which were gathered largely through the questionnaire and supported by the unstructured interviews and personal observations are
contained in this chapter. The analysis and interpretation of the collected data were likewise presented.
Implications Of The Study In The Developmental Needs Of The Students
A caring and nurturing curriculum views the child in his totality as an integral organism who internalizes and implements moral values with his entire being. It identifies the basic developmental
goals and needs of the child. The focus is on the critical areas of child development : the physical ,emotional , social , and spiritual which includes moral. It carefully considers and adjusts to the
socio-economic needs /environment of the child without compromising universal truths and an objective of morality.
In the education of values what the child needs are inductive and deductive lessons in how to reason out the meaning and purpose of sensory knowledge and experience . Trained to do so , the child is
more likely to choose and act rationally when he is faced with difficulties or conflicting values or when he confronts an emotionally charged issue which requires an ethical decision.
Too often overlooked or neglected in the education of values is the importance of the child’s emotional stability , self-confidence and self-worth. These factors affect significantly the child’s
willingness to uphold universal truths.
Building and strengthening the child’s self-confidence are best achieved when the most important in his life ---- parents , relatives , teachers , peers – express open , sincere respect for his dignity
through understanding and good manners . If the child is expected to obey and respect others , he must , from earliest childhood , be treated with politeness and dignity . During ordinary
circumstances and most especially during periods of struggle when the child fights to overcome personal weaknesses , he needs positive reinforcement , given sensibly and moderately through praise
and success experiences.
*Example Source:
Please refer to the complete text of the example source to fully understand and appreciate this section.
Comprehensive discussion for this chapter was presented in the previous sections.
5. Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations

The last chapter presents the general summary of the research study, its findings, conclusions and recommendations:
 General Summary – includes summary of the research problems, hypothesis, research design, determination of the
sample size, the research instruments and its validation, the data gathering and processing procedure and the
statistical treatment.
 Findings- summarize the results and present them in logical order according to the problems earlier stated.
 Conclusions- should be congruent with the findings of the study. They are arranged and sequenced according to the
problems earlier stated.
 Recommendations- are based on conclusion. One may undertake further actions to make the study more
meaningful, eg.: action plans that may serve as bases for further research or that may help improve the hospital
services, nursing services, nursing practice or nursing education.
Chapter 5
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter contains a presentation of the investigations’ primary objectives and specific problems and a description of the research methodology. It includes the summary of findings,
conclusions drawn and recommendations offered.
SUMMARY
Statement Of The Problem
This study determined the affective behavior profiles of senior students in the science and technology -oriented secondary schools in the Division of Olongapo City for the school year
2001-2002. It likewise looked into the differences in the affective behavior profiles such as scientific attitudes and self-concept with factors on emotionality , personal worth , identity and accepting
attitudes of the students enrolled in the Regional Science High School and in the Engineering and Science Education Program in Olongapo City National School , Olongapo City.
The following research questions were raised:
2. What is the profile of senior students in the science and technology –oriented secondary schools in the Division of Olongapo City in terms of the following variables such as;
e. Age
f. Gender
g. Parents’ educational attainment and
h. Family Income ?
2. What are the perceptions of the senior students in the science and technology –oriented secondary schools in the Division of Olongapo City in terms of the following affective behavior profiles
such as ;
a. scientific attitudes
b. self –concept with factors on emotionality, personal worth, identity, and accepting attitudes
3 . Are there significant differences in the perceptions of the senior students in the two (2) science and technology –oriented secondary schools as regards their scientific attitudes and self-concept with
factors on emotionality, personal worth, identity, and accepting attitudes ?
4. What educational implications the study can offer in terms of the developmental goals and needs of the students ?
Hypothesis
In connection with the foregoing problems, the following null
hypothesis was tested at the .05 level of significance:
There are no significant differences in the perceptions of the senior students in the two (2) science and technology –oriented secondary schools as regards their scientific attitudes and self-
concept with factors on emotionality , personal worth, identity, and accepting attitudes.
Scope And Delimitation Of The Study
This study determined the affective behavior profiles of senior students in the science and technology oriented secondary schools in the Division of Olongapo City for the school year 2001-
2002.
Likewise , it determined the significant differences on the perceptions of the senior students in the two (2) science and technology oriented secondary schools in the Division of Olongapo
City in terms of their affective behaviors such as scientific attitudes and self-concept with factors on emotionality , personal worth, identity, and accepting attitudes .
The subjects of the study were the senior students enrolled under the Engineering and Science Education Program (ESEP) in the Olongapo City National High School and the Special
Science Curriculum in the Regional Science High School both in Olongapo City.
These groups of respondents were selected using the random sampling method.
In order to elicit the desired information on the affective behavior profiles and variables such as age, gender, and parents’ educational attainment, and family income of the respondents ,
three instruments were developed and tried out in order to determine the internal consistency of the items.
The final forms of the scientific attitude inventory and self-concept scale were administered to the subjects of the study in order to obtain the needed data as regards their self concept and
scientific attitudes.
The final form of the questionnaire was also administered to the subjects to obtain the variables such as age, gender, parents’ educational attainment, and family income.
For statistical treatment, frequencies , percentages , means and standard deviation of the obtained data were computed.
The t-test was employed to obtain the significance of differences in terms of the affective behavior profiles such as scientific attitudes and self-concept with factors on the emotionality
, personal worth, identity, and accepting attitudes.
Findings
1. Profile of the Respondents
1.1 Majority of the senior students in the Engineering and Science Education Program in the Olongapo City National High School clustered at 16 years old and above 45 % (N= 108 )
percent respectively with age ranges from 15 years old and over . On the other hand, majority of the senior students in the Regional Science High School were at age 16 24 ( N=57) percent of the total
number of respondents , the average age of students in the Fourth Year level. It could likewise be observed that 10 (N=25 ) percent students belong to 14-15 years old age range.
1.2 Majority of the students in the ESEP curriculum were female (N=95 ) or 60.90 percent while the male population registered at (N=61 ) or 37.17 percent of the total number of
respondents. On the other hand , the senior students in the RSHS was likewise female dominated population, with 56.5 ( N=48) per cent of the total number of respondents and only 43.5 (N= 37 )
percent were male.
1.3 Majority of the ESEP students clustered at P100,000 pesos to P99,000.00 at 56.41 (N= 88) percent . It could likewise be observed that 14.10 (N= 22) percent of the students’
families were at the family income bracket of P200,000 .00 pesos above ,followed by 15.38 (N=24) percent belonging to P199,,000 .00 below annually. On the other hand ,majority of the senior RSHS
students’ family income level clustered at 150,000 to 200,000 above annually with 24.1 (N= 58) . Only a meager 11.2 (N= 27) belong to 99,000.00 below to 100,000.00 annual income.
1.4 Majority of the parents of the senior students in the ESEP curriculum finished the secondary school while their counterparts in the RSHS finished Baccalaureate degree.
2. Perceptions of the Senior Student Respondents on their
Scientific Attitudes
2.1 The ESEP students were really equipped with values inherent to intelligent and creative individuals which are the true characteristics of students in the science –oriented curriculum. All
other indicators of scientific attitudes were rated by them as “Agree” with an AWM of 4.24 . Likewise , the RSHS students like their counterparts in the ESEP curriculum were also critical thinkers in the
sense that they This suggests that these students were really equipped with values inherent to intelligent and creative individuals which are the true characteristics of students in the science –oriented
curriculum. All other indicators of scientific attitudes were “strongly agreed” upon by them as an indication that these are being practiced by them .
3. Perceptions of the Senior Student Respondents on their
Self – Concept With Factors on Emotionality, Personal Worth , Identity , and Accepting Attitudes.
3.1 The ESEP and RSHS students perceived themselves as persons equipped with positive self-concept . They are both positively motivated in terms of emotional behavior , they have
personal identity , self-worth and accepts realities in life as it is . They are emotionally balanced individuals.
4. Significant Differences Between the Perceptions of the
ESEP and RSHS Senior Student - Respondents on their
Scientific Attitudes
4.1 There is no significant difference in the scientific attitudes between ESEP and RSHS students. Both possess the same scientific attitudes and are both equipped with the
knowledge, skills and attitudes of a student in the science-oriented curriculum.
5. Significant Differences Between the Perceptions of the
ESEP and RSHS Senior Student - Respondents on their
Self- Concept With Factors on Emotionality, Personal Worth, Identity and Accepting Attitudes.
5. 1 There are no significant differences in the self-concept of the ESEP and RSHS students in terms of emotionality , identity and personal worth. However, there exists significant differences in their
accepting attitudes.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the foregoing findings, the following conclusions are hereby presented :
1. A typical Fourth Year ESEP RSHS senior student was a female , 16 years of age, at the early stage of adolescent ,she belongs to a family with an annual family income of P 100,000.00
pesos more or less. The highest educational attainment of his parent is Baccalaureate degree .
2. The senior students in the ESEP and RSHS curriculum possess the necessary skills, knowledge and attitudes inherent to their creative potentials as students in the science –
oriented secondary schools.
3. The senior students in the ESEP and RSHS curriculum are both equipped high self-concept with positive emotional behavior , personal identity , self-worth but differ in accepting
attitudes.
RECOMMENDATIONS
In the light of the findings and conclusions, the following are highly recommended.
1. Continuous development programs for the nurturance of creative potentials of students should be provided in the curriculum for science oriented secondary schools . Programs can be
formulated to increase the developmental qualities that are so needed for national development.
2. Since education is the very purpose of a school, the reinforcement of values formation for the WHOLE family must be achieved in the curriculum and activities of the school. This would
help in the sustenance of the positive behaviors of students .
3. Continuous development programs for intermediate grade school children be fully varied and relevant in order to help facilitate their mental, social and emotional growth.
4. Re-evaluation of the curricular programs of the school is necessary to determine relevancy to the needs of the students.
5. Emphasis on teaching – learning process should be placed upon helping each student grow to the fullest of their capabilities and capacities. The emotional intelligence should be given
priority as with their intelligence quotient .
6. Similar studies may be launched to include other variables which were found to have a bearing in the scholastic performance , behavioral profiles of students in the science –oriented
secondary schools .
*Example Source:
PLEASE SEE THE TABLE OF CONTENTS FOR THE PROCEEDING SECTIONS OF THE EXAMPLE SOURCE.
I highly recommend that you obtain the full text copy of this dissertation. You will find it helpful and informative. I did!
Oral Defense
When the thesis is completed, the adviser testifies that the researcher is ready for an oral defense of his thesis. The
researcher is then given a list of requirements to be complied with before the oral dense is scheduled, such as the result of the
written comprehensive examination, the transcript of records, enrolment in thesis writing , among others. Six copies of thesis
are distributed to the Dean of the Graduate School, the members of the oral defense panel, and the researcher’s adviser.
Schools may vary in evaluating oral defense. The three aspects to be evaluated with their respective ratings are: content
(40%); presentation (30%); and defense (30%).
 Content refers to the study itself. The investigation should be comprehensive enough and should
satisfactorily answer the questions posted in the study.
Focus should be on the substance. The problem must have been justified by the theoretical framework ,
methodology, findings and recommendations.
 Presentation refers to the way the candidate presents, elaborates on the content of the thesis in an
organized and logical manner. This means mastery of the thesis.
 Defense shows the researcher’s ability to justify his research design, findings and conclusions. He can
readily locate tables and pages to support his answers.
Post-Defense
After the oral defense, the researcher revises the manuscript according to the comments and suggestions of the
panel and under supervision of the adviser. The revised copies are then submitted or distributed to the Dean’s
Office, to the Library, the Commission on Higher Education, the agency where the study was conducted, and the
thesis adviser.

Florence Nightingale: The First Nurse Researcher
(1820-1910)
Hailed as the matriarch of modern nursing, a linguist, had a vast knowledge of science, mathematics, literature, the arts,
philosophy, history and economics, Florence Nightingale proved that she can do more than allowing herself to be an aristocrat’s
wife.
At a time when Germany was establishing the first school of nursing called the Fleidner School of Nursing in Kaiserwerth,
Nightingale was at the crossroad of making decisions in her life. After a trip to Egypt in 1850, she applied for admission to
Fleidner and showed her interest of becoming a nurse by writing a 12-page “curriculum”. She entered the nursing program on
July 6, 1851.
During her three months of stay at the school, she obtained and developed skills in both nursing care and management and was
therefore considered to be educated as a nurse. Upon her return to England, armed with nursing skills, she proved her cause as
a reformer for the well-being of the people.
Florence Nightingale is best remembered in history for her role in the Crimean War – the battle of English versus Turkish. She
healed and consoled wounded soldiers. On her 19th month of stay at the military, the hospital barracks were infested with fleas
and rats, and sewage flowed under the wards. With a dreadful situation where the mortality rate at the hospital
reached 42.7% of those treated, she managed to drastically reduce the rate to 2.2% by attending to the
environment of the soldiers. Her statistical and managerial skills were well applied.
Nightingale’s concern for the comfort of the English soldiers, her efforts to improve the very poor sanitary conditions in the
hospital wards in Scutari, her courage to fight the bureaucracy in order to get food, bandages, fresh bedding and cleaning
supplies for the soldiers earned for her the label as a Heroine of Great Britain.
Beyond her work in the Crimean War, Nightingale harnessed her skills in statistics, became a pioneer in the graphic display of
statistics, and was selected a fellow of the Royal Statistical Society in 1858. Nightingale used statistics to present her case for
hospital reform by depending on observable data. The American Statistical Association conferred to her an honorary
membership in 1874, and would become the FIRST NURSE RESEARCHER.
From June 1869 to June 1870, she published the following: Notes on Matters Affecting the Health, Efficiency and
Hospital Administration of the British Army, Notes on Hospitals, and Report on Measures Adopted for Sanitary
Improvements in India.
“To give hints for thought of women who have personal charge of the health of other” (Nightingale 1859) she wrote
NOTES ON NURSING, which became her most popular and frequently cited work.
She was bestowed with numerous awards from Great Britain and other countries. She was the first woman to be granted the
Order of Merit (OM) by no less than Queen Victoria. She became the second most famous British person, after the Queen herself.
Nightingale then became eligible to use the post-nominal letters (PM-RRC) on her name.
Her death on August 13, 1910 at the age of 90, although unexpected, was a peaceful death as she died on her sleep and was
cheerful before she fell really ill.
May 12, 1820, Florence Nightingale’s Birthday, is celebrated as International Nurses’ Day.

- References -
The student mainly utilized Textbooks as his resources in completing this material. The example cited in PART 7
was unselfishly shared by his college professor DR. HELEN B. AGGABAO- he desires to express his sincerest
gratitude!
He limited the use of internet resources in citing examples and sought collaboration with a statistician in order to
thoroughly understand and present DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS.
He also utilized RESEARCH notes he acquired at Philippine Heart Center- Nursing Education Department in which
he completed a course on Research- Nursing Research Level 1 in 2011.
Dissertation:
AFFECTIVE BEHAVIOR PROFILES OF SENIOR STUDENTS IN THE SCIENCE –

ORIENTED SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN THE DIVISION OF OLONGAPO CITY
SY 2001-2002
(Author: Dr. H. B. Aggabao, 2002)
Textbooks:
Introduction to NURSING RESEARCH, Generating and Assessing Evidence for Nursing

Practice
(Authors: Denise F. Polit, PhD; Cheryl Tatano Back, DNSc, CNM, FAAN
NURSING RESEARCH, Quest for Quality Nursing

(Author: LYDIA M. VENZON, RN, MAN, FPCHA)
Internet Resources:
http://www.surrey.ac.uk/sociology/research/researchcentres/caqdas/support/choosing/
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14753069
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/bsd/pmresources.html
To acquire the complete text of the cited dissertation, please send an email to:
christianluther0309@yahoo.com
(Subject: REQUEST FOR DR.AGGABAO’s DISSERATATION)


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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY, Prepared by C.LUTHER FABIA, B.S.N.,R.N.

Through the guidance of my mentors at the Philippine Colleges of Health Sciences, I

About the Compilation

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY, Prepared by C.LUTHER FABIA, B.S.N.,R.N.

Part 1: Introduction to research and research utilization

Part 2: Initial steps of the research process

Part 3: Research Design

Part 4: Measurement and data collection

Part 5: Data analysis

Part 6: Communication of Findings and Utilization of Research

Part 7: Preparing the Research Report

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Means the concept proceeding is significant to Nursing

Means the proceeding concept is important

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY, Prepared by C.LUTHER FABIA, B.S.N.,R.N.

1.1 Definition and Significance of Research

1.2 Link between research and practice

Research and its Significance to Evidence-based Practice (EBP)

It is a problem-solving approach to clinical practice that integrates:

Research and its Significance to Quality Assurance (QA)

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY, Prepared by C.LUTHER FABIA, B.S.N.,R.N.

1.3 Overview of research utilization

Three categories of utilization are identified:

1.4 Interdisciplinary and collaborative research

Interdisciplinary and collaborative research is needed in most nursing researches. Nurse

1.5 Overview of research methods

Experimental and Non-Experimental Research Methods in Brief

o Experimental research: In experimental research, the aim is to manipulate an independent variable(s)

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY, Prepared by C.LUTHER FABIA, B.S.N.,R.N.

2. 1 Purpose and Problem Statements

Introduction: Guidelines in the Formulation of a Research Problem

A topic may be conceptualized in various ways, major of which are:

Statement of the Tentative Problem

Problem statement should be formulated as specifically as possible. It should represent an action or

The problem may be stated in following ways:

2. Sentence/ declarative form

3. Declarative sentence followed by a series of questions:

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY, Prepared by C.LUTHER FABIA, B.S.N.,R.N.

Stating the Purpose of the Study

A statement of purpose identifies the key study variables and their

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY, Prepared by C.LUTHER FABIA, B.S.N.,R.N.

A. QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE VARIABLES

Related concepts: Other Levels of Measurement*

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY, Prepared by C.LUTHER FABIA, B.S.N.,R.N.

What questions must be addressed?

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY, Prepared by C.LUTHER FABIA, B.S.N.,R.N.

Sources of Literature Review:

2. 4 Framework and Paradigm of the Study

Defining Theories, Models and Framework

Two Types of theories are:

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY, Prepared by C.LUTHER FABIA, B.S.N.,R.N.

 Conceptual Models (syn.: Conceptual Frameworks, Conceptual Schemes)

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, an example of schematic model

The Five-step Process for Developing Conceptual (theoretical) Definitions:

Criteria for Judging a Theory:

Internal and External Criticism in Evaluating a Theory (Stevens)

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY, Prepared by C.LUTHER FABIA, B.S.N.,R.N.

2. 5 Research Questions and Hypotheses

Research questions are phrased interogatively rather than declaratively:

B. Defining Research Hypotheses

Hypothesis is tested, and if found to be true, accepted. If not, rejected.