EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

Instructor: Dragica Vasileska

Department of Electrical Engineering

Arizona State University

Bipolar Junction Transistor

EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

 Outline

1. Introduction
2. IV Characteristics of a BJT
3. Breakdown in BJT
4. Geometry Effects in BJT

EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

1. Introduction

Original
point-contact
transistor Inventors of the transistor:
(1947) William Shockley, John Bardeen
and Walter Brattain
First grown transistor (1950)

EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

(A) Terminology and symbols
PNP - transistor NPN - transistor
E C E C
B B

E p+ n p C E n+ p n C
+ +

VEB VCB VBE + + VBC

B B
• Both, pnp and npn transistors can be thought as two very
closely spaced pn-junctions.
• The base must be small to allow interaction between the two
pn-junctions.
EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I
 • There are four regions of operation of a BJT transistor
(example for a pnp BJT):
VEB
Forward active region Saturation region
(emitter-base FB, collector-base RB) (both junctions forward biased)
VCB
Cutoff region Inverted active region
(both junctions reverse biased) (emitter-base RB, collector-base FB)

• Since it has three leads, there are three possible amplifier

types: C E
p p+
B B
E C n VEC n VEC
p+ n p
VEB p+ VCB p
VEB VCB
B
E C
(a) Common-base (b) Common-emitter (c) Common-collector
EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I
 (B) Qualitative description of transistor operation
p+ n p
• Emitter doping is much larger than
IEp { ICp base doping
• Base doping larger than collector
IEn ICn doping
• Current components:
IB1 IB3 I E  I Ep  I En
IB2 Icn
IEn I C  I Cp  I Cn
EC I B  I E  I C  I B1  I B 2  I B 3
• IB1 = current from electrons being
back injected into the forward-biased
EF emiter-base junction
EV • IB2 = current due to electrons that
replace the recombined electrons in
the base
ICp • IB3 = collector current due to
IEp thermally-generated electrons in the
collector that go in the base
EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I
(C) Circuit definitions
Base transport factor T:
T  I Cp / I Ep Ideally it would be equal to unity
(recombination in the base reduces its value)
Emitter injection efficiency :
I Ep I Ep
  Approaches unity if emitter doping is
I Cp  I Ep IE much larger than base doping
Alpha-dc:
I C I Cp  I Cn I Cp
 dc     T 
I E I Ep  I En I Ep  I En
Beta-dc:
IC IC  dc
 dc    Current gain is large when dc
I B I E  I C 1   dc approaches unity

EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

Collector-reverse saturation current:
I BC 0  I Cn  I C  I Cp  I Cn   dc I E  I BC 0

Collector current in common-emitter configuration:

 dc I BC 0
I C   dc I C  I B   I BC 0  IC  IB 
1   dc 1   dc
 I C   dc I B  I EC 0
 I EC 0  1   dc I BC 0

Large current gain capability:

Small base current IB forces the E-B junction to be forward
biased and inject large number of holes which travel through
the base to the collector.

EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

(D) Types of transistors

Emitter Base
• Discrete (double-diffused)
p+np transistor
5 m
200 m Collector

• Integrated-circuit
n+pn transistor

6 m
200 m

EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

2. IV-Characteristics of a BJT
(A) General Considerations
• Approximations made for derivation of the ideal IV-characteristics of a
BJT:
(1) no recombination in the base quasi-neutral region
(2) no generation-recombination in the E-B and C-B
depletion regions
(3) one-dimensional current flow
(4) no external sources
• Notation: p+ n p
NAE = NE NDB = NB NAC = NC
Ln = LE Lp = LB Ln = LC
Dn = DE Dp = DB Dn = DC
np0 = nE0 pn0 = pB0 np0 = nC0
n = E p = B n = C

EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

• The carrier concentration variation for various regions of operation is
shown below:
E-B C-B
pB(0) saturation nC(0’)
nE(0”)
pB(W)
Forward pB(x) nC(x’)
nE(x”) active p nC0
B0
nE0
pB(W)
x” x’
0” 0 Cut-off W 0’
• Assuming long emitter and collector regions, the solutions of the
minority electrons continuity equation in the emitter and collector are
of the form:
n E ( x" )  n E 0 e  VEB / VT
1 e  x" / LE

e  1e
VCB / VT  x ' / LC
nC ( x ' )  nC 0

EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

• For the base region, the steady-state solution of the continuity equation
for minority holes, of the form:
2
d p B p B
2
 2
0
dx LB
using the boundary conditions:


p B (0)  p B 0 e
VEB / VT

 1 , p B (W )  p B 0 e  VCB / VT

1
is given by:
sinh(W  x ) / LB  VEB / VT
p B ( x )  p B 0
sinhW / LB 
e 
1 
sinh x / LB  VCB / VT
 pB0
sinhW / LB 
e 1  
Note: The presence of the sinh() terms means that recombination in
the base quasi-neutral region is allowed.
EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I
• Once we have the variation of nE(x”), pB(x) and nC(x’), we can
calculate the corresponding diffusion current components:
E-B C-B
IE=InE(0”)+IpB(0) IC=InC(0’)+IpB(W)
IpB(0)
IpB(W)
InE(0”) IpB(x)
InE(x”) InC(x’)
InC(0’)
IB2=IpB(0)-IpB(W)
x” x’
0” 0 W 0’
Base recombination current
• Expressions for various diffusion current components:
d n E dnC
I nE (0" )   AqDE , I nC (0' )  AqDC
dx" x"0" dx ' x '  0'
d p B dp B
I pB (0)   AqDB , I pB (W )   AqDB
dx x 0 dx x W
EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I
• Final results for the emitter, base and collector currents:
2 DE DB  VEB / VT
IE  Aqni   coth(W / LB )  e 1 
 LE N E LB N B 
DB 1
 Aqni2
LB N B sinh(W / LB )
 V /V
e CB T  1 
DB 1
IC 
2
Aqni
LB N B sinh(W / LB )
 V /V
e EB T  1 
2 DC DB  VCB / VT
 Aqni   
coth(W / LB )  e 1 
 LC N C LB N B 
2 DE DB  1   VEB / VT
IB  Aqni   
coth(W / LB )  sinh(W / L )   e 1
 LE N E LB N B  B 

2 DC DB  1   VCB / VT
 Aqni    coth(W / LB )   
e 1 
 LC N C LB N B  sinh(W / LB )  
EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I
• For short-base diodes, for which W/LB<<1, we have:
x2 1 x
cosh( x )  1  ; sinh( x )  x; coth( x )  
2 sinh( x ) 2
• Therefore, for short-base diodes, the base current simplifies to:
IB1 IB2
 
2 DE DB W  VEB / VT
IB  Aqni    e  1 
 LE N E LB N B 2 LB 

2 DC DB W  VCB / VT
 Aqni    e  1 
 LC N C LB N B 2 LB 
 
-IB3 IB2
• As W/LB0 (or B ), the recombination base current IB2 0 .

EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

(B) Current expressions for different biasing regimes
Forward-active region:
• E-B junction is forward biased, C-B junction is reverse-
biased:
2 DE DB  VEB / VT
IE  Aqni   coth(W / LB ) e  I En  I Ep
 LE N E LB N B 
DB 1 VEB / VT
IC  Aqni2 e  I Cp
LB N B sinh(W / LB )

2 DE DB  cosh(W / LB )  1  VEB / VT
IB  Aqni     e
 LE N E LB N B  sinh(W / LB )  
2 DC DB  cosh(W / LB )  1 
 Aqni     
 LC N C LB N B  sinh(W / LB )  
These terms vanish if
there is no recombi-
EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I nation in the base
• Graphical description of various current components:
p+ n p

IE IEp { }I Cp
IC

IEn { ICn

IB1 IB3 Recombination in the base

is ignored in this diagram.
IB
• The emitter injection efficiency is given by:
LE N E DB LE N E DB
coth(W / LB )
I Ep LB N B DE WN B DE
  
I Ep  I En LE N E DB short LE N E DB
1 coth(W / LB ) base 1 
LB N B DE WN B DE
EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I
• The base transport factor is given by:
I Cp 2
1 W
T   1  2
I Ep cosh(W / L B ) short 2 LB
base

• Common-emitter current gain:

LE N E DB
coth(W / LB )
LB N B DE LE N E DB
dc  
LE N E DB 2 short WN D
B E
1 2 coth(W / LB ) sinh (W / 2LB ) base
LB N B DE
GB = WNB (Gummel number)
• For a more general case of a non-uniform doping in the base, the
Gummel number is given by:
W
G B   N B ( x )dx Typical values of GB:
0
EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I
Saturation region:
• E-B and C-B junctions are both forward biased:

2 DE DB  VEB / VT
IE  Aqni   coth(W / LB ) e 
 LE N E LB N B 
2 DB V /V
 Aqni coth(W / LB )e CB T  I En  I Ep - I Ep'
LB N B
2 DB 1 V /V
IC  Aqni e EB T
LB N B sinh(W / LB )

2 DC DB  VCB / VT
 Aqni   coth(W / LB ) e  I Cp  I Cn  I Cp '
 LC N C LB N B 
I B  I E  IC Base current much larger
 than in forward-active regime
I Cn   I B 3
EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I
• Graphical description of various current components:
p+ n p

IE IEp { }I Cp IC
IEp’ { } ICp’

IEn { ICn

IB1 IB3 Recombination in the base

is ignored in this diagram.
IB
• Important note:
 As VCB becomes more positive, the number of holes injected from
the collector into the base and afterwards in the emitter increases.
 The collector hole flux is opposite to the flux of holes arriving from
the emitter, and the two currents subtract, which leads to a reduction of
the emitter as well as the collector currents.
EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I
Cutoff region:
• E-B and C-B junctions are both reverse biased. For short-
base diode with no recombination in the base, this leads to:
DE 2 DC
IE   Aqni2   I En , I C  Aqni  I Cn
LE N E LC N C

2 DE DC  2 DC
I B  I E  IC   Aqni      Aqni
 LE N E LC N C  LC N C

p+ n p

IE IC
IEn ICn

IB1 IB3 Recombination in the base

IB is ignored in this diagram.

EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

(C) Form of the input and output characteristics
Common-base configuration: IC
IE Forward active
VCB<-3VT saturation
IE0
VCB=0 IE=0
IBC0
VEB VBC
cutoff

Common-emitter configuration:
IC VCB= 0 Forward active
IB
VEC= 0 saturation
IB0
VEC > 3VT
IEC0
IB=0
VEB VEC
cutoff
EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I
• Note on the collector-base reverse saturation current:

C
E
ICn
VBC>0
B
IB=IBC0

Minority electrons in
the collector that are
VBC within LC from the C-B
junction are collected
by the high electric
field into the base.

EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

• Why is IEC0 much larger than IBC0?

IEn ICn C
E
IEp ICp
VEC > 0
B IB=0
IE = IEC0
I Ep
I EC 0  I Cn  I Cp  I BC 0  I Ep   dc  1I BC 0 ,  dc 
I Cn
 The electrons injected from the collector into the base and
then into the emitter forward bias the E-B junction .
 This leads to large hole injection from the emitter into the base and
then into the collector.
 In summary, relatively small number of electrons into the emitter
forces injection of large number of holes into the base (transistor
action) which gives IEC0 >> IBC0 .
EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I
(D) Ebers-Moll equations
• The simplest large-signal equivalent circuit of an ideal (intrinsic) BJT
consists of two diodes and two current-controlled current sources:
IF IR
IE IC I F  I F 0 e  VEB / VT
1 
e  1
VCB / VT
I R  I R0
RIR FIF
IB
• Using the results for IE and IC, we can calculate various coefficient:

IE  IF0 e VEB / VT

 1   R I R0 e VCB / VT
1 
  e  1
VEB / VT VCB / VT
IC  F I F 0 e  1  I R0
• The reciprocity relation for a two-port network requires that:
 F I F 0   R I R0
EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I
(E) Early effect
• In deriving the IV-characteristics of a BJT, we have assumed that dc,
dc, IBC0 and IEC0 to be constant and independent of the applied voltage.
• If we consider a BJT in the forward active mode, when the reverse bias
of the C-B junction increases, the width of the C-B depletion region
increases, which makes the width of the base quasi-neutral region Weff
to decrease:
Weff  W (metallurgical)  xdeb  xdcb
• The common-emitter current gain, taking into account the effective
width of the base quasi-neutral region (assuming =1) is then given by:
1
 dc 
 T  1  Weff LB
2
2
• The common-emitter current gain can be approximated with:
2
 dc  LB 
 dc   2 
1   dc W 
 eff 
EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I
• Graphical illustration of the Early (base-width modulation) effect:
Weff’

E Weff
C

B
• If we approximate the collector current with the hole current:
2 DB VEB / VT 2 DB VEB / VT
I C  I Cp  Aqni W e  Aqni e
B GB (WB )
 N B ( x )dx
o
I C n(WB ) WB IC
we find:   IC 
VBC G B VBC V A Early voltage

• Since WB/ VBC <0, we have that IC/ VBC > 0, i.e. IC increases.

EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

• Empirically, it is found that a linear interpolation of the collector
current dependence on VEC is adequate in most cases:
I C   dc I B  I EC 0 1  VEC / V A    dc I B  I EC 0 1  VEC / V A 
qGBWB
where the Early voltage is given by: V A  k A
k s 0

• Graphical illustration of the Early effect:

IC Another effect contributing

to the slope is due to generation
currents in the C-B junction:
 Generated holes drift to the
collector.
 Generated electrons drift into
VEC the base and then the emitter,
-|VA| thus forcing much larger hole
injection (transistor action).
EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I
(F) Deviations from the ideal model:
There are several factors that lead to deviation from the ideal
model predictions:
 Breakdown effects
 Geometry effects
 Generation-recombination in the depletion regions

3. Breakdown in BJT’s
• There are two important mechanisms for breakdown in
BJT’s:
(1) punch-through breakdown
(2) avalanche breakdown (similar to the one in pn-
junctions)

EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

• The punch-through breakdown occurs when the reverse-bias
C-B voltage is so large that the C-B and the E-B depletion
regions merge.
• The emitter-base barrier height for holes is affected by VBC ,
i.e. small increase in VBC is needed for large increase in IC .

VBC increasing
p+ n p
Note: Punch-through voltage is
usually much larger than the
avalanche breakdown voltage.

• The mechanism of avalanche breakdown in BJT’s depend

on the circuit configuration (common-emitter or common-
base configuration).

EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

• For a common-base configuration, the avalanche breakdown
in the C-B junction (open emitter) BVBC is obtained via the
maximum (breakdown) electric field FBR (~300 kV/cm for
Si and 400 kV/cm for GaAs):
2 2
k s  0 FBR  1 1  k s  0 FBR
BVBC     
2q  N B NC  2 qN C

• The increase in current for voltages higher than BVBC is

reflected via the multiplication factor in the current expres-
sion. It equals one under normal operating conditions, and
exceeds unity when avalanche breakdown occurs.
• When the emitter is open, the multiplication factor for the
C-B junction is: 1
  V mb 
BC 
M CB  1    
  BVBC  
EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I
• For a common-emitter configuration, the collector-emitter
breakdown voltage BVEC is related to BVBC :
I E  IC Open base configuration
M BC I BC 0
I C  M BC  dc I E  I BC 0   I C   M EC I EC 0
1   dc M BC
M BC (1   dc )
M EC   BVEC  BVBC 1   dc 1 / mb
1   dc M BC
Multiplication factor

50 MEC MBC Much smaller than BVBC

40 due to transistor action.
30
20
10
Reverse voltage
20 40
EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I
IC IC

VEC
VBC
BVBC0 BVEC0

Common-base output Common-emitter output

characteristics characteristics

EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I

4. Geometry effects
• The geometry effects include:
(1) Bulk and contact resistance effects
(2) Current crowding effect
B E B Base contacts
p+ n+ p+
p
n
n+ Emitter contacts
collector
• Base current flows in the direction parallel to the E-B
junction, which gives rise to base spreading resistance.
• When VBB’ is much larger than VT, most of the emitter
current is concentrated near the edges of the E-B junction.
EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I
 Generation-recombination in the depletion region

ln(IC) Current crowding, high-level

injection series resistence
ln(IB)
IC dc • Reverse-biased C-B junction
IB adds a generation current to IC.
• Forward-biased E-B junction
has recombination current. IC is
g-r current not affected by the recombina-
VEB tion in the E-B junction.
dc modification: dc Current
crowding or rC
• Low-current levels 
recombination current
• large current levels 
high-level injection and g-r
series resistance
EEE 531: Semiconductor Device Theory I
ln(IC)