Academic Year: 2021-2022

I Higher order derivatives and

applications
1.1 Set theory and Function

The theory of sets was originated in 1873 by German mathematician G. Cantor who considered
a set as a collection or aggregate of definite and distinguishable objects selected by means of
some rules or description.
Set theory is one of the greatest achievements of modern mathematics. Basically all
mathematical concepts, methods, and results admit of representation within axiomatic set
theory.
Definition: A set is any well-defined collection of objects, called the elements or members of
the set.
These elements may be anything: Numbers, Points in geometry, Letters, Alphabets, etc. The
following are examples of a set:
1. Rivers in India.
2. First-year B. Tech Students in CHARUSAT.
3. Consonants in English alphabets.
Capital letters 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, … are ordinarily used to denote sets and lower case letters 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, … are
used to denote elements of sets. Well defined means to decide if a given element belongs to the
collection or not. The statement “𝑥 is an element of 𝐴” or equivalently “𝑥 belongs to 𝐴” is
written as 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴. The statement “𝑥 is not an element of 𝐴” is written as 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴.
Number Sets:
1. Set of all natural numbers ℕ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . . }.
2. Set of all integers ℤ = {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . }.
𝑝
3. Set ℚ of all rational numbers of the form 𝑞 , where 𝑝 and 𝑞 (𝑞 ≠ 0) are integers.

4. The set of all real numbers (ℝ).

5. The set ℂ of all complex numbers of the form 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏, where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real
numbers. i.e. ℂ = {𝑧 ∶ 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ}.
Representation of a Set:
1. Roster or Tabular form.
2. Rule Method or Set builder form.

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Roster or Tabular form: In this form all the elements of the set are listed, the elements
being separated by commas and are enclosed within braces.
eg: A set of binary digits i.e 𝐴 = {0, 1}.
Rule Method or Set builder form: In this method a set is defined by specifying a
property that elements of the set have in common. The set is then describe as follows:
𝐴 = {𝑥 ∶ 𝑝(𝑥)}. eg: The set 𝐴 = {1, 4, 9, 16} can be written as
𝐴 = {𝑥 ∈ ℕ ∶ 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑛 ∈ ℕ, 𝑛 ≤ 4}.
Definition and Examples:
1. A set with finite number of elements, is called a finite set.
Examples of some finite sets:
a. The set of students in a class. b. The set of days in a week.
2. A set which contains infinite number of elements, is called an infinite set.
Examples of some infinite sets:
a. The set of all integers. b. The set of all complex numbers.
3. If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are sets such that every element of 𝐴 is also an element of 𝐵, then 𝐴 is said
to be a subset of 𝐵. (or 𝐴 is contained in 𝐵) and is denoted by 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵.
eg: {Gandhinagar, Jaipur, Bhopal} is a subset of {𝑥: 𝑥 is the capital of states of India}.
4. Two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 are said to be equal if 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ⊂ 𝐴. eg 𝐴 = {𝑥 ∈ ℕ ∶
𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑛 ∈ ℕ, 𝑛 ≤ 4} and 𝐵 = {1,4,9,16}, the sets A and B are equal.
5. A set which contains no elements at all is called the null set (empty set or void set). eg:
𝐴 = {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 4, 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟}.
6. A set which has only one element is called a singleton set.
eg: 𝑆 = {𝑎} is a singleton set.
7. Let 𝑋 be any set. Then set 𝑃(𝑋) is the set of all possible subsets of 𝑋 is called the power
set of 𝑋. eg: Power set of 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3} is
𝑃(𝐴) = {𝛷, 𝐴, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1}, {2}, {3}}.
8. A non-empty set 𝑈 of which all the sets under consideration are all subsets of U is
called the Universal set.
eg: The set of letters in alphabets is the universal from which the letters of any word
may be chosen to form the set.

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Operations on sets:
1. Union: The union of two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, denoted by 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 is the set of all elements
which belong to 𝐴 or to 𝐵; that is 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}.
2. Intersection: The intersection of two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, denoted by 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 is the set of all
elements which belong to both 𝐴 and 𝐵; that is 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}.
3. Complements: Let 𝑈 be the universal set and 𝐴 be any subset of 𝑈. The complement
of 𝐴 is denoted by 𝐴’, the set of all elements which belong to 𝑈 but which do not belong
to 𝐴; that is 𝐴’ = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴}. If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are two sets, the relative
complement of 𝐵 with respect to 𝐴 or simply, the difference of 𝐴 and 𝐵, denoted by
𝐴 − 𝐵, is the set of elements which belong to 𝐴 but which do not belong to 𝐵; that is
𝐴 − 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵}.
4. Symmetric Difference: The symmetric difference of two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 is denoted by
𝐴∆𝐵 and is the set of elements that belong to 𝐴 or to 𝐵, but not to both 𝐴 and 𝐵. It is
easy to see that 𝐴∆𝐵 = (𝐴 − 𝐵) ∪ (𝐵 − 𝐴)
= {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑙𝑦 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵}.
5. Cartesian product: Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be sets. Cartesian product of 𝐴 and 𝐵 denoted by 𝐴 ×
𝐵 is defined as 𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑎, 𝑏) ∶ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵}.
eg: If 𝐴 = {1,2,5} and 𝐵 = {2,4} then 𝐴 × 𝐵 =
{(1,2), (1,4), (2,2), (2,4), (5,2), (5,4)}.
Properties:
1. Commutative Law:
(i) 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = 𝐵 ∪ 𝐴
(ii) 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝐵 ∩ 𝐴
2. Associative Laws:
(i) (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶 = 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶)
(ii) (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶 = 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)
3. Distributive Laws:
(i) (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶 = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶) ∩ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶)
(ii) (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶 = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶) ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)
4. De Morgan’s Laws:
(i) (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)’ = 𝐴’ ∪ 𝐵’
(ii) (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)’ = 𝐴’ ∩ 𝐵’

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Relation: Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be two sets. A relation from 𝐴 to 𝐵 gives rise to a subset 𝑅 of 𝐴 × 𝐵. If
(𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅 we denoted by is ‘𝑎𝑅𝑏’.
Domain of relation: Let 𝑅 is a relation from 𝐴 to 𝐵. Then set {𝑎 ∈ 𝐴: (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅} is called
the domain of relation 𝑅. It is denoted by 𝑑𝑜𝑚(𝑅).
Range of relation: Let 𝑅 is a relation from 𝐴 to 𝐵. Then set {𝑏 ∈ 𝐵: (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅} is called the
range of relation 𝑅. It is denoted by 𝑟𝑎𝑛(𝑅).
Function: Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be two non-empty sets. A function 𝑓 from 𝐴 to 𝐵 is a subset of
𝑓 ⊆ 𝐴 × 𝐵 with property that for each element 𝑥 in 𝐴, there is a unique element 𝑦 in 𝐵 such
that (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑓.
The statement “𝑓 is a function from 𝐴 to 𝐵” is usually represented symbolically by
𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵.
If 𝑓 is a function from 𝐴 to 𝐵. Then 𝐴 is called the domain of 𝑓 and it is denoted by dom 𝑓,
its members are the first co-ordinates of the ordered pairs belonging to 𝑓. The set 𝐵 is
called co-domain of 𝑓. If (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑓, it is customary to write 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑦 is called the image
of 𝑥; and 𝑥 is pre-image of 𝑦. The set consisting of all the images of the elements of 𝐴
under the function f is called the range of 𝑓. It is denoted by 𝑓(𝐴) or 𝑅(𝑓), the range of
𝑓 = {𝑓(𝑥): 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴}.
eg: 1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 3 for 𝑥 ∈ ℝ represents a function from ℝ to ℝ.
2. Let 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4,5} and = {1,2, . . .12} 𝑓 = {(1,1), (2,3), (3,5), (3,7), (4,7), (5,12)},
then 𝑓 is not a function because in 𝑓 assigns 3 to two different values in 𝐵.
3. Let 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and 𝐵 = {1,2, . . . ,12} 𝑔 = {(1,1), (2,3), (3,5), (3,7), (4,7)} then 𝑔
is not a function because 5 ∈ 𝐴 but 𝑔 does not assign any value to 5.
Classification of Functions:
Function can be classified mainly into two groups.
1. Algebraic function: A function which consist of a finite number of terms of involving
powers and roots of the independent variable 𝑥 and the four fundamental operations
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division is called algebraic function.
√𝑥 2 +1
eg. 𝑓: [0, ∞) → [0, ∞), 𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝑥 ∈ [0, ∞).
𝑥 4 +1

Three particular cases of algebraic functions are:

(i) Polynomial function: A function of the form 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + an 𝑥 𝑛 where
n is a positive integer and 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … 𝑎𝑛 are real constants and 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0 is called a
polynomial in 𝑥 of degree 𝑛. eg.𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3 is a polynomial of degree 2.

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𝑓(𝑥)
(ii) Rational function: A function of the form , where 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are
𝑔(𝑥)

𝑥 2 +3𝑥+5
polynomials in 𝑥, 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0, is called a rational function, eg. 𝑓(𝑥) = .
𝑥+4

(iii) Irrational function: A function involving radicals is called irrational functions.

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eg. 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 𝑥 + 5
2. Transcendental function: A function which is not algebraic is called transcendental
function.
(i) Trigonometric function: The six functions namely sin 𝑥 , cos 𝑥 , tan 𝑥 , cot 𝑥,
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 and sec 𝑥, where 𝑥 is angle measured in radians are called trigonometric
functions.
(ii) Inverse trigonometric function: The six functions sin−1 𝑥, cos −1 𝑥, tan−1 𝑥,
cot −1 𝑥, sec −1 𝑥, and cosec −1 𝑥, are called inverse trigonometric function.
(iii) Power function: A function f(x) = 𝑎 𝑥 , (𝑎 > 0) (satisfying the law 𝑎1 = 𝑎 and
𝑎 𝑥 ∙ 𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥+𝑦 is called the power function)
(iv) Logarithmic function: The inverse of the exponential function is called the
logarithmic function. So, if 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 (𝑎 > 0, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅), then 𝑥 = log 𝑎 (𝑦) is called
Logarithmic function.
Type of Function:
1. One-to-One Function: A function 𝑓 from 𝐴 to 𝐵 is one-to-one (or injective), if for all
elements 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 in 𝐴 such that 𝑓( 𝑥1 ) = 𝑓( 𝑥2 ) implies 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 .
i.e if 𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2 , then 𝑓(𝑥1 ) ≠ 𝑓(𝑥2 ).
eg: Let 𝐴 = {1,2,3}, 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑} and let 𝑓(1) = 𝑎, 𝑓(2) = 𝑐 and 𝑓(3) = 𝑑.
Then 𝑓 is injective since the different elements 1,2,3 in 𝐴 are assigned to the different
elements 𝑎, 𝑐, 𝑑 respectively in 𝐵.
2. Many-One Function: A function 𝑓 from 𝐴 to 𝐵 is said to be many-one if two or more
elements of 𝐴 have same image in 𝐵.
eg: Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 is any real number. Then 𝑓 is many-one function.
3. Into Function: A function 𝑓 from 𝐴 to 𝐵 is said to be into if there exists at least one
element in 𝐵 which is not an image of any element in 𝐴.
eg: Let 𝐴 = {1,2,3}, 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑} and let 𝑓(1) = 𝑎, 𝑓(2) = 𝑐 and 𝑓(3) = 𝑑. Then
𝑓 is into since 𝑏 is not an image of any element in 𝐴.
4. Onto Function: A function 𝑓 from 𝐴 to 𝐵 is said to be onto (or surjective) if every
element of 𝐵 is an image of some element in 𝐴.

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eg: Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 5, 𝑥 is any real number and 𝑓: ℝ→ ℝ. Then 𝑓 is an onto function.
5. Bijective Function: A function 𝑓 from 𝐴 to 𝐵 is said to be a bijective if 𝑓 is both one-
to-one and onto.
eg. Let 𝑓 be a function from 𝐴 to 𝐵, where 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4} and 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑} with
𝑓(1) = 𝑑, 𝑓(2) = 𝑏, 𝑓(3) = 𝑐 and 𝑓(4) = 𝑎, then 𝑓 is a bijective function.

1.2 Limit, Continuity, Differentiability for function of single variable and its uses. Mean
Value Theorem, Local Maxima and Minima

Limit and Continuity:

Limit: Consider a function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ. If 𝑓(𝑥) becomes arbitrarily close to a unique
number 𝑙 as 𝑥 approaches a from either side, i.e for given 𝜀 > 0 there exists 𝛿 > 0 such
that |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑙| < 𝜀 whenever |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿. This is written as lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙.
𝑥→𝑎

Left hand limit of 𝒇 at : The function 𝑓(𝑥) approaches to 𝑙 as 𝑥 approaches a from left
side i.e for given 𝜀 > 0 there exists 𝛿 > 0 such that |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑙| < 𝜀
whenever 𝑎 − 𝛿 < 𝑥 < 𝑎 This is written as lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙.
𝑥→𝑎

Right hand limit of 𝒇 at : The function 𝑓 approaches 𝑙 as 𝑥 approaches a from left side if
given 𝜀 > 0 there exists 𝛿 > 0 such that |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑙| < 𝜀 whenever 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑎 + 𝛿.
This is written as lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙.
𝑥→𝑎

Working rules of Limit: Let 𝑎 and 𝑏 be real numbers, 𝑓 and 𝑔 be functions 𝑓, 𝑔: ℝ → ℝ

with the following limits: lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙1 and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑙2
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

1. Scalar multiple: lim [ 𝑏 𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑏 𝑙1

𝑥→𝑎

2. Sum or difference: lim [ 𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑙1 ± 𝑙2 .

𝑥→𝑎

3. Product: lim [ 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑙1 ∙ 𝑙2 .

𝑥→𝑎
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑙
4. Quotient: lim [ ] = 𝑙1 , where 𝑙2 ≠ 0.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) 2

5. Power: lim [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 = 𝑙 𝑛 .

𝑥→𝑎

Limits of Polynomial and Rational Functions:

1. If p is a polynomial function and c is a real number, then lim 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑝(𝑐).
𝑥→𝑐
𝑝(𝑥)
2. If r is a rational function given by 𝑟(𝑥) = 𝑞(𝑥) and c is a real number such that
𝑝(𝑐)
𝑞(𝑐) ≠ 0 then lim 𝑟(𝑥) = 𝑟(𝑐) = 𝑞(𝑐).
𝑥→𝑐

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Some Important Limits

𝑥 𝑛 −𝑎𝑛
1. lim = 𝑛𝑎𝑛−1
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎
1
2. lim (1 + 𝑥)𝑥 = 𝑒
𝑥→0
1 𝑥
3. lim (1 + 𝑥) = 𝑒
𝑥→∞
𝑎𝑥 −1
4. lim = log e 𝑎
𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 −1
5. lim = log e 𝑒 = 1
𝑥→0 𝑥
(1+𝑥)𝑛 −1
6. lim =𝑛
𝑥→0 𝑥
sin 𝑥
7. lim =1
𝑥→0 𝑥
tan 𝑥
8. lim =1
𝑥→0 𝑥

9. lim 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 = 1
𝑥→0

10. If 𝐾 is a constant function, then lim 𝐾 = 𝐾.

𝑥→𝑎

Working rules of Continuity of Function: Consider a function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ and 𝑎 ∈ ℝ.

1. If lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎), then we say that 𝑓 is left continuous at 𝑎.
𝑥→𝑎

2. If lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎), then we say that 𝑓 is right continuous at 𝑎.

𝑥→𝑎

3. If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎), then we say that 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑎.

𝑥→𝑎

Note that if 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑎, then it is left as well as right continuous at 𝑎.

If 𝑓 is not continuous at a, then 𝑓 is said to be discontinuous at 𝒙 = 𝒂, and 𝑎 is called a point
of discontinuity.
Differentiability of Functions: Consider function 𝑓(𝑥) defined on a closed interval
[𝑎, 𝑏]. Let 𝑐 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏). Then the function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be differentiable at 𝑥 = 𝑐, if following
𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑐)
is lim exists. The limit is called the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) with respect to 𝑥 at 𝑐 and it is
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥−𝑐
𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑓
denoted by 𝑑𝑥 or 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑐 or (𝑑𝑥 ) or 𝑓 ′ (𝑐).
𝑥=𝑐

Remark: 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) is the slope of the tangent line of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑎.
𝑑𝑓
The derivative of w.r.t. 𝑥 is called the second order derivative of 𝑓 w.r.t 𝑥 and is denoted
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2 𝑓
by .
𝑑𝑥 2

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Note:
1. If 𝑓: (𝑎, 𝑏) → 𝑅 is differentiable at 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏), then it is continuous at 𝑥.
2. If 𝑓: (𝑎, 𝑏) → 𝑅 is continuous at 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏), then it may not be differentiable at 𝑥.
For example: 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| is continuous on ℝ but it is not differentiable at 𝑥 = 0.
 f ( x )  f (0) 
 xlim 1 
 0 x
 
 while 
 f ( x )  f (0) 
 lim  1 
 x 0 x 
Formulas for differentiation:
𝑑(𝑐)
1. = 0, where 𝑐 is any constant.
𝑑𝑥
𝑑(𝑥 𝑛 )
2. = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 , where 𝑛 is any rational number.
𝑑𝑥
𝑑(𝑒 𝑥 )
3. = 𝑒𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑(𝑎𝑥 )
4. = 𝑎 𝑥 log 𝑒 𝑎, where 𝑎 > 0.
𝑑𝑥
𝑑(log𝑒 𝑎) 1
5. = 𝑥.
𝑑𝑥
𝑑(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 )
6. = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 )
7. = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑(𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 )
8. = sec 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑(𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 )
9. 𝑑𝑥
= −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
𝑑(𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 )
10. = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 )
11. = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑(𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥 )
12. = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑(𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑥 )
13. = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑(sin−1 𝑥 ) 1
14. = √1−𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
𝑑(𝑐𝑜𝑠−1 𝑥 ) 1
15. = − √1−𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
𝑑(tan−1 𝑥 ) 1
16. = 1+𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
𝑑(𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 𝑥 ) 1
17. = − 1+𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥

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𝑑(sec−1 𝑥 ) 1
18. =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 √𝑥 2 −1
𝑑(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑥 ) −1
19. =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥√𝑥 2 −1

Rules of differentiation: Suppose 𝑢 and 𝑣 are functions of 𝑥.

𝑑(𝑢±𝑣) 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
1. = 𝑑𝑥 ± 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑(𝑢𝑣) 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
2. = 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑑( ) 𝑣 −𝑢
𝑣 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3. = ,𝑣 ≠ 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑣2

Derivative of the function of a function (Derivative of composition of functions):

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
If 𝑦 is function of 𝑢 and 𝑢 is a function of 𝑥, then 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢 . 𝑑𝑥 . This rule is known as the chain

rule.
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑓′ (𝑡)
Note: If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑡) and 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑡), where 𝑡 is a parameter, then 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑔′ (𝑡), where 𝑔′ (𝑡) ≠ 0 .
𝑑𝑡

Tutorial:
√2−√1+cos 𝑥 1
1 Evaluate: lim . Answer: 4√2.
𝑥→0 𝑥2

tan−1 𝑥−tan−1 𝑎 cos2 𝑎

2 Evaluate: lim+ . Answer: .
𝑥→𝑎 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥−tan 𝑎 1+𝑎2

|𝑥|
3 𝑥≠0
Discuss continuity of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥 at 𝑥 = 0.
1 𝑥=0
Answer: 𝑓 is not continuous.

4 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏, 𝑥 > 1
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = { 6, 𝑥 = 1 . If f is continuous at 𝑥 = 1, find 𝑎 and 𝑏.
5𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏, 𝑥 < 1
Answer: 𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = 4
𝑑𝑦
5 Find 𝑑𝑥 for 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑥 + (sin 𝑥)𝑥 .

Answer: 𝑥 𝑥 (1 + log 𝑥) + (sin 𝑥)𝑥 (𝑥 cot 𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥).

𝑑𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥
6 If 𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥−𝑦 , prove that 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑥)2.

𝑑2 𝑦
7 Find 𝑑𝑥 2 for 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑡.
𝑏 1
Answer: 3𝑎2 ⋅ cos4 𝑡 sin 𝑡.

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Mean Value Theorem:

Suppose that 𝑓 is defined and continuous on a closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏], and suppose that derivative
of 𝑓 exists on the open interval (𝑎, 𝑏). Then there exists a point 𝑐 in (𝑎, 𝑏) such that
f b  f  a 
f 'c  .
ba

The Mean value theorem says that there is

a tangent line to the curve whose slope is
same as the slop of the line joing the points
𝐴(𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)) and 𝐵(𝑏, 𝑓(𝑏)) in the figure.

Tutorial:

1 Check whether the Mean Value Theorem can be applicable to the function
2
f ( x)  3x 3  2 x on the closed interval [0, 1]. If so, find a value of 𝑐 which satisfies the
Mean value theorem in (0, 1).
2
Solution: Here f ( x)  3x 3  2 x is defined for all values of 𝑥 in the closed interval
2
[0, 1]. Clearly f ( x)  3x 3  2 x is continuous at all values of x in the interval [0, 1].
We compute the derivative of the function f, which is given by

2 
1
2
f ( x)  3   x 3  2  3  2
3 x
2
f ( x)  3
 2 is defined for all values in (0, 1). Thus, 𝑓 is differentiable at each point
x
of x in the interval (0, 1). Thus, 𝑓(𝑥) satisfies all condition of Mean Value Theorem.
From Mean Value theorem
f (b)  f (a) f (1)  f (0)
f (c)  
ba 1 0
 f (a)  f (0)  3(0) 2/3  2(0)  0  0  0 
 
 f (b)  f (1)  3(1)  2(1)  3  2  1 
2/3

2
and for the derivative f ( x)  3
 2,
x
2
 f (c)  3
2.
c

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2
1  3
2
c
8
Therefore c    0,1 .
27
2 Check whether the Mean Value Theorem can be applied to the function
tan−1 𝑥 on the closed interval [−1,1]. If so, find a value of 𝑐 which satisfies the Mean
4
value theorem in (−1,1). Answer: ±√𝜋 − 1 .

3 Check whether the Mean Value Theorem can be applied to the function
𝑥 3 + 12𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 on the closed interval [−4,4]. If so, find a value of 𝑐 which satisfies
the Mean value theorem in (−4, 4). Answer: 0.62.

Local Maxima and Minima:

Maximum value of a function: If the value of a function 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑎 is maximum in the
small interval (𝑎 − ℎ, 𝑎 + ℎ) then we say that 𝑓(𝑥) is maximum at 𝑥 = 𝑎.
The following two conditions must be satisfied for a function 𝑓(𝑥) to be maximum at 𝑥 = 𝑎.
1. 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = 0 (Necessary condition)
2. 𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) < 0 (Sufficient condition).
Minimum value of a function: If the value of a function 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑎 is minimum in the
small interval (𝑎 − ℎ, 𝑎 + ℎ) then we say that 𝑓(𝑥) is minimum at 𝑥 = 𝑎.
The following two conditions must be satisfied for a function f(x) to be minimum at x=a.
1. 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = 0 (Necessary condition)
2. 𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) > 0 (Sufficient condition).
Stationary points:
The point at which a function obtains its maximum or minimum values is called a stationary
points. 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 is a necessary condition for obtaining stationary points.
Working rules for finding Maxima and Minima:
dy
1. For a given function y  f ( x) , obtain or f ' ( x ) .
dx
2. Take f ' ( x)  0 and solve this equation to find the roots. Let the roots be 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, …

3. Obtain the second derivative f '' ( x) of 𝑓.

4. Substitute the roots 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, … in f '' ( x) one by one. Suppose x  a is substitute in f '' ( x) .

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i. If f '' (a)  0 , then 𝑓 is maximum at 𝑥 = 𝑎 and the maximum value of f ( x ) is

f (a ) .

ii. If f '' (a)  0 , then 𝑓 is minimum at 𝑥 = 𝑎 and the minimum value of f ( x ) is

f (a ) .

iii. If f '' (a)  0 , then we cannot draw any conclusion about the maximum and
minimum value of 𝑓 at 𝑥 = 𝑎.
eg. Find the extreme values of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 5 − 5𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 3 − 1.
Solution:
f ( x)  x5  5x 4  5x3  1, f ( x)  5x 2  x  1 x  3 , f ( x)  10 x(2 x 2  6 x  3)

For maxima or minima, f   x   0  5x 2  x  1 x  3  0  x  0,1,3.

When 𝑥 = 0, f   0   0 . Hence we cannot draw any conclusion about maxima or minima

of 𝑓(𝑥).
When 𝑥 = 1, f  1  10  0. Therefore 𝑓(𝑥) is maximum at 𝑥 = 1 and its maximum value is

0.
When 𝑥 = 3, f   3  90  0. Therefore 𝑓(𝑥) is minimum at 𝑥 = 3 and its minimum value is

−28.
Note: These are local maxima/local minima.

Tutorial:
x
1
1 Find the extreme value of the function y    , x  0 .
 x
x
1
Solution : Here y    , x  0
 x
1
 log y  x log   x log x
x
Differentiating w.r.t 𝑥, we get
1 dy 1
   x  log x   1  log x 
y dx x
x
dy 1
   y 1  log x      1  log x  .
dx  x

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dy
Now taking  0 , we have
dx
x
1
  1  log x   0.
 x
1  log x   0 i.e log x  1 .

1
x  .
e
Now
d2y  dy 1
 2    1  log x   y  
dx  dx x

1 d2y  1
 1
At x  , 2   0   e  e  e     e  e  0 .
1

e dx  
1
1
Therefore 𝑦 is maximum at x  and the maximum value is  e  e .
e
2 Find the extreme values of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = −2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1. Answer: 3.

2 −2
3 Find the extreme values of the function 𝑦 = sin(𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥). Answer: 3√6 and 3√6.

1.3 Successive differentiation: nth derivative of elementary functions: rational, logarithmic,

trigonometric, exponential and hyperbolic etc.

Successive Differentiation:
Successive Differentiation is the process of differentiating a given function successively times
and the results of such differentiation are called successive derivatives. The nth order derivative
of function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is denoted by 𝑦𝑛 or 𝑦 (𝑛) or 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) or 𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑥).

Some standard results on nth order derivative:

1 If 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 , then 𝑦𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 .
Proof: Here, we have 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 . Next, taking derivative of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥 gives
𝑦1 = 𝑎𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 .
Taking derivative of 𝑦1 with respect to 𝑥 gives
𝑦2 = 𝑎2 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 .
Similarly taking nth order derivative of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥 gives 𝑦𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 .

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2 If 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑏𝑥 , then 𝑦𝑛 = 𝑏 𝑛 (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎)𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑥 .

Proof: Here, we have 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑏𝑥 . Next, taking derivative of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥 gives
𝑦1 = 𝑏 (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎) 𝑎𝑏𝑥 .
Taking derivative of 𝑦1 with respect to 𝑥 gives
𝑦2 = 𝑏 2 (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎)2 𝑎𝑏𝑥 .
Similarly taking nth order derivative of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥 gives
𝑦𝑛 = 𝑏 𝑛 (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎)𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑥 .
𝑛𝜋
3 If 𝑦 = sin(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏), then 𝑦𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 + ).
2

Proof: Here, we have y = sin(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏). Next, taking derivative of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥
gives
𝜋
𝑦1 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 + 2 ).

Taking derivative of 𝑦1 with respect to 𝑥 gives

𝜋 2𝜋
𝑦2 = 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 + 2 ) = 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 + ).
2

Similarly taking nth order derivative of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥 gives

𝑛𝜋
𝑦𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 + ).
2
𝑛𝜋
4 If 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏), then 𝑦𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 + ).
2

Proof: Here, we have y = cos(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏). Next, taking derivative of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥
gives
𝜋
𝑦1 = −𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 + 2 ).

Taking derivative of 𝑦1 with respect to 𝑥 gives

𝜋 2𝜋
𝑦2 = −𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 + 2 ) = 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 + ).
2

Similarly taking nth order derivative of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥 gives

𝑛𝜋
𝑦𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 + ).
2

5 If 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 sin(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐), then 𝑦𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 + 𝑛𝜃),

𝑏
where 𝑟 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 and 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑎).

Proof: Here, we have y = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 sin(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐). Next, taking derivative of 𝑦 with respect to
𝑥 gives
𝑦1 = 𝑎𝑒 𝑎𝑥 sin(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) + 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑥 cos(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)
= 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 [𝑎 sin(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) + 𝑏 cos(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)].

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𝑏
Put 𝑎 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 and 𝑏 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, so that 𝑟 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 and 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑎

∴ 𝑦1 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 [𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 sin(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) + 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 cos(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)]

= 𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑥 [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 sin(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 cos(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)]
= 𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑥 sin(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 + 𝜃). (∵ sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵)
Taking derivative of 𝑦1 with respect to 𝑥 gives
𝑦2 = 𝑟𝑎𝑒 𝑎𝑥 sin(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 + 𝜃) + 𝑟𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑥 cos(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 + 𝜃)
= 𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑥 [𝑎 sin(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 + 𝜃) + 𝑏 cos(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 + 𝜃)]
(∵ 𝑎 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 and 𝑏 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
= 𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑥 [𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 sin(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 + 𝜃) + 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 cos(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 + 𝜃)]
= 𝑟 2 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 sin(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 + 𝜃) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 cos(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 + 𝜃)]
= 𝑟 2 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 sin(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 + 2𝜃). (∵ sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵)
Similarly, we have
𝑦3 = 𝑟 3 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 + 3𝜃),
𝑦4 = 𝑟 4 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 + 4𝜃).
In general, the nth order derivative of y is given by 𝑦𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 + 𝑛𝜃), where
𝑏
𝑟 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 and 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑎).

6 If 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 cos(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐), then 𝑦𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 + 𝑛𝜃),

𝑏
where 𝑟 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 and 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑎).

Proof: Here, we have y = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 cos(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐). Next, taking derivative of 𝑦 with respect to
𝑥 gives
𝑦1 = 𝑎𝑒 𝑎𝑥 cos(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) − 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑥 sin(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)
= 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 [𝑎 cos(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) − 𝑏 sin(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)].
𝑏
Put 𝑎 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 and 𝑏 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, so that 𝑟 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 and 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑎)

∴ 𝑦1 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 [𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 cos(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) − 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 sin(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)]

= 𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑥 [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 cos(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 sin(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)]
= 𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑥 cos(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 + 𝜃).
(∵ cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵)
Taking derivative of 𝑦1 with respect to 𝑥 gives
𝑦2 = 𝑟𝑎𝑒 𝑎𝑥 cos(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 + 𝜃) − 𝑟𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑥 sin(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 + 𝜃)
= 𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑥 [𝑎 cos(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 + 𝜃) − 𝑏 sin(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 + 𝜃)]

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= 𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑥 [𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 cos(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 + 𝜃) − 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 sin(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 + 𝜃)]

(∵ 𝑎 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 and 𝑏 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
= 𝑟 2 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 cos(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 + 2𝜃).
Similarly, we have
𝑦3 = 𝑟 3 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 + 3𝜃),
𝑦4 = 𝑟 4 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 + 4𝜃).
In general, the nth order derivative of y is given by 𝑦𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 + 𝑛𝜃), where
𝑏
𝑟 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 and 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑎).
(−1)𝑛−1 (𝑛−1)!𝑎𝑛
7 If 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏), then 𝑦𝑛 = .
(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)𝑛

Proof: Here, we have y = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏). Next, taking derivative of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥
gives
𝑎
𝑦1 = 𝑎𝑥+𝑏.

Taking derivative of 𝑦1 with respect to 𝑥 gives

𝑎2 (−1)
𝑦2 = (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)2.

Taking derivative of 𝑦2 with respect to 𝑥 gives

𝑎3 (−1)(−2) 𝑎3 (−1)2 (1×2) 𝑎3 (−1)2 (2!)
𝑦3 = (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)3
= (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)3
= (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)3
.

Taking derivative of 𝑦2 with respect to 𝑥 gives

𝑎3 (−1)(−2) 𝑎3 (−1)2 (1×2) 𝑎3 (−1)2 (2!)
𝑦3 = (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)3
= (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)3
= (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)3
.

Taking derivative of 𝑦3 with respect to 𝑥 gives

𝑎4 (−1)(−2)(−3) 𝑎4 (−1)3 (1×2×3) 𝑎4 (−1)3 (3!)
𝑦4 = (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)4
= (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)4
= (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)4
.
𝑎5 (−1)4 (4!)
Similarly, we have 𝑦5 = (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)5
.
(−1)𝑛−1 (𝑛−1)!𝑎𝑛
In general, the nth order derivative of y is given by 𝑦𝑛 = .
(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)𝑛

 m!
  m  n  ! a  ax  b  , If m  n  0
n mn


0, If n  m  0

8 If y  ( ax  b ) m
, then yn   n
n !a , If m  n

  1n n !a n
 , If m  1 .
 
n 1

 ax  b

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Proof: Here, we have y = (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑚 .

Case 1: m > n > 0
Next, taking derivative of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥 gives
𝑦1 = 𝑎𝑚(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑚−1 .
Taking derivative of 𝑦1 with respect to 𝑥 gives
𝑦2 = 𝑎2 𝑚(𝑚 − 1)(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑚−2 .
Similarly, we have
𝑦3 = 𝑎3 𝑚(𝑚 − 1)(𝑚 − 2)(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑚−3 ,
𝑦4 = 𝑎4 𝑚(𝑚 − 1)(𝑚 − 2)(𝑚 − 3)(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑚−4 .
In general, nth order derivative of y is given by
𝑦𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑚(𝑚 − 1) … (𝑚 − (𝑛 − 1))(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑚−𝑛
(𝑚 − 𝑛)!
= 𝑎𝑛 𝑚(𝑚 − 1) … (𝑚 − 𝑛 + 1) × (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑚−𝑛
(𝑚 − 𝑛)!
𝑚!
= 𝑎𝑛 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑚−𝑛 .
(𝑚 − 𝑛)!
Case 2: If 𝑛 > 𝑚 > 0, then one of the terms of 𝑚(𝑚 − 1) … (𝑚 − 𝑛 + 1) in 𝑦𝑛 will be
zero. Therefore, 𝑦𝑛 = 0.
For example, 𝑛 = 5 and 𝑚 = 3 gives
𝑚(𝑚 − 1) … (𝑚 − 𝑛 + 1)
= 3 × 2 × 1 × 0 × −1
=0.
Case 3: 𝑚 = 𝑛
Here, we have y = (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛 .
Next, taking derivative of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥 gives
𝑦1 = 𝑎𝑛(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛−1 .
Taking derivative of 𝑦1 with respect to 𝑥 gives
𝑦2 = 𝑎2 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛−2 .
Similarly, we have
𝑦3 = 𝑎3 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛−3 ,
𝑦4 = 𝑎4 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)(𝑛 − 3)(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑚−𝑛 .
In general, nth order derivative of y is given by
𝑦𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) … (𝑛 − (𝑛 − 1))(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛−𝑛

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= 𝑎𝑛 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) … (𝑛 − (𝑛 − 2))(𝑛 − (𝑛 − 1))

= 𝑎𝑛 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) … 3 × 2 × 1
= 𝑎𝑛 𝑛! .
Case 4: 𝑚 = − 1
Here, we have y = (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)−1 .
Next, taking derivative of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥 gives
𝑦1 = 𝑎(−1)(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)−2.
Taking derivative of 𝑦1 with respect to 𝑥 gives
𝑦2 = 𝑎2 (−1)(−2)(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)−3 = 𝑎2 (−1)2 (2!)(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)−3 .
Similarly, we have
𝑦3 = 𝑎3 (−1)(−2)(−3)(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)−4 = 𝑎3 (−1)3 (3!)(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)−4 ,
𝑦4 = 𝑎4 (−1)(−2)(−3)(−4)(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)−5 = 𝑎4 (−1)4 (4!)(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)−5 .
(−1)𝑛 𝑛!𝑎𝑛
In general, nth order derivative of y is given by 𝑦𝑛 = (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)𝑛+1 .

𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑎𝑥, 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
9 If 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑎𝑥, then 𝑦𝑛 = { .
𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑥, 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
𝑒 𝑎𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑎𝑥
Proof: Here, we have y = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑎𝑥. We know that 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑎𝑥 = and
2
𝑒 𝑎𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑎𝑥
cosℎ𝑎𝑥 = .
2

Taking derivative of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥 gives

𝑑 𝑑 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑒 𝑎𝑥 −(−𝑎)𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑎𝑥
𝑦1 = 𝑑𝑥 (𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑎𝑥) = 𝑑𝑥 ( )= = 𝑎( ) = 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑥.
2 2 2

Taking derivative of 𝑦1 with respect to 𝑥 gives

𝑑 𝑑 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑒 𝑎𝑥 +(−𝑎)𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑎𝑥
𝑦2 = 𝑑𝑥 (𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 ( ) = 𝑎[ ] = 𝑎2 ( )=
2 2 2

𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑎𝑥.
Similarly,
𝑦3 = 𝑎3 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑥,
𝑦4 = 𝑎4 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑎𝑥.
𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑎𝑥, 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
Thus, In general, nth order derivative of y is given by 𝑦𝑛 = { .
𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑥, 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
𝑎𝑛 cosh 𝑎𝑥 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
10 If 𝑦 = cosℎ 𝑎𝑥, then 𝑦𝑛 = { .
𝑎𝑛 sinℎ 𝑎𝑥 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
𝑒 𝑎𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑎𝑥
Proof: Here, we have 𝑦 = cosℎ 𝑎𝑥. We know that cosh 𝑎𝑥 = and
2

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𝑒 𝑎𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑎𝑥
sinh 𝑎𝑥 = .
2

Taking derivative of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥 gives

𝑑 𝑑 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑒 𝑎𝑥 −𝑎𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑎𝑥
𝑦1 = 𝑑𝑥 (cosh 𝑎𝑥) = 𝑑𝑥 ( )= = 𝑎( ) = 𝑎 sinℎ 𝑎𝑥
2 2 2

Taking derivative of 𝑦1 with respect to 𝑥 gives

𝑑 𝑑 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑒 𝑎𝑥 −(−𝑎)𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑎𝑥
𝑦2 = 𝑑𝑥 (𝑎 sinh 𝑎𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 ( ) = 𝑎[ ] = 𝑎2 ( )=
2 2 2

𝑎2 cosℎ 𝑎𝑥
Similarly,
𝑦3 = 𝑎3 sinh 𝑎𝑥,
𝑦4 = 𝑎4 cosh 𝑎𝑥
Thus, In general, 𝑛𝑡ℎ order derivative of 𝑦 is given by
𝑎𝑛 cosh 𝑎𝑥 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
𝑦𝑛 = { 𝑛 .
𝑎 sinℎ 𝑎𝑥 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑

Tutorial:
𝑥
1 Find the nth order derivative of the function (𝑥−1)2 (𝑥+1).
𝑥
Solution: Let 𝑦 = (𝑥−1)2 (𝑥+1). Using Partial fractions, one can rewrite the function 𝑦 as
𝑥 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
follows (𝑥−1)2 (𝑥+1) = (𝑥−1) + (𝑥−1)2 + (𝑥+1)

∴ 𝑥 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐶(𝑥 − 1)2 ---------(1)

1
In (1), the substitution 𝑥 = 1 gives 1 = 0 + 2𝐵 + 0 ⟹ 𝐵 = 2,
1
In (1), the substitution 𝑥 = −1 gives -1 = 0 + 0 + 4𝐶 ⟹ 𝐶 = − 4,
1
In (1), On Comparing coefficient of 𝑥 2 on both sides, we get 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 0 ⟹ 𝐴 = − 2.

Thus, We have
𝑥 −1 1 1
𝑦= 2
= + 2
− .
(𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 + 1) 2(𝑥 − 1) 2(𝑥 − 1) 4(𝑥 + 1)
Taking nth order derivative of y, We have
−1 𝑛+1 1
𝑦𝑛 = (−1)𝑛 𝑛! [ + − ]
2(𝑥 − 1)𝑛+1 2(𝑥 − 1)𝑛+2 4(𝑥 + 1)𝑛+1
1
using the formula of nth order derivative of 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥+𝑏.

2 If 𝑦 = sin(𝑎𝑥) + cos(𝑎𝑥), then prove that 𝑦𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 √1 + (−1)𝑛 sin(2𝑎𝑥).

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3 Find the nth order derivative of the function 𝑦 = cos 𝑥 cos 2𝑥 cos 3𝑥.
1 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
Answer: 𝑦𝑛 = 4 [2𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (2𝑥 + ) + 4𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (4𝑥 + ) + 6𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (6𝑥 + )].
2 2 2

1.4 Leibnitz rule for the nth order derivatives of product of two functions

Leibnitz rule for the nth order derivatives of product of two functions:
If 𝑢 and 𝑣 are functions of 𝑥 such that their nth derivatives exist, then the nth derivative of their
product is given by
𝑛 𝑛
(𝑢𝑣)𝑛 = 𝑢𝑛 𝑣 + ( ) 𝑢𝑛−1 𝑣1 + ( ) 𝑢𝑛−2 𝑣2 + ⋯ + 𝑢𝑣𝑛 .
1 2
Tutorial:

1 If 𝑦 = sin(𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥), show that

(1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑦𝑛+2 − (2𝑛 + 1)𝑥𝑦𝑛+1 + (𝑚2 − 𝑛2 )𝑦𝑛 = 0.
Solution:
Here, we have 𝑦 = sin(𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥).
∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥
On taking derivative to this function differentiating with respect to 𝑥 gives
1 𝑚
𝑦1 =
√1 − 𝑦 2 √1 − 𝑥 2
∴ (1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑦12 = 𝑚2 (1 − 𝑦 2 ).
On differentiating again with respect to 𝑥, we get
(1 − 𝑥 2 )2𝑦1 𝑦2 − 2𝑥𝑦12 = −2𝑚2 𝑦𝑦1
∴ (1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑦2 − 𝑥𝑦1 + 𝑚2 𝑦=0 (Dividing by 2y1)
On differentiating n times by Leibnitz’s theorem
If 𝑢 and 𝑣 are functions of 𝑥 such that their nth derivatives exist, then the nth derivative
of their product is given by
𝑛 𝑛
(𝑢𝑣)𝑛 = 𝑢𝑛 𝑣 + ( ) 𝑢𝑛−1 𝑣1 + ( ) 𝑢𝑛−2 𝑣2 + ⋯ + 𝑢𝑣𝑛 ,
1 2
we have
((1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑦2 )𝑛 − (𝑥𝑦1 )𝑛 + (𝑚2 𝑦)𝑛 =0
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)
∴ (1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑦2 + 𝑛(−2𝑥)𝑦𝑛+1 + (−2)𝑦𝑛 − 𝑥𝑦𝑛+1 − 𝑛(1)𝑦𝑛 + 𝑚2 𝑦𝑛 = 0
2
Thus, we get the required expression in the form
(1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑦𝑛+2 − (2𝑛 + 1)𝑥𝑦𝑛+1 + (𝑚2 − 𝑛2 )𝑦𝑛 = 0.

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2 Find the nth derivative of the function 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 sin(𝑥 − 7).

Solution: Here, we have 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 sin(𝑥 − 7).
Leibnitz’s theorem
If 𝑢 and 𝑣 are functions of 𝑥 such that their nth derivatives exist, then the nth derivative
of their product is given by
𝑛 𝑛
(𝑢𝑣)𝑛 = 𝑢𝑛 𝑣 + ( ) 𝑢𝑛−1 𝑣1 + ( ) 𝑢𝑛−2 𝑣2 + ⋯ + 𝑢𝑣𝑛 .
1 2
Taking 𝑢 = sin(𝑥 − 7) and 𝑣 = 𝑥 2 , we have
𝑛𝜋 (𝑛 − 1)𝜋
(𝑦)𝑛 = (𝑥 2 sin(𝑥 − 7))𝑛 = 𝑥 2 sin (𝑥 − 7 + ) + 2𝑛𝑥 sin (𝑥 − 7 + )
2 2
(𝑛 − 2)𝜋
+𝑛(𝑛 − 1) sin (𝑥 − 7 + )
2
is the required expression.
3 Find the nth derivative of the function 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 cos(5𝑥 − 4).

−1 𝑥
4 If 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛 , show that (1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑦𝑛+2 − (2𝑛 + 1)𝑥𝑦𝑛+1 − (𝑛2 + 𝑎2 )𝑦𝑛 = 0.

1 1
5 If 𝑦 𝑚 + 𝑦 −𝑚 = 2𝑥, prove that (𝑥 2 − 1)𝑦𝑛+2 + (2𝑛 + 1)𝑥𝑦𝑛+1 + (𝑛2 − 𝑚2 )𝑦𝑛 = 0.

1.5 Tests of convergence of series viz., comparison test, ratio test, root test, Leibnitz test.
Power series expansion of a function: Maclaurin’s and Taylor’s series expansion.

Some Standard Limits

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑛
1. lim = 0.
𝑛→∞ 𝑛
1
2. lim = 0.
𝑛→∞ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑛
1 𝑛
3. lim (1 + 𝑛) = 𝑒.
𝑛→∞
𝑎 𝑛
4. lim (1 + 𝑛) = 𝑒 𝑎 .
𝑛→∞
1⁄
5. lim (1 + 𝑛) 𝑛 = 𝑒.
𝑛→∞
1
6. lim (𝑛)𝑛 = 1.
𝑛→∞
1
7. lim (𝑛!)𝑛 = ∞.
𝑛→∞

8. lim 𝑒 𝑛 = 1.
𝑛→0

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9. lim 𝑥 𝑛 = 0 if |𝑥| < 1.

𝑛→∞

10. lim 𝑥 𝑛 = ∞ if 𝑥 > 1.

𝑛→∞

11. lim 𝑛. 𝑥 𝑛 = 0 if |𝑥| < 1.

𝑛→∞
𝑥𝑛
12. lim = 0 for all values of 𝑥.
𝑛→∞ 𝑛!
1⁄
(𝑛!) 𝑛
13. lim [ ] = ∞.
𝑛→∞ 𝑛

Some concepts to discuss for sequences:

1. An ordered set of real numbers 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … … .. is called a sequence and is denoted by
{𝑎𝑛 }. If the number of terms is unlimited, then the sequence is said to be an infinite
sequence and 𝑎𝑛 is its nth term.
e.g. {3,5,7,9, … . . }, Here nth term 𝑢𝑛 = 2𝑛 + 1.
2. Limit: A sequence is said to tend to a limit 𝑙, if for every 𝜀 > 0, a natural number 𝑛0
can be found such that |𝑎𝑛 − 𝑙| < 𝜀 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛 ≥ 𝑛0 .
3. Convergence: If a sequence {𝑎𝑛 } has a finite limit, it is called a convergent sequence.
If the limit of sequence {𝑎𝑛 } does not tend to a finite number, it is said to be divergent.
1 1 1
e.g. {1, 4 , 9 , … . . , 𝑛2 , … . . } is a convergent sequence.

{3,5,7, … . , (2𝑛 + 1), … . . } is a divergent sequence.

4. Bounded sequence: A sequence {𝑎𝑛 } is said to be bounded, if there exists a number
𝑘 > 0 such that |𝑎𝑛 | < 𝑘 for every 𝑛.
5. A sequence {𝑎𝑛 } is called increasing if 𝑎𝑛 ≤ 𝑎𝑛+1 for all 𝑛
6. A sequence {𝑎𝑛 } is called decreasing if 𝑎𝑛 ≥ 𝑎𝑛+1 for all 𝑛
7. Monotonic sequence: A sequence {𝑎𝑛 } is called monotonic if it is either increasing or
decreasing.
e.g. {1,4,7,10, … . . } is a monotonic sequence.
1 1 1
{1, 4 , 9 , … . . , 𝑛2 , … . . } is also a monotonic sequence.

{1, −1,1, −1, … … . } is not a monotonic sequence.

A monotonic sequence always tends to a limit, finite or infinite.
A sequence which is monotonic and bounded is convergent.

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Series:
Definition: If 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 , … , 𝑢𝑛 , … is an infinite sequence of real numbers, then 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + 𝑢3 +
⋯ + 𝑢𝑛 + ⋯ is called an infinite series. An infinite series is denoted by ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 , the sum of its

first n terms is denoted by 𝑠𝑛 = ∑𝑛𝑗=1 𝑢𝑗 and it is known as partial sum of n terms.

e.g. 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + ⋯ is an infinite series.
Convergent and divergent series:
Consider the infinite series ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + 𝑢3 + ⋯ + 𝑢𝑛 + ⋯ and let the sum of the first

n terms be 𝑠𝑛 = 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + 𝑢3 + ⋯ … . . +𝑢𝑛 .
1. If 𝑠𝑛 tends to a finite number as 𝑛 → ∞, then the series ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 is said to be convergent.
1 1 1 1 1
e.g. Test the convergence of the series 1.3 + 3.5 + 5.7 + 7.9 + ⋯ (2𝑛−1).(2𝑛+1)

Solution: Let
1 1 1 1 1
𝑠𝑛 = + + + +⋯
1.3 3.5 5.7 7.9 (2𝑛 − 1). (2𝑛 + 1)
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= (1 − ) + ( − ) + ( − ) + ⋯ + ( − )
2 3 2 3 5 2 5 7 2 (2𝑛 − 1) (2𝑛 + 1)
1 1
= (1 − )
2 (2𝑛 + 1)
1 1 1
lim 𝑠𝑛 = lim 2 (1 − (2𝑛+1)) = 2, which is a finite quantity.
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞

the series is convergent.

2. If 𝑠𝑛 tends to infinity as 𝑛 → ∞, then the series ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 is said to be divergent.

e.g. (𝒊) Test the convergence of the series 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯.

𝑛(𝑛+1)
Solution: Let 𝑠𝑛 = 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + 𝑛 = .
2
𝑛(𝑛+1)
lim 𝑠𝑛 = lim = ∞, the series is divergent.
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 2

e.g. (𝒊𝒊) Test the convergence of the series 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 + ⋯ .

𝑛
Solution. Here 𝑆𝑛 = 12 + 22 + ⋯ + 𝑛2 = 6 (𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1).

∴ lim 𝑆𝑛 = ∞.
𝑛→∞

Hence, the given series is divergent.

General properties of infinite series:
1. The nature (convergence or divergence) of an infinite series does not change:
(i) by multiplication of all terms by a non-zero number 𝑘.
(ii) by addition or deletion of a finite number of terms.

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2. If two series ∑∞ ∞ ∞
𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 and ∑𝑛=1 𝑣𝑛 are convergent, then ∑𝑛=1(𝑢𝑛 + 𝑣𝑛 ) is also

convergent.
Necessary condition for convergence
If a series ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 is convergent, then lim 𝑢𝑛 = 0.
𝑛→∞

Note: The converse of this result need not be true.

1 1 1
Consider, for instance, the series 1 + + +. . + + ⋯.
√2 √3 √𝑛

Since the term go on descending,

1 1 1 1 1 1 𝑛
𝑠𝑛 = 1 + + +. . + > + +. . + =
√2 √3 √𝑛 √𝑛 √𝑛 √𝑛 √𝑛

So, lim 𝑠𝑛 = lim √𝑛 ⟶ ∞.

𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞
1
Thus the series is divergent even though lim 𝑢𝑛 = lim = 0.
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ √n

lim 𝑢𝑛 = 0 is a necessary but not sufficient condition for the convergence of ∑∞

𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 .
𝑛→∞

We have simple test for divergence from above:

If lim 𝑢𝑛 ≠ 0, then the series ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 does not converge.
𝑛→∞

Geometric series:
Geometric series 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 + ⋯ is
i. convergent if |𝑟| < 1.
ii. divergent if 𝑟 ≥ 1.
𝑎
If |𝑟| < 1 , then the sum of the Geometric series is 𝑆 = 1−𝑟.
1 1 1
e.g. Test the convergence of the series 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + ⋯
1 1 1 1
Solution: Let 𝑠𝑛 = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + ⋯ + 𝑛.
1
Here series is a Geometric series with common ratio 𝑟 = 2.
𝑎 1
lim 𝑠𝑛 = 1−𝑟 = 1 = 2.
𝑛→∞ 1−
2

Hence, the series is convergent.

Tutorial Work:
Test the convergence of the following series
1 3 4
𝑙𝑜𝑔2 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 2 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 3 + ⋯

Answer: divergent.

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2 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+ + + +⋯
𝟏.𝟓 𝟓.𝟗 𝟗.𝟏𝟑 𝟏𝟑.𝟏𝟕

Answer: convergent.

1 1 1 1
P- Test: The p series ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑛𝑝 = 1𝑝 + 2𝑝 + 3𝑝 + ⋯ is

i. convergent if p > 1.
ii. divergent if p ≤ 1.
iii. It is not always possible to find the partial sum Sn for every series easily. Thus it
becomes necessary to use other tests for series with all terms positive. Using these tests,
we can discuss the convergence/divergence of series.
Limit Comparison Test:
𝑢𝑛
If two positive term series ∑∞ ∞
𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 and ∑𝑛=1 𝑣𝑛 are such that lim = finite and is nonzero,
𝑛→∞ 𝑣𝑛

then ∑∞ ∞
𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 and ∑𝑛=1 𝑣𝑛 converge or diverge together.
𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝒏+𝟏
e.g. Test the convergence of the series 𝟏 + 𝟒 + 𝟗 + ⋯ + +⋯.
𝒏𝟐
𝑛+1
Solution: Let 𝑢𝑛 = .
𝑛2
1
(In general take 𝑣𝑛 = 𝑛𝑝 can be obtained from 𝑢𝑛 , where 𝑝 = (the highest power 𝑛

in denominator of 𝑢𝑛 ) - (the highest power 𝑛 in numerator of 𝑢𝑛 )).

So here in this case 𝑝 = 1.
𝑛 1
i.e. 𝑣𝑛 = 𝑛2 = 𝑛.
𝑛+1
𝑢𝑛 ( 2) 𝑛+1
𝑛
∴ lim = lim 1 = lim = 1, finite & non-zero.
𝑛→∞ 𝑣𝑛 𝑛→∞ ( )
𝑛
𝑛→∞ 𝑛

∴ By limit comparison test, both the series ∑∞ ∞

𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 and ∑𝑛=1 𝑣𝑛 converges or diverges

together.
1
Now, ∑∞ ∞
𝑛=1 𝑣𝑛 = ∑𝑛=1 𝑛 is a p-series with p=1.

∴ ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑣𝑛 is divergent.

So, ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 is also divergent.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
e.g. Test the convergence of the series 𝟏.𝟐 + 𝟑.𝟒 + 𝟓.𝟔 + ⋯
1
Solution: Let 𝑢𝑛 = (2𝑛−1)(2𝑛).
1
Take 𝑣𝑛 = 𝑛2.
𝑢𝑛 𝑛2 1
∴ = (2𝑛−1)(2𝑛) = 1 .
𝑣𝑛 2(2− )
𝑛

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𝑢𝑛 1
∴ lim = (finite).
𝑛→∞ 𝑣𝑛 4

So, both series are convergent or divergent together.

1 1
But we know that ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑛2 is convergent. (∵ p = 2 in p series ∑ 𝑛𝑝 )

Therefore the given series is convergent by limit comparison test.

Tutorial:
Test the convergence of the following series:
1 1
∑∞
𝑛=1 .
𝑛2 +1

Answer: convergent.

2 ∑∞
𝑛=1 √𝑛 + 1 − √𝑛 .

Answer: divergent.

3 𝑛𝑝
∑∞
𝑛=1 .
√𝑛+1+√𝑛

Answer: convergent if 𝑝 < −1/2 and divergent if 𝑝 ≥ −1/2 .

D’alembert’s Ratio Test:

𝑢𝑛+1
If ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 is a positive term series and lim = 𝑙, then
𝑛→∞ 𝑢𝑛

i. ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 is convergent if 𝑙 < 1.

ii. ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 is divergent if 𝑙 > 1.

iii. If 𝑙 = 1, the ratio test fails. i.e., no conclusion can be drawn about the convergence
or divergence of the series.
𝟏 𝟏.𝟐 𝟏.𝟐.𝟑
Example: Test the convergence of the series 𝟑 + 𝟑.𝟓 + 𝟑.𝟓.𝟕 + ⋯ .
1.2.3…𝑛
Solution: Here 𝑢𝑛 = 3.5.7…(2𝑛+1).
1.2.3…𝑛(𝑛+1)
∴ 𝑢𝑛+1 = 3.5.7…(2𝑛+1)(2𝑛+3) ,
1
𝑢𝑛+1 𝑛+1 1+
𝑛
∴ = 2𝑛+3 = 3 ,
𝑢𝑛 2+
𝑛
1
𝑢𝑛+1 1+ 1
𝑛
Here lim = lim 3 = 2 < 1.
𝑛→∞ 𝑢𝑛 𝑛→∞ 2+𝑛

So, the given series is convergent using ratio test.

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Tutorial:
Test the convergence of the following series:
1 𝑛!
∑∞
𝑛=1 .
𝑛2

Answer: divergent.

2 𝑛3 +2
∑∞
𝑛=1 .
2𝑛 +2

Answer: convergent.

3 2𝑝 3𝑝 4𝑝
1+ + + +⋯.
2! 3! 4!

Answer: convergent.

Cauchy’s Root Test:

1
If ∑ 𝑢𝑛 is a positive term series and lim (𝑢𝑛 )𝑛 = 𝑙, then
𝑛→∞

i. ∑ 𝑢𝑛 is convergent if 𝑙 < 1.
ii. ∑ 𝑢𝑛 is divergent if 𝑙 > 1.
iii. If 𝑙 = 1, the root test fails. i.e., no conclusion can be drawn about the convergence
or divergence of the series.
𝟏
Test the convergence of the series ∑∞
𝒏=𝟐 (𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒏)𝒏 .

1
Solution: Here 𝑢𝑛 = (𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑛)𝑛 .
1
1
1 𝑛 1
∴ (𝑢𝑛 ) = 𝑛 ((𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑛)𝑛) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑛,
1
1
∴ lim (𝑢𝑛 )𝑛 = lim =0<1.
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑛

So, the given series is convergent using Root test.

Tutorial:
Test the convergence of the following series:
1 𝑛!
∑∞
𝑛=1 .
𝑛𝑛

Answer: convergent.

2 (𝑛−𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑛)𝑛
∑∞
𝑛=1 .
2𝑛 .𝑛𝑛

Answer: convergent.

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3 1 1 1
1+ + + +⋯ .
22 33 44

Answer: convergent .

Alternating series:
An infinite series with alternate positive and negative terms is called an alternating series.
Leibnitz’s test for alternating series:
An alternating series ∑∞
𝑛=1(−1)
𝑛+1
𝑢𝑛 , where 𝑢𝑛 > 0 is convergent if
i. {𝑢𝑛 } is strictly decreasing, i.e., 𝑢𝑛+1 < 𝑢𝑛 for all 𝑛.
ii. lim 𝑢𝑛 = 0.
𝑛→∞
1 1 1
Example: Show that the series 1 − + − + ⋯ is convergent.
√2 √3 √4
1
Solution: Here 𝑢𝑛 =
√𝑛
1
i. The given series is ∑∞
𝑛=1(−1)
𝑛+1
𝑢𝑛 = ∑∞
𝑛=1(−1)
𝑛+1
an alternating series.
√𝑛
1 1
ii. Clearly √𝑛 + 1 > √𝑛 ⇒ < ⇒ 𝑢𝑛+1 < 𝑢𝑛 .
√𝑛+1 √𝑛

So the sequence {𝑢𝑛 } is strictly decreasing.

1
Also lim 𝑢𝑛 = lim = 0. By Leibnitz’s test, the series is convergent.
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ √𝑛

Tutorial:
Test the convergence of the following series:
1 (−1)𝑛+1
∑∞
𝑛=1 .
𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑛+1)

Answer: convergent.

2 1 1 1
1−2+3−4+ … .

Answer: convergent.

Power series expansion of a function: Maclaurin’s and Taylor’s series expansion

In this section, we shall discuss infinite series representation of a function, especially in the
form of a power series. Such series expansions are useful to approximate the function
numerically by polynomials e.g. Functions such as sin 𝑥 , log 𝑥 , 𝑒 𝑥 , etc. For that we shall use
Taylor’s series and Maclaurin’s series expansions in the powers of some variable.

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Definition: If 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 , … and a are constants, then an infinite series expression of the form
∑∞ 𝑛 2 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑐𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑎) =𝑐0 + 𝑐1 (𝑥 − 𝑎) + 𝑐2 (𝑥 − 𝑎) + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑎) + ⋯ is called a power

series in (𝑥 − 𝑎).
If we put 𝑎 = 0 then ∑∞ 𝑛 2 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑐𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 𝑥 + ⋯ is called a power

series in 𝑥.
Taylor’s theorem with remainder: (Only for Information)
Suppose that a function 𝑓 can be differentiable 𝑛 + 1 times at each point in an interval
containing the point 𝑎. Then for each 𝑥 in that interval there is at least one point 𝑐 in the interval
such that,
(𝑥 − 𝑎)1 ′ (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 ′′ (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛 𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓 (𝑎) + 𝑓 (𝑎) + ⋯ + 𝑓 (𝑎) + 𝑅𝑛 ,
1! 2! 𝑛!
𝑓 (𝑛+1) (𝑐)
where 𝑅𝑛 = (𝑛+1)!
(𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛+1 , which is called the Taylor’s theorem with Lagrange’s form

of the remainder 𝑅𝑛 (𝑥).

Note: In the Taylor’s theorem, if 𝑅𝑛 → 0 as 𝑛 → ∞, then it becomes a Taylor’s series.
Taylor’s series:
If 𝑓(𝑥) possess derivatives of all orders at the point 𝑎, then
(𝑥−𝑎)1 (𝑥−1)2 (𝑥−𝑎)𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) + 𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) + ⋯ + 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎) + ⋯ ____ (𝑖)
1! 2! 𝑛!

Result-1: Replacing 𝑥 by 𝑎 + ℎ in Taylor’s series (𝑖), we get another form of the series.
ℎ1 ℎ2 ℎ𝑛
𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) + 𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) + ⋯ + 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎) + ⋯, which is known as Taylor’s
1! 2! 𝑛!

series expansion of the function 𝑓(𝑥) in the neighborhood of the point 𝑎.

Result-2: If we put 𝑎 = 0 in Taylor’s series (𝑖), then we get
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑓 ′ (0) + 𝑓 ′′ (0) + ⋯ + 𝑓 𝑛 (0) + ⋯, which known as Maclaurin’s
1! 2! 𝑛!

series expansion of the function 𝑓(𝑥).

Example: Expand 𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 in Maclaurin’s series.
Solution: Maclaurin’s series expansion is
𝑥1 ′ 𝑥 2 ′′ 𝑥𝑛 𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑓 (0) + 𝑓 (0) + ⋯ + 𝑓 (0) + ⋯
1! 2! 𝑛!
We are given that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 sin 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓(0) = 1.
∴ 𝑓′(𝑥) = cos 𝑥 𝑒 sin 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓′(0) = 1.
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = − sin 𝑥 𝑒 sin 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥𝑒 sin 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥)(− sin 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥) ⇒ 𝑓′′(0) = 1.
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)(− sin 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑥)(− cos 𝑥 − sin 2𝑥) ⇒ 𝑓′′′(0) = 0

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𝑓 𝑖𝑣 (𝑥) = 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥)(− sin 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)(− cos 𝑥 + 2 cos 𝑥 (− sin 𝑥)) +

𝑓 ′ (𝑥)(−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − sin 2𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑥)(sin 𝑥 − 2 cos 2𝑥)
⇒ 𝑓 𝑖𝑣 (0) = 1 + (−1) + (−1) + (−2) = −3.
𝑓 𝑣 (0) = −8 and so on.
Substituting these values in Maclaurin’s series, we get
𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥5
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 sin 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + − 3 4! − 8 5! + ⋯
2!

Example: Expand 𝒆𝒙 in powers of (𝒙 − 𝟏) using Taylor’s series.

Solution: Taylor’s series expansion is
(𝑥 − 𝑎)1 ′ (𝑥 − 1)2 ′′ (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛 𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓 (𝑎) + 𝑓 (𝑎) +⋯+ 𝑓 (𝑎) + ⋯.
1! 2! 𝑛!
Here 𝑎 = 1 and 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 ∴ 𝑓(1) = 𝑒 .
∴ 𝑓′(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓′(1) = 𝑒.
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓′′(1) = 𝑒.
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓′′′(1) = 𝑒 and so on.
(𝑥−1)1 (𝑥−1)2 (𝑥−𝑎)𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(1) + 𝑓 ′ (1) + 𝑓 ′′ (1) + ⋯ + 𝑓 𝑛 (1)+…
1! 2! 𝑛!
(𝑥−1)1 (𝑥−1)2
We get, 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑓(1) + 𝑓 ′ (1) + 𝑓 ′′ (1) + ⋯
1! 2!

(𝑥 − 1)1 (𝑥 − 1)2
𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑒 [1 + + +⋯]
1! 2!
Tutorial:
1 𝜋
Expand sin 𝑥 in powers of (𝑥 − 2 ). Find the value of sin 910 .

Answer: sin 910 ≈ 0.9998.

2 Find the value of √10 correct to four decimal places by Taylor’s series.
Answer: √10 ≈ 3.6123.

3 𝑒𝑥
Obtain the Maclaurin’s series of .
𝑒 𝑥 +1
𝑒𝑥 1 𝑥 𝑥3
Answer: 𝑒 𝑥 +1 = 2 + 4 − 48 + ⋯ .

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1.6 L’Hospital’s rule and related applications, Indeterminate forms

Indeterminate forms, L’Hospital’s rule and related applications:

Some limits can be determined the following rules:
 𝑞 + ∞ = ∞ if 𝑞 ≠ −∞
 𝑞 × ∞ = ∞ if 𝑞 > 0
 𝑞 × ∞ = −∞ if 𝑞 < 0
𝑞
 = 0 if 𝑞 ≠ ∞ and 𝑞 ≠ −∞
∞

 ∞𝑞 = 0 if 𝑞 < 0
 ∞𝑞 = ∞ if 𝑞 > 0
 𝑞 ∞ = 0 if 0 < 𝑞 < 1
 𝑞 ∞ = ∞ if 𝑞 > 1
 𝑞 −∞ = ∞ if 0 < 𝑞 < 1
 𝑞 −∞ = 0 if 𝑞 > 1
Here we will discuss seven types of indeterminate forms;
0 ∞
(i) 0 , (ii) ∞ , (iii) 0 × ∞, (iv) ∞ − ∞, (v) 1∞ , (vi) 00 , (vii) ∞0 .

If limit is of any one of the above form, then it can be evaluated by using L’Hospital’s Rule.
𝟎
(a) L’ Hospital’s Rule for the indeterminate form (𝟎):
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 = lim 𝑔(𝑥), then lim 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑔′ (𝑥) ; provided the limit exists.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

𝐥𝐨𝐠(𝟏−𝒙𝟐 )
Example: Evaluate 𝐥𝐢𝐦 .
𝒙→𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
0
Solution: Given limit is of the form (0). So, using L’Hospital’s rule, we get
1
log(1 − 𝑥 2 ) (−2𝑥)
1−𝑥 2
lim = lim 1
𝑥→0 log cos 𝑥 𝑥→0 (− sin 𝑥)
cos 𝑥
2𝑥
= lim (1−𝑥 2 ) 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
𝑥→0
2𝑥 tan 𝑥
= lim (1−𝑥 2 ) 𝑥 (∵ lim = 1)
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥
2
= lim (1−𝑥 2 ) = 2 .
𝑥→0

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∞ −∞ ∞
(b) L’Hospital’s Rule for the indeterminate form ( ) or ( ) or ( ):
∞ ∞ −∞
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞ = lim 𝑔(𝑥), then lim 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑔′ (𝑥) ; provided the limit on the right
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

exists.
Remark:
Suppose that functions 𝑓, 𝑔 are n times differentiable and
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = 𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) = ⋯ = 𝑓 (𝑛−1) (𝑎) = 0.
𝑔(𝑎) = 𝑔′ (𝑎) = 𝑔′′ (𝑎) = ⋯ = 𝑔(𝑛−1) (𝑎) = 0.
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑎)
Suppose that 𝑔(𝑛) (𝑎) ≠ 0. Then lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑛)(𝑎) .
𝑥→𝑎
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙
Example: Evaluate 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙
𝒙→𝟎
∞
Solution: Given limit is of the form (∞). So, using L’Hospital’s rule, we get
1
log 𝑥 𝑥 ∞
lim cot 𝑥 = lim −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 (again it is of the form (∞))
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
−𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 0
= lim which is of the form (0)
𝑥→0 𝑥
−2 sin 𝑥. cos 𝑥
= lim = 0.
𝑥→0 1

Tutorial:
1 tan 𝑥−sin 𝑥
Evaluate lim .
𝑥→0 𝑥2

Answer: 𝟎.

𝜋
2 log(𝑥− )
2
Evaluate lim𝜋 .
𝑥→ tan 𝑥
2

Answer: 𝟎.

3 Prove that lim log 𝑥 sin 𝑥 = 1.

𝑥→0

0 ∞
Following are the indeterminate forms which can be reduced to either (0) or (∞) form by

simple transformations.
(a) 𝟎 ∙ ∞ form
If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = ∞, then we can write
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)
lim 𝑓(𝑥) . 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 1 or lim 1 which can be solved using L’Hospital’s rule.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)

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Example: Evaluate 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙𝒏 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒙, 𝒏 > 𝟎

𝒙→𝟎

Solution: Given limit is of the form 0 ⋅ ∞ .

𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 ∞
lim 𝑥 𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 = lim ( )
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥 −𝑛 ∞
1⁄
𝑥
= lim −𝑛𝑥 −𝑛−1
𝑥→0
𝑥𝑛
= lim (− )=0
𝑥→0 𝑛

(b) (∞ − ∞) form
To evaluate the limits of the type lim [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)], when lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞ and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = ∞,
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
0 ∞
we reduce the expression in the form of (0) or (∞) by taking LCM or by rearranging the terms

and then apply L’Hospital’s rule.

𝟏 𝟏 𝝅
Example: Prove that 𝐥𝐢𝐦 [𝟐𝒙 − 𝒙(𝒆𝝅𝒙+𝟏)] = 𝟒 .
𝒙→𝟎

Solution: Given limit is of the form (∞ − ∞) .

1 1 𝑒 𝜋𝑥 +1−2 0
lim [2𝑥 − 𝑥(𝑒 𝜋𝑥 +1)] = lim 2𝑥(𝑒 𝜋𝑥 +1) which is indeterminate form of (0)
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
𝜋𝑒 𝜋𝑥
= lim 2[(𝑒 𝜋𝑥 +1)+𝑥(𝜋𝑒 𝜋𝑥 )]
𝑥→0
𝜋 𝑒0 𝜋
= = 4.
2 (𝑒 0 +1)

(c) 𝟎𝟎 , ∞𝟎 , 𝟏∞ form (Exponential indeterminate forms)

lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) is called an indeterminate of the type 00 if lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 0 Or
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

type ∞𝟎 if lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞ and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 0

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
∞
or type 1 if lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = ∞.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

To evaluate this kind of limit, let 𝑙 = lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) .

𝑥→𝑎

So log 𝑙 = lim 𝑔(𝑥) . log 𝑓(𝑥) which is of the form (∞ × 0).

𝑥→𝑎
𝟏
Example: Prove that 𝐥𝐢𝐦(𝒂𝒙 + 𝒙)𝒙 = 𝒂𝒆.
𝒙→𝟎

Solution: Given limit is of the form 1∞ .

1
Let 𝑙 = lim(𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑥)𝑥
𝑥→0
1
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙 = lim . 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑥)
𝑥→0 𝑥
log(𝑎𝑥 +𝑥) 0
= lim which is indeterminate form of the type (0)
𝑥→0 𝑥

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1
(𝑎𝑥 log 𝑎+1)
(𝑎𝑥 +𝑥)
= lim
𝑥→0 1
1 (log 𝑎+log 𝑒)
= (𝑎0 +0)(𝑎0 log 𝑎 + 1) = .
1

log 𝑙 = log 𝑎𝑒 ⇒ 𝑙 = 𝑎𝑒.

Tutorial:
1 Evaluate lim𝜋(1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥) ⋅ 𝑠𝑒𝑐2𝑥 . (0 ⋅ ∞)
𝑥→
4

Answer: 1.

2 1 1
Evaluate lim [𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 −1] . (∞ − ∞)
𝑥→0
1
Answer: 2 .

1
3 tan 𝑥 2
Evaluate lim ( 𝑥 )𝑥 . (1∞ )
𝑥→0
1
Answer: 𝑒 3 .

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