PRE- LABS 3

1. What are autotrophs and heterotrophs? Give each one example.

− Heterotrophs are known as consumers because they consume producers or
other consumers.
Examples: Dogs, birds, fish, and humans are all examples of heterotrophs.
− Autotrophs are known as producers because they are able to make their
own food from raw materials and energy.
Examples: include plants, algae, and some types of bacteria.

2. What is “photosynthesis”? How many stages are there in the

photosynthesis? Describe.
− Photosynthesis, the process by which green plants and certain other
organisms transform light energy into chemical energy. During
photosynthesis in green plants, light energy is captured and used to
convert water, carbon dioxide, and minerals into oxygen and energy-rich
organic compounds.
6H2O + 6CO2 -----> C6H12O6 + 6O2
− There are 2 stages in the photosynthesis

Light-Dependent Reactions

Just as the name implies, light-dependent reactions require sunlight. In the

light-dependent reactions, energy from sunlight is absorbed by chlorophyll and
converted into stored chemical energy, in the form of the electron carrier
molecule NADPH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate) and the
energy currency molecule ATP (adenosine triphosphate). The light-dependent
reactions take place in the thylakoid membranes in the granum (stack of
thylakoids), within the chloroplast.

Light-Independent Reactions

In the light-independent reactions or Calvin cycle, the energized electrons from

the light-dependent reactions provide the energy to form carbohydrates from
carbon dioxide molecules. The light-independent reactions are sometimes
called the Calvin cycle because of the cyclical nature of the process.

Although the light-independent reactions do not use light as a reactant (and as a

result can take place at day or night), they require the products of the light-
dependent reactions to function. The light-independent molecules depend on
the energy carrier molecules, ATP and NADPH, to drive the construction of
new carbohydrate molecules. After the energy is transferred, the energy carrier
molecules return to the light-dependent reactions to obtain more energized
electrons. In addition, several enzymes of the light-independent reactions are
activated by light.

3. Where is the chlorophyll distributed in plants and animals?

Chlorophyll is located in a plant's chloroplasts, which are tiny structures in a
plant's cells
The chloroplasts contain a green pigment called chlorophyll, which captures
the light energy that drives the reactions of photosynthesis. Like plant cells,
photosynthetic protists also have chloroplasts. Some bacteria perform
photosynthesis, but their chlorophyll is not relegated to an organelle.
Animals do not have chorophyll . With their diet, animals take up chlorophyll,
which is then converted into different metabolites that retain the ability to
absorb light at wavelengths that can penetrate into animal tissues

4. What is the function of chlorophyll?

 Functions of Chlorophyll:

+ Chlorophyll in the Biosynthesis of Sugars

- Plants use both forms of chlorophyll to collect the energy from light.
Chlorophyll is concentrated in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts.
Chloroplasts are the organelles in which photosynthesis takes place. The
thylakoids are small sacs of membrane, stacked on top of each other.
Embedded in these membranes are a variety of proteins that surround
chlorophyll. These proteins work together to transfer the energy from light,
through chlorophyll, and into the bonds of ATP – the energy transferring
molecule of cells. ATP can then be used in the Calvin cycle, or dark cycle, to
create sugars.
- The series of proteins that transfer energy from light and channel it into the
synthesis of sugars are known as photosystems. The entire process, both light
and dark cycles together, is known as photosynthesis, and occurs in plants,
algae, and some bacteria. These organisms take in carbon dioxide (CO2), water
(H2O) and sunlight to produce glucose. They can use this glucose in the
process of cellular respiration to create ATP, or they can combine the glucose
into more complex molecules to be stored.

+ Chlorophyll in the production of oxygen

- A by-product of photosynthesis is oxygen. Plants can use this oxygen in
cellular respiration, but they also release excess oxygen into the air. This
oxygen allows many non-plants to undergo respiration as well, thereby
supporting life on Earth. The oxygen is produced in the first part of the light
cycle of photosynthesis. Plants split water molecules to produce electrons,
hydrogen ions, and diatomic oxygen (O2). The electrons supply the electron
transport chain that drives ATP production. The oxygen is released into the air.
In this way, all the oxygen we breathe is produced.
5. Define the terms “transpiration” and “respiration”. What is the
difference between them?

− Respiration is the process by which plants convert carbon dioxide to

oxygen as a part of photosynthesis. Plants process carbon dioxide to
produce energy, so this process is often considered as part of the carbon
cycle and the mitigation of global warming due to atmospheric carbon
dioxide. Since plants use carbon dioxide as part of photosynthesis, they
remove that carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Beyond that, they
actually release oxygen, which you should recognize as something animals
like us breathe everyday!

− Transpiration is the process of water movement inside of the plant's system.

This means water drawn from roots and leaves, up through the stem and
cells of the plant. This water movement distributes minerals and is essential
to the plant's survival.
− The difference between “transpiration” and “respiration”:
Respiration is the process by which plants convert carbon dioxide to
oxygen as a part of photosynthesis. Transpiration is the process of water
movement inside of the plant's system. This means water drawn from roots
and leaves, up through the stem and cells of the plant.

6. What are stomata and guardcells? Describe their distribution on the

leaf.
− Stomata are cell structures in the epidermis of tree leaves and needles that
are involved in the exchange of carbon dioxide and water between plants
and the atmosphere.
− Guard cells are two bean-shaped cells that surround a stoma. As epidermal
cells, they play an important role in gaseous exchange in and out of plant
leaves by regulating the opening and closing of pores known as a stoma. In
addition, they are the channels through which water is released from leaves
to the environment.
As such, guard cells play a crucial role in photosynthesis by regulating the
entry of materials necessary for the process. Apart from regulating gaseous
exchange (as well as water release from leaves), they have also been shown to
contain chloroplasts which also make them a site of photosynthesis.
Distribution on the leaf:
As mentioned, guard cells are bean/kidney-shaped cells located on plant
epidermis. As such, they, like trichomes and pavement cells, are also epidermal
cells.
Between each pair of guard cells is a stoma (a pore) through which water and
gases are exchanged. The opening and closing of these pores (collectively
known as stomata) is made possible by the thickening and shrinking of guard
cells on the epidermis.