chapter 21

Shrimp farming in Sri Lanka:

a case study at the interface of
human, shrimp and environmental
health
Jessica Wu, Sylvia Checkley, Trisha Westers,
Theresa Burns, Carl Ribble and Craig Stephen

Abstract

Aquaculture is the fastest growing animal production sector in the world. Global demand for fish
and other seafood has increased significantly with world per capita consumption increas- ing from
9.9kg in the 1960s to 19.2kg in 2012. The Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka is an island
country in the Indian Ocean located off the south-east coast of India. Shrimp farm- ing in Sri
Lanka started in the late 1970s and has grown significantly as a primary industry. However, in
addition to difficulties with disease outbreaks, shrimp farmers in Sri Lanka have also faced social
and environmental constraints as well as questions about environmental sus- tainability. Conflict
over changes in land use, such as converting traditional paddy and coconut fields to shrimp farms,
has led to a loss of traditional livelihoods for some people. This case study investigates how shrimp
farming can be a sustainable option for household food security in post-war Sri Lanka. The
benefits of taking a holistic ecohealth approach to establishing an aquaculture initiative, such as
shrimp farming, are also examined.

21.1 Introduction approximately 17 per cent of animal protein con-

Aquaculture, the cultivation of aquatic organ-
isms, is the fastest growing animal production
sector in the world (FAO, 2012). Global
demand for fish and other seafood, including
molluscs, has increased significantly with world
per capita consumption in the 1960s of 9.9kg
increasing to 19.2kg in 2012 (FAO, 2014). Fish
constitutes
sumption in the global population, with some
coastal countries such as Sri Lanka exceeding
50 per cent of their intake of protein from fish
(FAO, 2014).
With a growing global population, agri-
cultural growth will be the key to reducing
malnutrition and hunger (FAO et al., 2013).
Smallholder farming, including aquaculture, is

considered to be a key pathway for alleviating
extreme poverty (Godfray et al., 2010; HLPE,
2013). Aquaculture can contribute to poverty
alleviation and enhance food security directly
through production of fish and aquatic products
as well as increased employment and income
generation. In many countries, aquaculture has
been shown to improve the status of women by
encouraging direct participation (Ahmed and
Lorica, 2002; Kawarazuka and Béné, 2010).
The Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri
Lanka is an island country in the Indian Ocean.
It is located just off the southeast coast of India.
The country has a total land area of 65,610km 2,
1,340km of coastline and 7,490km2 of inland
and aquaculture-appropriate area (such as
lagoons, man-made lakes and freshwater bod-
ies) (Agriculture and Environmental Statistics
Division, 2005). The population of Sri Lanka, as
of 2013, was estimated to be 20.5 million peo-
ple, with 77 per cent in rural areas, 18 per cent in
urban areas and 5 per cent in estates (Sri Lanka
Department of Census and Statistics, 2012).
There were reported to be more women than
men (10.6 million women) and life expectancy
at birth for women was 76.7 years and 71.7 years
for men (Sri Lanka Department of Census and
Statistics, 2001). The country is ethnically and
religiously diverse with 75 per cent Sinhalese,
11 per cent Sri Lankan Tamil, 4 per cent Indian
Tamil, 9 per cent Sri Lanka Moor, 0.2 per cent
Burgher and 0.2 per cent Malay (remaining per-
centage made up of other minor ethnic groups),
and 70 per cent Buddhist, 13 per cent Hindu,
10 per cent Muslim, 6 per cent Roman Catholic
and 1 per cent other Christian (Sri Lanka
Department of Census and Statistics, 2012). The
two national languages are Sinhala and Tamil.
In 1983, ethnic conflict in the north and
east part of the country erupted between the
Sinhalese and Tamils. The civil war continued
until May 2009, with significant impacts on
the population, environment and the economy
(Arunatilake et al., 2001). The 26 December
Shrimp farming in Sri Lanka 272
2004 Indian Ocean tsunami also had significant
impact, affecting two-thirds of the Sri Lankan
coastline (eastern to the south-western coast).
The death toll from this disaster reached 31,000,
with nearly half a million people displaced
(Yamada et al., 2006). The decades-long civil
war, compounded by environmental destruction
from the tsunami, resulted in significant chal-
lenges for the country with increased poverty,
food insecurity, displaced persons and a lack
of livelihood options. With significant aquatic
resources, the government of Sri Lanka consid-
ered aquaculture development as an important
opportunity to diversify livelihoods and to
increase household income (Harris, 2007).
In the case study presented below, we
exam- ine the establishment and success of
shrimp farming in Sri Lanka. Information is
provided on the current status of the industry
and we present some important considerations
for the expansion of the industry. The value of
taking a One Health approach is also
considered.
The specific issues examined in the case
study are:
• Who is involved in shrimp farming?
• How are women involved in the industry?
• How sustainable is shrimp farming currently?
• Does shrimp farming contribute to poverty
alleviation through ensuring food security?
• How do farmers obtain information about
best farming practices?
21.2 Case study background
Shrimp farming in Sri Lanka started in the late
1970s in the Batticaloa district of the Eastern
Province (EP). The farms in this region were
largely abandoned in the 1980s due to civil
unrest and the industry spread to the Puttalam
district in the North-Western Province (NWP).
The industry boomed in the NWP in the 1980s
and 1990s, with a number of multinational
companies and entreprene
medium-scale urs owning
 Shrimp farming in Sri Lanka 273

a large proportion difficulties ponds were the coast

of farms with disease constructed of the NWP
(Drengstig, 2013). out- breaks, with the water and this
In the 1990s, shrimp outlet canal canal
disease became a farmers in Sri adjoining to supplies
significant problem Lanka have the water inlet brackish
in cultivated also faced canal of water to
shrimp with the social and another more than
introduc- tion of environmental farmer (Corea 70 per
Penaeus monodon constraints. et al., 1995). cent of the
nucleopolyhedrovir Conflict over This has had shrimp
us virus, white spot land use, such negative
syndrome virus as converting consequences
and yellow head tra- ditional for water
disease paddy and quality as well
(Munasinghe et al., coconut fields, as causing
2010, 2012). This has led to a increased
led to the loss of disease
abandonment of traditional transmission
many farms and, livelihoods for between
starting in the late some people ponds.
2000s, the industry (Siriwardena, Spillover
was maintained by 1999). Once salinization of
smallholder the land is ground water
farmers with semi- aban- doned, it has also led to
intensive practices is often conflict as
in both the NWP unsuitable for domestic
and EP. The NWP conversion water wells
and the EP have a back into and
number of usable agricultural
differences agricultural water sources
including socio- land have been
demographics (e.g., (Primavera, affected
religion and 1997). (Bergquist,
ethnicity in the Conflicts 2007;
regions), as well as between Siriwardena,
their shrimp shrimp 1999).
farming activities. farmers and Environmental
For example, while with constraints
the NWP has community have included
struggled with members water
shrimp disease on have also pollution and
shrimp farms, arisen. As the destruction of
there were no industry was mangroves.
reports of disease initially The Dutch
on shrimp farms in unregulated Canal
the EP. and connects
In addition to unplanned, lagoons along
 Shrimp farming in Sri Lanka 274

farms in the area (Corea et shrimp farming still included. were born
al., 1995). This canal also holds prom- ise as a These include female or
receives effluent from way to alleviate the economic, male’, and
farms and therefore water poverty in Sri Lanka. social and gender
quality has greatly Historically, the environmental equity
deteriorated. Mangrove country had a pillars refers to
forests are ecologically and successful shrimp (Gó mez-Limó n ‘fairness
economically impor- tant export market and, and Sanchez- and
areas that protect against given the right Fernandez, impartialit
erosion, provide shelter for support, there is a real 2010; Pope et y in the
breeding and growth of potential to revive the al., 2004; treat-
aquatic organ- isms and indus- try (Landesman Pretty, 2008; ment of
birds, and are a source of et al., 2009). Shrimp Van women
wood (Alongi, 2002). The farming expansion is Cauwenbergh and men,
development of shrimp particularly attractive et al., 2007). according
farming has been due to high export Sustainability to their
considered to be a primary demand for shrimp and is key to the respective
cause for the loss of the potential for success- ful needs’
mangroves in Sri Lanka significant profit when application of (FAO,
(Corea et al., 1998; production is an ecohealth 2009a).
Dahdouh-Guebas et al., successfully executed approach. Equity
2002; Senarath and (FAO, 2012). While the does not
mean
The Brundtland Report
identical
An treatment,
The Brundtland Report was released by the understanding but
Brundtland Commission in October 1987. This is of the gender recognizes
a document that coined and defined the dimension in that equal
meaning of the term ‘sustainable devel- development treatment
opment’. The Brundtland Commission’s mission issues is is
was to provide impetus for the international important and dependent
community to work towards sustainable must be on meet-
development together. It was officially addressed in ing
dissolved in December 1987 after releasing the order to move different
Brundtland Report, which was also known by towards needs.
the title Our Common Future (World gender Rural
Commission on Environment and Development, equality and women
1987). gender equity. make up a
Gender large
Visvanathan, 2001). These costs and ben- efits equality is ‘a proportion
are all issues that present must be weighed state in which of the
challenges that will need to carefully, there is the people enjoy world’s
be addressed in a holistic belief that establishing equal rights, poor, and
way by interdisciplinary extensive or semi- oppor- are often
teams work- ing with intensive shrimp tunities, and marginaliz
community members and farming, which is more rewards, ed with
policymakers. Smallholder environmentally and regardless of regard to
socially sustainable, whether they their
sustainability should be
 Shrimp farming in Sri Lanka 275

access to Poverty and a lack 2001; FAO, 2001;

In contrast, unequal
education, land of food are closely Stein and Qaim,
access to, and control
and other related. Food security 2007; Wang and
of, resources negatively
resources. It has is defined as ‘when all Taniguchi, 2003).
affects community
been found that people, at all times, In Sri Lanka, a
produc- tivity.
there can be an have physical and reported 22.8 per
Opportunities for
overall eco- nomic economic access to cent of the
income generation and
advantage to sufficient, safe, and population were
control over household
communities that nutritious food to meet considered
resources by women
ensure increased their dietary needs and undernourished
also positively
employment food preferences for an between 2011 and
influences individual
opportunities for active and healthy life’ 2013. However, this
household food
women. (World Food Summit, is an improvement
security and children’s
1996). Food security is of 32 per cent since
health and education,
a complex concept 1990.
because women
with multiple To feed a
generally spend more
dimensions. It is growing
money on food and on
composed of four key population,
children’s needs
components: increased
(World Bank and IFAD,
availability, productivity is a
2009; World Bank,
accessibility, utilization priority in
2011).
and, more recently, agriculture and
stability (FAO, 2009b). aqua- culture (FAO,
The consequences of 2009c). Achieving
food insecurity have this increased
been asso- ciated with productivity
negative physical and includes not only
psychological ensuring increased
outcomes including access to resources
being underweight, but also access to
poor growth, chronic relevant
disease, poor social information and
skills and depression knowledge to help
(Cook and Frank, 2008; farmers do their
Cook et al., 2004; job well.
Hadley and Patil, 2006; Community-based
Jyoti et al., 2005; ‘social learning’ is
Seligman et al., 2007), an important
which has downstream avenue for learning
economic and information,
consequences in terms particularly in
of decreased rural, lower-
productivity, lower GDP income countries
and an increased cost where technical
for healthcare (Arcand, information
and formal be limited
extension (Bandiera
services may and Rasul,
 Shrimp farming in Sri Lanka 276

2006; Conley and were surveyed household

and farming assets
Udry, 2001; in the North- food inse-
(production animals
Hartwich and Western curity, (3)
owned). The
Scheidegger, 2010; Province gender roles,
Household Food
Thuo et al., 2013). (NWP) and 60 (4) sustainable
Insecurity Access
Social learning is farms in the shrimp
Scale (HFIAS) was
often defined as Eastern farming
used to measure
the process of Province (EP). practices and
food security
interactions The shrimp (5) social
(Ballard, 2011;
between people farming networks of
Coates et al., 2007).
through shared industry in the information
The HFIAS is an
experiences, roles NWP is more exchange.
experiential
and environ- established Basic
questionnaire that
ments that involve than the EP. demographic
consists of nine
the generation of infor- mation
questions that
knowledge but also (age, sex,
assess anxiety,
refers to Data ethnicity,
quantity and quality
subsequent collection religion,
of food intake that
changes in behav- education)
may be decreased
iour reflected in A cross- was also
due to a lack of
farming practices sectional study collected for
economic access
(Blackmore, 2007; of smallholder each member
(Coates et al.,
Milbrath, 1989; shrimp of the house-
2007). The basis
Muro and Jeffrey, farmers was hold, as well as
for this method is
2008). completed household
that people
from June to characteristics
experience food
August 2011. (type of
insecurity in
Case study Teams of two housing,
predictable ways
population interviewers ownership,
and these can be
able to speak etc.),
captured by
Inclusion criteria the local household
responses to
for participation in language were assets
specific questions.
the case study hired and
Scientific
were smallholder trained to
literature and
shrimp farmers in administer a
consultation with
Sri Lanka, defined structured
local experts
as a farm containing questionnaire.
guided
five or fewer ponds, The
development of
where the farmer questionnaire
sustain- ability
was actively was developed
indices specific to
working on the to obtain self-
the shrimp farming
farm and no reported
industry in Sri
delegation of information on
Lanka. The
decision-making (1)
framework was
was given to a demographic
adapted from the
manager or any and
Sustainability
other person. A socioeconomic
Assessment of
total of 165 farms status, (2)
Farming and
 Shrimp farming in Sri Lanka 277

Environment (SAFE) model network of information Muslim. For ponds,

(Van Cauwenbergh et al., exchange was based on education, 62 monitoring
2007) that utilizes the con- social network meth- per cent of for dis-
cept of the three pillars of ods (Scott, 2013), shrimp ease and
sustainability: social, where the network farmers in the guarding
economic and ecological refers to connections NWP had a the ponds
factors. These pillars, along that farmers use to high school or overnight.
with the industry specific exchange infor- mation greater A large
shrimp health factors, form about shrimp farming, education proportion
four sub-indices. The social hereafter referred to as while 49 per of women
pillar included variables the information cent of shrimp in the EP
related to interactions with network (IN). To farmers in the (71 per
other farmers and workers. obtain information on EP had the cent) were
The economic pillar this network, farmers equivalent. not
referred to variables such as were asked to name There was a involved in
the costs of farming and contacts that farmers larger shrimp
sales. The ecological pillar may use or have used proportion of farming at
related to envi- ronmental for the purpose of shrimp farmers all, in
factors such as water use information-seeking and spouses compariso
and use of chemicals. regarding shrimp that had no n to
Shrimp health referred to farming practices. education in women in
disease in shrimp, farm Contacts were the EP the NWP
biosecurity and health enumerated from compared to (20 per
monitoring. Higher values questions in the struc- the NWP; cent) that
for the indices indicate tured survey and however, reported
greater sustainability. included community there was also they were
The study of the members a larger not
propor- tion of involved in
and farmers as well prov- ince
shrimp farmers shrimp
as government, showed
and spouses in farming.
industry and differences.
the EP that had Women in
academic experts. The median
completed the the EP
The total number age was higher
graduate were
of contacts is in the EP (46
certificate of involved in
termed degree and years)
educa- tion
the overall compared to
(GCE)
information net- the NWP (39
advanced level
work degree (IND) years). Shrimp
of education.
is the total count of farming
Men were
unique individuals households in
involved in all
identified by the NWP were
aspects of
farmers. mostly
shrimp
Sinhalese and
farming. This
Catholic, while
included daily
Results in the EP
feeding,
shrimp
harvesting
Demographic farmers were
shrimp,
information primarily
cleaning the
between each Moors and
 Shrimp farming in Sri Lanka 278

cleaning, while women in The median IND for appeared in shrimp

the NWP reported daily farmers was two in quite different farming
feeding, cleaning the pond both the NWP and the visually, with may have
and guarding the ponds as EP (NWP quartile 1 the Sinhalese important
tasks they performed on (Q1) = 1, quartile 3 network more implication
the farm. Household food (Q3) = 4; EP Q1 = 1, highly s for
security was high among Q3 = 3). The connected to promoting
shrimp farmers in both range of INDs in the experts at increased
provinces (Table 21.1). two provinces was NAQDA participati
Only a small proportion of similar (NWP 0–8, EP (National on of
shrimp produced on farms 0–9). A large Aquaculture women.
was consumed within the proportion of peo- ple Development While
household with 1 per cent that farmers sought Authority), having a
and 1.3 per cent of total information from were while the separate
shrimp yield retained for other farmers. Of the Moor and income
household consumption in 49 individuals Tamil may be
the identified by farmers in networks empowerin
NWP and EP, respectively. the EP, there were nine were more g, the extra
Farms in the NWP had people also named in highly work of
higher overall sus- the NWP. connected to activities
tainability scores than In the NWP, farmer other farmers. on the
farms in the EP despite the INDs differed by household
presence of disease. In the ethnic- ity. For the farm may
NWP, the mean Sinhalese, median 21.3 Concl be more of
sustainability score was network degree was 1 usions a burden.
59.7 (95 per cent CI: 58.5– (Q1 = 1, Q3 = 2), while The
60.9). In the EP, the mean the median net- work In Sri Lanka, increased
sustainability score was degree for Tamils was the shrimp time
54.3 (95 per cent CI: 52.3– 4 (Q1 = 1, Q3 = 5), farming required in
56.4). Mean index scores and for the Moors industry is maintainin
for the social, ecological, median network male- g a farm
and health pillars were degree was 5 (Q1 = 4, dominated. may only
significantly higher in the Q3 = 5). These There are be an addi-
NWP compared to the EP. differences were differences in tional
ethnic- ity and encumbra
Table 21.1 Household food insecurity religion of nce to
based on the HFIAS, by province farmers in the women
two provinces. who are
Food insecurity of North-Western This may already
the household Province (n = 157) indicate a responsibl
Severely food insecure 3.8% preference for e for
Moderately food insecure 1.9% some groups maintainin
Mildly food insecure 5.1% of people to g the
work in the household
Food secure 89.2%
industry. The and for
statistically three differences in childrearin
significant. ethnicities in women’s g activities
Networks for the the NWP involvement (Felsing et
 Shrimp farming in Sri Lanka 279

al., 2000). It should Household

Lanka. From the 2009– therefore, direct
also be recognized Income and
2010 data, the Puttalam comparisons
that there may be Expenditure
district (the district between these
sociocultural Surveys (HIES)
with shrimp farms in studies must be
challenges to from the
the NWP) had a range of interpreted with
overcome with Department of
29–47 per cent of the caution as different
regard to Census and
population considered dimensions of food
increasing Statistics in Sri
to be food insecure security are
women’s
(Mayadunne and assessed.
participation in
Romeshun, 2013). For Shrimp farms in
aquacul- ture and
the EP, due to serious the NWP appeared
shrimp farming.
concerns of food to be more
While some
insecurity post- war, the sustainable than
women may need
United Nations World the EP, despite
to work outside of
Food Programme has more problems
the home out of
taken a targeted interest with shrimp health.
economic
in ongoing food Disease has his-
necessity,
insecurity assessment. torically been a
households that
Data from 2011 for the limiting factor in
can afford to keep
Batticaloa district (the the short-term
women restricted to
district with shrimp survival of farms
household work
farms located in the EP) and therefore the
may consider
indicate approximately government and
themselves as
51 per cent food secure farmers have made
having a better
with 32 per cent moder- changes to
status (Williams et
ately food insecure and regulations and
al., 2002). Similarly,
17 per cent severely practices to
women who are
food insecure based on improve farm
faced with
Food Consumption sustainability
economic
Scores (WFP et al., (Weerakoon,
difficulties may go
2012). From this 2007). Therefore,
against culturally
research, shrimp disease in the
imposed
farming households in farms in the NWP
restrictions and
these same districts are may have
become involved in
more food secure stimulated adop-
a greater range of
compared to the general tion of more
activities in order
popu- lation in the same sustainable
to earn any form of
area. This may indicate practices in
income (Felsing et
that either shrimp comparison to the
al., 2000).
farming can lead to EP, which has yet
The majority of food security or that to experience
shrimp farmers more food secure disease. Farmers in
were found to be households are part of the EP may
food secure. The the shrimp farming consider adopting
closest comparable industry. The measures more sustainable
data for the NWP is of food insecurity from practices sooner
based on the these studies utilized than later as a pre-
National dif- ferent methods; emptive measure if
 Shrimp farming in Sri Lanka 280

disease becomes a problem sustainability and this outbreak were developme

for these farms. Farms in study provides useful desired, it nt of
the NWP also have room baseline sustainability would be most shrimp
for improvement in measures. efficient to farming
access highly has also
The network through limited
connected been
data indicates that pathways and
individuals to considered
farmers rely on sources among
spread this to be a
other farmers for pineapple
information. primary
information. The farmers
Feed input cause for
low con- nectivity (Conley and
suppliers may environme
between farmers Udry, 2001). A
be more ntal
may reflect a low number of
important in damage,
choice in keeping connections
the Sinhala- including
information to for
speaking water pol-
themselves, a lack information
network, while lution,
of availability of exchange may
influential salinizatio
time to cultivate not affect
farmers may n and the
multiple relation- farmers
be more loss of
ships, and a matter negatively.
important to mangroves
of convenience in Networks
inform in the
proximity of other appear to be
Tamil-
farmers, all factors separated by
speaking
seen in other farm- language.
network.
ing communities Sinhalese
Overall, the
(Bodin and Crona, farmers had
smallholder
2009; Mostert et greater
shrimp
al., 2007; Rist et al., connections to
farming
2007). These the NAQDA
industry is
factors may hinder and this may
male-
social learning; indicate a gap
dominated,
however, this in extension
with differing
cannot be fully for non-
ethnic and
validated from this Sinhala-
religious
study. Bandiera speaking
makeup in the
and Rasul (2006) shrimp
EP versus the
demonstrated that farmers. Tamil
NWP. Methods
adoption of and Moor
to involve
technology among farmers were
women in the
sunflower farm- also more
industry
ers in northern highly con-
would need to
Mozambique was nected to other
consider
positive with fewer farmers. If
cultural and
connections but information on
social norms
negative when the more
and
net- work was sustainable
preferences in
larger. Similarly in practices or
each region,
Ghana, information awareness of a
The
is still able to flow disease
 Shrimp farming in Sri Lanka 281

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