Problems

• E10.1 A pair of propellers is flying in tandem at a separation distance sufficient to eliminate mutual
interference, as shown schematically in Figure E10.1. The rear propeller is of a diameter that it just contains
the slipstream of the front propeller. If that from propeller has an efficiency of 90% and both propellers
provide equal thrust, calculate (a) the efficiency of the combined unit and (b) the efficiency of the rear
propeller.

Solution

V0
V0
(a) assume two actuator discs
velocity at the discs V1 and V2,
slipstream velocity Vs,1.

Figure E10.1 Two propellers flying at constant speed V0

and therefore fixed separation
 Vo
V1
The efficiency of the first propeller is

FV 9
1 = 1 0
=
FV
1 1 10
The velocity V1 at the first disc is the average

V1 = V0 = (V0 + Vs ,1 )
10 1
9 2
Solving
11
Vs ,1 = V0
9
The conservation of mass equation is

V1 A1 = V2 A2
 the thrust of each disc is the same the momentum conservation
equation applied to each disc yields

1 1 (Vs ,1 − V0 ) =  AV
F =  AV 1 1 (Vs ,2 − Vs ,1 )

This permits solving for the slipstream velocity of disc 2 as follows:

11 13
Vs ,2 = 2Vs ,1 − V0 = 2 V0 − V0 = V0
9 9
The efficiency of the combined unit is

2 FV0 2 2 2 9
= = = = =
FV1 + FV2 V1 V2 10 1  Vs ,1 Vs ,2  10 1  11 13  11
+ +  +  +  + 
V0 V0 9 2  V0 V0  9 2  9 9 

Therefore the combined unit efficiency is about 81.8%

 V0
Vo V0

• (b) Then the efficiency of the aft disc may be found, but it must be recalled that both propellers are flying at
the same speed V0, as indicated above. Then the efficiency is

2
V0 9
2 
=   =
V0 Vs ,1 11 3
2 = =
1
2
(Vs,1 + Vs,2 ) 1+
Vs ,2 13
V0
4
Vs ,1 1 + 9
11
V0
9
Conclusion: it is more efficient to have the propellers in parallel than in tandem,
for then the combined unit would have an efficiency of 90%. On the other hand,
the rear propeller in a tandem unit would have a smaller diameter than the forward
propeller, d2/d1=0.913.
• E13.1 An electrostatic thruster produces 0.5N thrust for 3 hours and
consumes a total of 0.5 kg using a power of 4kW.
• (a) Find the specific impulse Isp of the thruster,
• (b) find ’, the efficiency of the propulsive jet

Solution F 0.5 N
(a) The specific impulse is I sp = = = 1,101s
mg 0.5kg
3hr  3600 s hr
( 9.807 m s 2 )

(b) The efficiency of the propulsive jet is

1
1 FVe 1 0.5 N (1101s ) ( 9.807 m s )
mVe2 2
Pe 2
 = = = = = 0.675
P P 2 P 2 4000 N  m s
E11. LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKET MOTORS
• E11.1 An H2-O2 rocket engine is under development in an experimental facility and certain estimates of
performance and geometry must be made:
• (a) A combustion chamber and associated propellant feed system has been designed, built, and tested. During
the test program it was found that for a combustion chamber pressure of 20 atmospheres and an injection
temperature of 298.16K the H2-O2 reaction occurs stoichiometrically. Under these conditions calculate the
temperature in the combustion chamber.

Solution
1
(a) The stoichiometric reaction is H 2 + O2 → H 2O
2
All reactants → product species

Though chemically balanced, it is not at all clear that the reaction, as shown, can be in equilibrium at the given
chamber pressure of 20 atmospheres. However, let us assume that is the case as a start.
The general change in enthalpy of the species between injection
and complete reaction in an adiabatic process is
Qc − Qa =  bi H i (Tc ) −  ai H i (T j )
N N

i =1 i =1
For the reaction of current interest we may write this out as
E11. LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKET MOTORS
Qc − Qa =  bi H i (Tc ) −  ai H i (T j )
N N

i =1 i =1
For the reaction of current interest we may write this out as

2 
Qc − Qa = (1mol ) H O ( H c − H 298 ) H O − ( H ref − H 298 )  + H f , H 2O
2 H 2O  

− (1mole ) H ( H j − H 298 ) − ( H ref − H 298 )  + H f , H 2
2 H2 
1 

−  mole  ( H j − H 298 ) − ( H ref − H 298 )  + H f ,O2
2 O2 O2 =0
 The injection temperature Tj is given as being equal to the reference temperature, Tref = 298.16K,
making (Hj -H298)=(Href -H298)=0.
Furthermore, the heats of formation Hf of molecular hydrogen and oxygen are zero, so the change in
enthalpy is given by the first term alone in Equation
Using the tables in Appendix G we have

Qc − Qa = ( H c − H 298 )H O − 241.8kJ = 0
2

Therefore the adiabatic flame temperature is that temperature for which Equation (above) is satisfied,
such that (Hc-H298)H2O = 241.8kJ/mol and the enthalpy tables in Appendix G show the temperature to be Tc=4929K.
Hc-H298)H2O = 241.8kJ/mol

Appendix G show the temperature to be Tc=4929K.

 E11. LIQUID PROPELLANT ROCKET MOTORS

• (b) A rocket nozzle was fitted to the combustion chamber and the complete unit operated on a special test
stand. The nozzle exit plane was monitored and the pressure there was found to be equal to that of the ambient
atmosphere in the test chamber while the temperature was measured to be 1700K. Determine the specific
impulse of the engine under these conditions.

The one-dimensional adiabatic energy equation may be written as

Ve = 2 ( ht − he ) = 2 Wc−1 ( H c − H 298 ) − We−1 ( H e − H 298 ) 

Assuming that the stoichiometric reaction is satisfied and that only H2O is present in the chamber so that Tc=4929K and
further, that throughout the nozzle the composition does not change, then at the specified value of Te = 1700K the exit
velocity would be
( 241.8 kJ mol − 57.87 kJ mol ) (1000 kg  m2 s 2  kJ )
2
Ve =
0.018 kg mol
Ve = 4,520 m s

The specific impulse may be given as Isp=4,520m/s or Isp=Ve/g=461s.

(c) The static thrust of the rocket engine, as measured on the test stand, was found to be 100,000lbs. Calculate the
mass flow of propellant required and the diameter of the nozzle throat.

The measured thrust F = 100,000lbs = 444,800N and F = F = mVe

for a matched nozzle and therefore the mass flow is given by

m = F Ve = ( 444,800 N ) ( 4,520 m s ) = 98.41 kg s

The throat area is
m ( Ru Wc ) Tc
At =
pc 

Water at 4929K has Cp=60.93J/mol-K so that the quantity (gc -1)/gc= Ru/Cp,c=0.135 and
therefore we estimate that gc =1.16.
More accurate calculations, may indicate lower values, say, gc=1.125. However, the quantity  is not very sensitive to
the value of g. Using the approximate expression  =0.192g+0.417 with g=1.16 we find = 0.640 while for gc=1.125 the
quantity =0.633, difference of about 1.1%. Therefore we will use =0.640, Tc = 4929K, pc = 2.026MPa, and
• (c) The static thrust of the rocket engine, as measured on the test
stand, was found to be 100,000lbs. Calculate the mass flow of
propellant required and the diameter of the nozzle throat.

Ru 8.31451 kJ kmol  K
Rc = = 1000 kg  m 2 s 2  kJ = 461.9 m 2 s 2  K
Wc 18 kg kmol

Substituting these values into Equation (above) yields At = 0.1145m2.

The diameter of the throat is therefore dt = 0.38m
 • (d) The area ratio, exit-to-throat, of the nozzle on this engine was 84.66. Find the ambient pressure in the test
facility.

We find pe by using the mass flow and the specified area ratio:

m = e AeVe = e ( A A* ) A*Ve = e ( 84.66 ) ( 0.1145m2 ) ( 4,520 m s ) = 98.41 kg s

e

From this equation we find e=0.002246kg/m3 and substituting this into the state equation, noting that at
the exit We=18kg/kmol, we find

pe = e ( Ru We ) Te = ( 0.002246 kg m3 )( 461.9 m s 2  K ) (1,700K ) = 1.76kPa

This is a pressure of about 13.2mmHg which is readily achieved in a vacuum chamber. At Te=1700K the ratio of
specific heats is ge=1.2 and the exit Mach number is given by
 Ve 4520 m s
Me = = = 4.66
g e ( Ru We ) Te 1.2 ( 461.9 m s  K ) (1700 K )
2 2

The exit static pressure may be also be obtained from the isentropic relation
− g e ( g e −1)
 g −1 2 
= 2026 1 + 0.1( 4.662 )  = 1.99kPa
p −6
pe = pc e = 2026kPa 1 + e Me 
pc  2 
The value of the static pressure obtained using the isentropic relation (which is quite sensitive to g) with the estimated local
value at the exit of ge =(1-Ru/Cp,e)-1=1.2 is about 12% higher than the value obtained from the state equation which doesn’t
depend strongly on the value of g.
We may now check to see if the flow was in chemical equilibrium throughout the nozzle by checking if the entropy
remained constant. The entropy equation is 6
 X i ,c X i ,e 
( ) ( )
Ru Ru
 
i =1 
S i ,c − Ru ln X i ,c − ln pc − S i ,e − Ru ln X i ,e − ln pe = 0
W c Wc W e We 

The sum of the first two terms in Equation (above) is the chamber entropy and that of the last two terms is the
exit enthalpy. It is specified that Te=1700K but the pressure pe was calculated from the other information given.
We have all the information required by Equation (At= m….) and carrying out the calculation we find that the
entropy difference is not zero at Te=1700K, but instead at a temperature about 1740K, as indicated in Figure `
• E11.1, about 2.35% high. The entropy at the exit for Te=1700K is less than that in the combustion chamber
which is not physically acceptable although the difference is small.

• However, a more important difficulty appears when we examine more closely the applicability of our
assumptions. Equilibrium reaction of a stoichiometric mixture of H2 and O2 was the subject of Exercise E4.6
and the calculated mole fractions Xi are shown as in Figure E11.2 and the molar concentrations bi are listed in
Table E11.1.
 0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
Sc -Se
-0.02
(kJ/kg-K) -0.04
-0.06
-0.08 Te=1740K
-0.1
-0.12
1700 1710 1720 1730 1740 1750 1760 1770 1780 1790 1800
Te (K)

Figure E11.1 Entropy difference between the combustion chamber and the nozzle exit shown as a function
of exit temperature for the stoichiometric reaction
 1

0.8
H2O
0.6
Xi H
0.4
O
0.2

0
3000 3200 3400 3600 3800 4000 4200 4400 4600 4800 5000
T (K)

Figure E11.2 The equilibrium mole fractions Xi are shown as a

function of temperature for a stoichiometric mixture of
H2 and O2 at p=20atm
From the molar concentrations and the Tables in Appendix G for Hf,i0 and H(T)-H(298) one may
iterate to find that the temperature which satisfies Equation (E11.1) is approximately Tc=3500K.
From Figure E11.2 we see that even at 3000K the H2O comprises only about 85% of the total
number of moles produced by the reaction. Indeed, the H2O mole fraction decays almost linearly
with temperature until it only constitutes several percent of the total mixture at 5000K.
Carrying out an equilibrium flow calculation starting at Tc=3500K and ending the expansion at the specified temperature
Te=1700K shows that the flow would be isentropic only if the flow could expand to pe=0.58kPa, about one-third the
value computed from the mass flow calculation. Thus the area ratio is about one-third the required value and would have
to increase to about 250, like that of the Pratt & Whitney RL10-B which is rated at about 25,000lb thrust.

The problem, as stated, is over-determined because Te and pe were specified independently. An isentropic expansion
on a T-s plot goes straight down from Tc to a specified Te which lies on one particular pe=constant line. An adiabatic
expansion starting from the same point must have ds>0, so for it to end on the specified Te it could only do so on a
different constant pressure line where pe’< pe. On the other hand, if that adiabatic expansion were to end on a
specified constant pressure line pe it could only do so at a different temperature Te’>Te.