Linear and Vector Algebra. Analytic Geometry: K. M. Arkhypenko

K. M.
Arkhypenko
LINEAR AND VECTOR ALGEBRA.

ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
LECTURE NOTES ON THE SECTIONS OF THE COURSE
“HIGHER MATHEMATICS”
Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine
NATIONAL UNIVERSITY «ODESSA MARITIME ACADEMY»

ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
Odesa - 2020
UDC 51
Recommended by Scientific council of Electrical Engineering and Radio

Electronic Faculty as the lecture notes on the sections of the course “Higher
Maths” for Speciality “River and Sea Transport” from June, 22, 2020, protocol №
8
Reviewers: Popov V.G. – the head of Department of Higher Mathematics in

National University “Odesa Maritime Academy”,
doctor of the physical and mathematical sciences,
professor
Morozov Yu.O. – Ph.D., docent of Department of Higher Maths in
Odessa National Polytechnic University “Odesa
Maritime Academy”
Linear and Vector Algebra. Analytic Geometry: lecture notes for

studying the sections of the course “Higher Mathematics” / K.M. Arkhypenko
– Odesa: NU «OMA», 2020 – 150 p.
UDC 51
© National University «Odessa Maritime Academy», 2020

CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………………… 5
Chapter 1 Linear Algebra ………………………………………………………. 6
1.1. Matrices. Basic concepts …………………………………………………... 6
1.2. Special types of matrices …………………………………………………... 8
1.3. Matrix operations ………………………………………………………….. 9
1.4. Determinants of the 2nd and 3rd orders …………………………………….. 13
1.5. Expansion of determinants by a row or column …………………………... 16
1.6. Properties of determinants ………………………………………………… 18
1.7. Gaussian elimination ………………………………………………………. 20
1.8. Rank of a matrix …………………………………………………………… 25
1.9. Inverse matrix ……………………………………………………………… 26
1.10. Systems of linear equations (SLE) ……………………………………….. 27
1.11. Matrix form of SLE. Rouche-Capelli Theorem ………………………….. 29
1.12. Matrix solution of SLE. Cramer’s rule for SLE ………………………….. 30
1.13. Gaussian elimination for SLE …………………………………………….. 34
Chapter 2. Systems of Coordinate ……………………………………………… 43
2.1. Coordinate system on a line ……………………………………………….. 43
2.2. Rectangular coordinate system in a plane …………………………………. 44
2.3. Polar coordinates in 2-space ……………………………………………….. 46
2.4. Rectangular coordinate system in a space …………………………………. 48
2.5. Cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems ……………………………... 50
2.6. Transformations of rectangular coordinate system in 2-space …………….. 58
Chapter 3. Vector algebra ………………………………………………………. 62
3.1. Vectors in 2-Space, 3-Space ……………………………………………….. 62
3.2. Algebraic operations on vectors in 2- or 3-space ………………………….. 63
3.3. Vectors in coordinate systems ……………………………………………... 65
3.4. Vector in n-space …………………………………………………………... 67
3.5. Norm of vector ……………………………………………………………... 71
3.6. Unit vectors ……………………………………………………………….... 72
3
3.7. Standard unit vectors ………………………………………………………. 75
3.8. Partitioning segment in a given ratio ………………………………………. 76
3.9. Dot product ………………………………………………………………… 78
3.10. Application of the dot product ……………………………………………. 80
3.11. Cross product ……………………………………………………………... 83
3.12. Application of the cross product ………………………………………….. 86
3.13. Scalar triple product ………………………………………………………. 89
Chapter 4. Analytic geometry in two- and three-dimensional spaces ………….. 92
4.1. Equations of a surface and curve ………………………………………….. 92
4.2. General equation of a plane in 3-space …………………………………….. 93
4.3. Other equations of a plane in 3-space ……………………………………… 96
4.4. Angle between two planes …………………………………………………. 98
4.5. Distance from point to plane in 3-space …………………………………… 100
4.6. Line in 3-space …………………………………………………………….. 101
4.7. Line as intersection of two planes …………………………………………. 104
4.8. Angle between lines in 3-space ……………………………………………. 106
4.9. Distance from point to line in 3-space. Distance between two skew lines … 108
4.10. Angle between line and plane in 3-space …………………………………. 110
4.11. Line in 2-space ……………………………………………………………. 112
4.12. Angle between two lines in 2-space ………………………………………. 115
4.13. Distance from a point to a line in 2-space ………………………………… 117
Chapter 5. Curves and surfaces of the second degree …………………………... 119
5.1. Definition and general equation of conic sections …………………………. 119
5.2. Ellipse ………………………………………………………………………. 121
5.3. Hyperbola …………………………………………………………………... 126
5.4. Parabola …………………………………………………………………….. 130
5.5. Polar equation of conics ……………………………………………………. 133
5.6. Conversions of the second-degree equation in two variables ………...…….. 136
5.7. Quadratic surfaces ………………………………………………………….. 143
4
INTRODUCTION
These lecture notes are intended for cadets and students of NU “OMA” who
study the course of Higher Mathematics by the bachelor program in the subject area
“Sea and River Transport”.
This text provides the theoretical basics of the following parts of Higher
Mathematics: Linear Algebra, Coordinate systems in 2- and 3-spaces, Analytic
Geometry, and Conics. The text consists of 5 chapters divided on the sections. Most
of these sections have one or several examples that allow cadets or students to
understand the theory by themselves better. Therefore, this paper will be helpful for
cadets and students for their preparation both to lectures or practical lessons and to
tests on Higher Mathematics.
5
Chapter 1. Linear Algebra
Information in science, business and mathematics is often organized into rows
and columns to form rectangular arrays called “matrices”. Matrices often appear as
tables of numerical data that arise from physical or natural observations, but they
occur in various mathematical contexts as well. We begin studying matrices and
related topics that forms the part of Higher Mathematics called “Linear algebra”.
1.1. Matrices. Basic concepts

In this section, we will introduce the definition of matrix and some basic
concepts concerning matrices.
Def. A matrix is a rectangular array (table) of elements of the same type
arranged in horizontal rows and vertical columns.
The entries of a matrix are called elements. Matrices are denoted by capital
letters A, B, C,... ; the elements of a matrix are denoted by corresponding lowercase
letters aij , bij , cij ,...
The size of a matrix is described in terms of the number of rows and columns it
contains.
Let’s consider the matrices A and F:
2 3 0 x sin x
A ,F .
7 8 11 1 x cos x
How many rows and columns are there in the matrices A and F? There are 2 rows and
3 columns in the matrix A, and there are 2 rows and 2 columns in the matrix F. It is
said the size or order of the matrix A is 2 3 (read “two by three”). Accordingly, the
order of matrix F is 2 2 . By convention, the row index is always given before the
column index.
The elements of a matrix may be numbers (matrix A), functions (matrix F),
vectors or even other matrices. If the elements of matrix are numbers, the matrix is
called numeric; if the elements are functions, the matrix is called matrix-function.
Thus, A is a numeric matrix and F – a matrix-function. In further consideration, we’ll
6
deal mainly with numeric matrices, but all the operations and properties would be
regarded to the matrices of any types.
Two subscripts are attached to each element of a matrix to identify its location in
a matrix; the first subscript specifies the row position and the second – the column
position. Thus, a13 denotes the element in the first row and the third column of a
matrix A. In our case a13 equals to 0, and a22 8 . For instance, the element f 21
equals 1 x .
In general, a matrix A of order n m has a form
a11 a12 a13 a1m
a21 a22 a23 a2 m
A a31 a32 a33 a3m ,
an1 an 2 an3 anm
which is often abbreviated to A aij or just aij , where aij denotes an element
n m
in the ith row and jth column.

Any element having its row and column indexes equal is a diagonal element.
For instance, the elements a11 , a22 ,..., akk ( k min(n, m) ) of matrix A are its diagonal
elements.
A row vector u is a matrix having a single row; a column vector v is a matrix
having a single column. The elements of such a matrix are commonly called its
components, and the number of components its dimension. For example, v is a 3-
dimensional column vector and u is a 4-dimensional row vector:
5
x 2 ,u 7 t2 0 t 3t .
1
Next definition answers the question: when are two matrices equal?
Def. Two matrices A [aij ] and B [bij ] are equal if they have the same order
(say n m ) and their corresponding elements are equal, that is:

A B A, B same size n m and aij bij , i 1, n, j 1, m .
7
Here and further we often use the following abbreviation:
i 1, n i 1,2,..., n ;
meaning that symbol i can be any integer from 1 to n including.
5x 2 y 7
It should be noted that the matrix equality is equivalent to the
x y 1
5x 2 y 7
system of equations .
x y 1
1.2. Special types of matrices

In this section, we will give the definitions and, in some cases, the notations for
some types of matrices, which often occur in Linear Algebra and its application.
Def. A matrix is square if it has the same numbers of rows and columns.
In general, a square matrix has a form
a11 a12 a13 a1n
a21 a22 a23 a2 n
A a31 a32 a33 a3n ,
an1 an 2 an 3 ann
with the diagonal elements a11 , a22 , , ann forming a main or principal diagonal. To
define the order of a square matrix should specify only one number (a quantity of
rows or columns). Thus, we say that A is a square matrix of nth order or n-square
matrix.
Def. A zero matrix, denoted by O (or N ) , is a matrix consisting of only zero
elements.
0 0
Thus, O 0 0 is a 3 2 zero matrix.
0 0
For the remainder of this section, we restrict ourselves to only square matrices.
Def. A diagonal matrix is a square matrix having only zeros as non-diagonal
elements.
8
In general, a diagonal matrix has a form:
d11 0 0
0 d 22 0
D .
0 0 d nn
2 0 0
1 0
Thus, B ,C 0 0 0 are both diagonal matrices of size 2 2 and 3 3 ,
0 5
0 0 1
respectively. A square zero matrix is a special diagonal matrix having all its elements
equal to zero.
Def. An identity matrix, denoted by I, is a diagonal matrix having all its
diagonal elements equal to 1.
1 0 0
For instance, I 0 1 0 is the identity matrix of 3rd order.
0 0 1
Def. A matrix A aij is an upper triangular matrix if aij 0 for i j ; that is,
all elements below the main diagonal are zero.

Def. If aij 0 for i j , that is, all elements above the main diagonal are zero,
then A is lower triangular.

1 3 9
For example, the matrix U 0 7 2 is upper triangular and the matrix
0 0 5
4 0 0
L 0 1 0 is lower triangular.
2 8 6
1.3. Matrix operations

In this section, we will develop an “arithmetic of matrices” in which matrices
can be added, subtracted, and multiplied in a useful way. Thus, this section will be
9
devoted to developing this arithmetic and one matrix operation is called a
“transposition of a matrix”.
a) Transpose
The transposition of a matrix is a useful tool for dealing with matrices and will
be use in the following studying of Linear Algebra.
Let A be any n m matrix, then we can give the next definition.
Def. The transpose of a matrix A , written AT , is a matrix obtained by writing
the columns of A , in order, as rows.
For instance, if A is the given matrix, then AT is the transpose of this matrix:
3 1
3 2 0
A AT 2 5 .
1 5 9
0 9
T
You could verify yourself the next assertion: AT A.
b) Addition and subtraction

Our next goal is to introduce the simple arithmetic operation over matrices such
as addition and subtraction.
Def. If A and B are matrices of the same size n m , then the sum A B C is
also the n m matrix C obtained by adding the elements of B to the corresponding
elements of A, and the difference A B C is the n m matrix C obtained by
subtracting the element of B from the corresponding elements of A, that is:
A B C aij bij cij , i 1, n, j 1, m . (1.1)
Remark. It should be noted than the matrices of different sizes can’t be added or
subtracted.
Properties.
Consider any matrices A, B, C and zero matrix O with the same order. The next
properties hold:
1. A B B A (commutative law )
2. A B C A B C (associative law)
3. A 0 A
10
T
4. A B AT BT
3 2 6 8
Example 1. Add the matrices A 1 5 and B 9 4 .
7 0 5 3
Solution.
As the matrices have the same size, so the sum of these matrices exists and
equals:
3 2 6 8 3 6 2 8 3 6
A B 1 5 9 4 1 9 5 4 10 1
7 0 5 3 7 5 0 3 12 3
c) Scalar multiplication
In this part of section, we will define a multiplication of a matrix by a scalar.
Def. The product of a matrix A aij by a scalar k , written kA , is a matrix

n m
obtained by multiplying each element of A by k , that is:

ka11 ka12 ka1m
ka21 ka22 ka2 m
A aij kA . (1.2)
n m
kan1 kan 2 kanm
A matrix A 1 A is called the negative of a matrix A . Using a negative

matrix, we can express a difference of two matrices as a sum of the first matrix and
the negative of the second matrix, that is A B A B . Thus, we need not to
consider the subtraction of matrices as a separate matrix operation, because we can
replace it by two matrix operations such as addition of matrices and multiplication a
matrix by a scalar.
The expression k1 A k2 B , where k1 , k2 – any numbers, is called the linear
combination of two matrices A, B . By analogy, you can write the linear combination
of any finite number of matrices.
Properties.
If the matrices A and B have the same size and k , l are scalars, then it can be
11
proved the following properties.
1. 1 A A 4. k l A kA lA
2. A A 0 5. k lA kl A
3. k A B kA kB
Example 2. Find the linear combination 2 A 3B , where the matrices A, B are

given in Example 1.
Solution.
According to Formula (1.2), we get:
3 2 2 3 2 2 6 4
2A 2 1 5 2 1 2 5 2 10
7 0 2 7 2 0 14 0
and
6 8 3 6 3 8 18 24
3B 3 9 4 3 9 3 4 27 12
5 3 3 5 3 3 15 9
Using Formula (1.1), we receive the answer:

6 4 18 24 24 28
2 A 3B 2 10 27 12 25 22
14 0 15 9 1 9
d) Matrix multiplication
The matrix operations considered above are not difficult and similar to the same
arithmetic operations over numbers, but the matrix multiplication is more
complicated.
Def. If A is an n m matrix and B is an m p matrix, then the product AB is
the n p matrix C . Each element cij of matrix C is obtained by multiplying the
elements in the i-th row of matrix A by the corresponding elements in j-th column of
matrix B and adding the results. That is,
m
A aij ,B bij AB C , C cij , cij ai1b1 j aimbmj aik bkj (1.3)
n m m p n p
k 1
12
Remark 1. The multiplication AB of two matrices is defined only if the number
of columns of A equals to the number of rows of B.
Example 3. Obtain the multiplication of two matrices:
4 1 6
3 1 7
A ; B 9 2 3 .
2 0 5
6 5 8
Solution.
To find the first element in the first row of the product AB we multiply each
element of the first row of A by the corresponding element of the first column of
matrix B and sum the results. To find the second element in the first row of AB we
multiply each element of the first row of A by the corresponding element of the
second row of matrix B and sum the results and so on for each column of B . To
form the second row of AB we should do the same operation with the second row of
matrix A and each column of B :
4 1 6
3 1 7
AB 9 2 3
2 0 5
6 5 8
3 4 1 9 7 6 31 1 2 7 5 3 6 1 3 7 8
2 4 0 9 5 6 2 1 0 2 5 5 2 6 0 3 5 8
45 34 41
22 27 52
Multiplication BA is undefined.
This example shows that commonly the matrix multiplication does not satisfy
the commutative law. Thus, we should note the following statement.
Remark 2. In general, the product of two matrices isn’t commutative AB BA .
Nevertheless, there are matrices for which the commutative law holds.
Therefore, we have the next definition.
Def. If for matrices A and B the equality AB BA holds, then matrices A, B
are called commutative.
However, the matrix multiplication retains some important properties of number
13
multiplication.
Properties.
If the matrices A, B, C , the identity matrix I , and the zero matrix O have the
appropriate orders so that the following additions and multiplications are defined,
then the next properties hold.
1. A BC AB C associative law for matrix multiplication
2. A B C AB BC left distibutive law
3. B C A BA CA right distibutive law
T
4. AB BT AT
5. I A A; A I A
6. A O O; O A O
1.4. Determinants of the 2nd and the 3rd orders

In the previous section we dealt with the matrices as tables of number, but in this
section we will consider the rule how we can assign a single number to a square
numeric matrix.
Def. By the defined rule each n-square matrix A is assigned a special scalar
called determinant of A , denoted by det A or A .
a11 a12 a13 a1n

a21 a22 a23 a2 n
det A A a31 a32 a33 a3n (1.4)
an1 an 2 an 3 ann
The general rule to obtain the determinant of any order is very complicated.
Therefore, we concern in a special case of determinants of orders 1, 2 and 3. In the
following sections, we will explain how to find a determinant of arbitrary order.
Determinants of orders 1 and 2 are defined as follows:
a11 a12
a11 a11 and a11a22 a12a21 . (1.5)
a21 a22
Thus, the determinant of a 1 1 matrix A a11 is a scalar a11 . The determinant of

14
the 2nd order may easily be remembered by using the following diagram:
That is, the determinant of order 2 is the product of its diagonal terms (elements)
minus the product of its off-diagonal terms.
3 4
Example 1. Find the second-order determinant .
5 6
Solution.
According to Formula (1.5), we get
3 4
3 6 5 4 18 20 2
5 6
The determinant of the 3rd order is defined as follows:
a11 a12 a13
a21 a22 a23 a11a22 a33 a12 a23a31 a13a21a32 a13a22 a31 a11a23a32 a12 a21a33 (1.6)
a31 a32 a33
Observe that the formula (1.6) has the six products, and each of the products consists
of three elements of the original matrix. Moreover, the determinant of order 4 is the
sum of 4! 24 products, consisting of four elements, and so on. Therefore, we will
not consider the general formula for the determinant of order4 or higher.
The determinant of the 3rd order may easily be remembered by using the Sarrus’
rule: repeating the first two columns of the determinant on the right, the expansion
may be written down by taking the sum of the products formed by the elements on
each of the six diagonals, as shown at the scheme below; products taken downwards
are positive and products taken upwards are negative.
15
3 1 0
Example 2. Find the determinant 2 4 3 .
5 4 2
Solution.
Using the Sarrus’ rule yields:
3 4 2 13 5 0 2 4 0 4 5 3 3 4
1 2 2 24 15 0 0 36 4 1
1.5. Expansion of determinants by a row or column

In this section, we will introduce the approach, by which a determinant of an n-
square matrix can be obtained.
Let’s consider an n-square matrix A aij . Let M ij denote the n 1 -square
n n
submatrix of A obtained by deleting its ith row and jth column.
Def. The determinant M ij is called a minor of the element aij of A, and the
i j
cofactor of aij , denoted by Cij , is the corresponding minor multiplied by 1 (read
“(-1) to the power of i j ”), that is:

i j
Cij 1 M ij .
For n-order determinants the following theorem holds.

Theorem (Laplace)
The determinant of an n-square matrix A equals to the sum of the products
obtaining by multiplying the elements of any row (column) by the corresponding
cofactors:
n
A ai1Ci1 ai 2Ci 2 ... ainCin aik Cik , (1.7)
k 1
n
A a1 jC1 j a2 jC2 j ... anjCnj akjCkj . (1.8)
k 1
16
The above formulas for A are called the Laplace expansion of a determinant of
A by the ith row (1.7) and jth column (1.8). These formulas offer one of the method
to obtain a determinant of any order. And they are more convenient for the
determinants of order 3 and 4. For instance, to obtain the determinant of the fifth
order we need, in general, to obtain 5 cofactors, each of them is the determinant of
the fourth order, which is evaluated, in general, by obtaining 4 determinants of the
third order. Thus, we need to find 20 determinants of the third order. This procedure
is very complicated and it needs a lot of calculating.
Corollary. If the entries in any row multiply by the corresponding cofactors
from a different row, the sum of these products is always zero. This result also holds
for columns.
3 1 0
Example 1. Find the determinant 2 4 3 by cofactor expansion by the
5 4 2
third column.
Solution.
Applying Formula (1.8) for the third column ( j 3 ) yields:
3 1 0
2 4 3 0 C13 3 C23 2 C33 3 7 2 10 21 20 1
5 4 2
Since the first product does not depend on the cofactor C13 and equals zero, therefore
we need to obtain only the cofactors C23 , C33 .
2 3 3 1
C23 1 M 23 12 5 7,
5 4
3 3 3 1
C33 1 M 33 12 2 10 .
2 4
We have received the same result as in the previous section. Hence, the value of
determinant does not depend on the method of its obtaining.
17
3 2 0 4
1 2 3 5
Example 2. Find the determinant of the 4th order using the
3 1 1 8
2 0 6 0
expansion by a row or column.

Solution.
As you could see in the previous example, if a row or column, which is used in
the expansion of a determinant, contains zeros, then we need not to find cofactors to
these zero elements. Thus, to simplify our calculation it is convenient to choose a row
or column with the most numbers of zero elements.
For the given determinant it should be chosen the forth row, because it has two
zero elements. Applying Formula (1.7) with i 4 yields:
3 2 0 4
1 2 3 5
2 C41 0 C42 ( 6) C43 0 C44 2 ( 42) ( 6) ( 107) 558 ,
3 1 1 8
2 0 6 0
where
2 0 4
4 1
C41 1 2 3 5 48 0 8 12 0 10 42 ,
1 1 8
3 2 4
4 3
C43 1 1 2 5 48 30 4 24 16 15 107 .
3 1 8
1.6. Properties of determinants

Before we will learn more convenient method of obtaining determinants of any
order, let’s consider the properties of determinants.
Now we list the basic properties of determinants, which we take without proof.
Properties.
1. The value of a determinant is unaltered if the columns and rows are
18
interchanged (transposed), that is A AT .
a11 a12 a13 a11 a21 a31

a21 a22 a23 a12 a22 a32
a31 a32 a33 a13 a23 a33
Remark. Since interchanging rows and columns does not affect the value of a
determinant, any property stated below for ‘rows’ also holds for ‘columns’. This will
not again be mentioned explicitly.
2. If two rows of the determinant are interchanged, the absolute value of the
determinant is unaltered, but its sign is changed, that is B A.
a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13

a21 a22 a23 a31 a32 a33 (rows 2 and 3 are interchanged)
a31 a32 a33 a21 a22 a23
3. If all the elements of one row of the determinant are multiplied by a scalar k ,
then the new determinant is equal to k multiplied by the value of the original
determinant, that is
ka11 ka12 ka13 a11 a12 a13
a21 a22 a23 k a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33
4. If a matrix A has a row of zeros, then its determinant equals to zero.
a11 a12 a13
a21 a22 a23 0
0 0 0
5. If a matrix A has two proportional rows, then its determinant equals to zero.
a11 a12 a13
a21 a22 a23 0 (row 1 and 3 are proportional)
ka11 ka12 ka13
6. The determinant is equal to zero if and only if one of its row is a linear
combination of the other rows.
19
1 2 3
For instance, 0 4 1 0 , because the third row is a linear combination of the
2 8 7
first two rows, namely r3 2r1 r2 .

7. The value of a determinant is not altered by adding to the corresponding
elements of any row the multiples of the elements of any other row.
a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13
a21 a22 a23 a21 a22 a23 ( k 2nd row is added to 3rd row)
a31 a32 a33 a31 ka21 a32 ka22 a33 ka23
8) If each element of any row is expressed as a sum of two numbers, the
determinant can be expressed as the sum of two determinants whose remaining rows
are unaltered.
a11 b11 a12 b12 a13 b13 a11 a12 a13 b11 b12 b13
a21 a22 a23 a21 a22 a23 a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33
9. If the elements of any row are multiplied in order by the cofactors of the
corresponding elements of another row, the sum of these products is zero.
ai1Ck1 ai 2Ck 2 ... ainCkn 0 for i k.
10. The determinant of a triangular or diagonal matrix is equal to the product of
their diagonal elements, that is
a11 a12 a13 a1n
0 a22 a23 a2 n
0 0 a33 a3n a11a22 a33 ann .
0 0 0 ann
These properties can be used to determinants of any order.
1.7. Gaussian elimination

In this section, we will consider, perhaps, the most useful tool of linear algebra,
which is called Gaussian elimination. This method is used as to calculate the
20
determinants or the rank of a matrix and so to solve a system of simultaneous linear
equations.
In the beginning, we should define special types of matrices.
Def. A matrix is said to be in reduced row echelon form if it has the following
properties:
1. If a row does not consist entirely of zeros, then the first nonzero number in the
row is a 1. We call this a leading 1.
2. If there are any rows that consist entirely of zeros, then they are grouped
together at the bottom of the matrix.
3. In any two successive rows that do not consist entirely of zeros, the leading 1
in the lower row occurs farther to the right than the leading 1 in the higher row.
4. Each column that contains a leading 1 has zeros everywhere else in that
column.
Def. A matrix that has the first three properties is said to be in row echelon
form.
Thus, a matrix in reduced row echelon form is of necessity in row echelon form,
but not conversely.
The following matrices are in the reduced row echelon form:
0 1 2 0 1
1 0 0 4 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 3 0 0
0 1 0 7 , 0 1 0 , , .
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0
The following matrices are in row echelon form but not reduced row echelon form:
1 4 3 7 1 1 0 0 1 2 6 0
0 1 6 2 , 0 1 0 , 0 0 1 1 0 .
0 0 1 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
The following operation:
1) interchange two rows;
2) multiply a row through by a nonzero constant;
3) add a scalar times one row to another;
21
are called elementary row operations on a matrix.
If using the elementary row operations a matrix A is transformed to a matrix B ,
then such matrices A, B are called row equivalent and denoted by A ~ B . It can be
showed that row equivalence is an equivalent operation. Thus, the following
properties hold.
Properties.
1. A ~ A for any matrix A .
2. If A ~ B , then B ~ A .
3. If A ~ B and B ~ C , then A ~ C .
The transformation of any matrix into equivalent matrix in row echelon form is
called Gaussian elimination. The transformation into equivalent matrix in reduced
row echelon form is called Gauss-Jordan elimination.
It should be mentioned that elementary row operations is allowed to transform a
matrix of any determinant to an upper or lower triangular matrix. Hence, any
determinant can be found by using the elementary row operations and applying the
determinant’s properties, as you will see in one of the examples.
Let’s consider the Gaussian elimination on the following examples.
Example 1. Transform the given matrix into equivalent matrix in (reduced) row
echelon form.
1 2 0 4 5
3 7 2 0 1
.
2 5 2 4 6
4 9 2 4 4
Solution.
Using the elementary row operation the given matrix will be transformed into
the equivalent matrix in row echelon form:
1 2 0 4 5 1 1 2 0 4 5 3 2 4
3 7 2 0 1 3 7 2 0 1
~ ~
2 5 2 4 6 2 5 2 4 6
4 9 2 4 4 4 9 2 4 4
22
1 2 0 4 5 1 2 0 4 5
0 1 2 12 16 1 0 1 2 12 16 1
~ ~ ~
0 1 2 12 16 0 1 2 12 16
0 1 2 12 16 0 1 2 12 16
1 2 0 4 5
0 1 2 12 16
~
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
The last matrix is in row echelon form. To transform it in reduced row echelon
form we should receive zero above leading 1 in the second column:
1 2 0 4 5 1 0 4 28 37
0 1 2 12 16 2 0 1 2 12 16
~ .
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
The last matrix is in reduced row echelon form.

3 2 0 4
1 2 3 5
Example 2. Find the determinant of the 4th order .
3 1 1 8
2 0 6 0
Solution.
To simplify the further calculating we interchange the first and the second rows
in the determinant. According to the property 2 Section 1.6 we need to change the
sign of the given determinant:
3 2 0 4 1 2 3 5 *( 3) *3 *( 2)
interchange
1 2 3 5 3 2 0 4
3 1 1 8 3 1 1 8
2 0 6 0 2 0 6 0
Our next goal is to receive zeros below the diagonal element in the first column.
To achieve it, according to the property 7 Section 1.6, we add the results of
multiplying the first row by the appropriate number to other rows, as you can see
above. So, we get:
23
1 2 3 5
0 8 9 11
0 7 10 23
0 4 0 10
In the same, way we need to receive zeros below the diagonal elements in the
second column. Firstly, according to the property 3 Section 1.6, let’s write the
multiplier 8 before the determinant as the common factor to the elements in the
second row. It simplifies the further computation. Then after getting zeros below the
diagonal element in the second column we receive
1 2 3 5 1 2 3 5
0 1 9 / 8 11 / 8 *( 7) *4 0 1 9 / 8 11 / 8
8 8
0 7 10 23 0 0 17 / 8 107 / 8
0 4 0 10 0 0 9/2 9/2
By analogy with the foregoing consideration, before the determinant we write

the multiplier 17 / 8 as the common factor to the elements in the third row and
receive zeros below the diagonal element in the third column:
1 2 3 5 1 2 3 5
17 0 1 9/8 11 / 8 0 1 9/8 11 / 8
8 17
8 0 0 1 107 / 17 *(9 / 2) 0 0 1 107 / 17
0 0 9/2 9/2 0 0 0 558 / 17
The matrix of the last determinant is upper triangular, so this determinant is

equal to the product of its diagonal elements (see property 10 Section 1.6). Thus, we
get
558
17 1 1 1 558
17
In conclusion, it should be noticed that we receive the same result as in Example
2 into Section 1.5, where the expansion by a row was used to the given determinant.
Hence, for the determinants you can apply the both methods, but for the higher then
the forth order determinants the last method is more convenient.
24
1.8. Rank of a matrix
Let’s consider an n m rectangular matrix A. From this matrix a square
submatrix M, that is called a minor of matrix, can be formed by deleting some of its
rows and columns.
Def. The rank of a matrix A aij , denoted by r A or rank A , is defined

n m
by the order of the largest minor of A , which determinant is not equal to zero.
Obviously, the rank of a matrix A aij satisfies the inequality:

n m
0 r A min n, m , (1.9)
and only the rank of the zero matrix equals zero.
The rank of a matrix has the following properties.
Properties.
1. The ranks of a matrix A and matrix transposed to it are equal, that is
r A r AT .
2. The elementary row operations do not alter the rank of a matrix.

3. The rank of any matrix is equal the quantity of the leading 1 into the
equivalent matrix in the row echelon form.
In some books, the last property is taken as a definition of the rank of a matrix.
Example. Evaluate the rank of the matrix:
1 2 0 4 5
3 7 2 0 1
A
2 5 2 4 6
4 9 2 4 4
Solution.
Using the elementary row operations, that do not change the rank of a matrix,
the given matrix can be transformed into the equivalent matrix in row echelon form
(see the example in the previous section):
25
1 2 0 4 5 1 2 0 4 5
3 7 2 0 1 0 1 2 12 16
~ ... ~
2 5 2 4 6 0 0 0 0 0
4 9 2 4 4 0 0 0 0 0
The quantity of the leading 1 in the last matrix is equal to 2. According to the third
property Section 1.6, the rank of the matrix A is also equal to 2, that is r A 2.
1.9. Inverse matrix

1
In real arithmetic every nonzero number a has a reciprocal a 1 / a with the
1 1 1
property a a a a 1. The number a is also called the multiplicative inverse
of a . Our objective is to develop an analog of this result for matrix multiplication.
For this purpose, we make the following definition.
Def. If A is a square matrix, and if a matrix B of the same size can be found
such that
AB BA I , (1.10)
then A is said to be invertible (or nonsingular) and B is called an inverse of A . If
no such matrix B can be found, then A is said to be singular.
Remark. The relationship (1.10) is not changed by interchanging A and B , so if
A is invertible and B is an inverse of A , then it is also true that B is invertible, and
A is an inverse of B . Thus, when relation (1.10) holds, we say that A and B are
inverses of one another.
It is reasonable to ask whether an invertible matrix can have more than one
inverse. The next theorem shows that the answer is no – an invertible matrix has
exactly one inverse.
Theorem 1.
If B and C are both inverses of the matrix A , then B C .
As a consequence of this important result, we can now speak of “the inverse” of
an invertible matrix. If A is invertible, then its inverse will be denoted by the symbol
A 1 . Thus, A A 1 A 1 A I . The inverse of A plays the same role in matrix
26
arithmetic that the reciprocal a 1 plays in the numerical multiplication.
Def. If A is any n-square matrix and Cij is the cofactor of aij , then the matrix
C11 C21 Cn1

C12 C22 Cn 2
adj A (1.11)
C1n C2 n Cnn
is called the adjoint matrix of A and is denoted by adj A .
The next two theorems give the condition of existence and the formula for the
inverse matrix.
Theorem 2.
The square matrix is invertible if and only if its determinant is nonzero
det A 0.
Theorem 3.
1 1
If matrix A is invertible, then A adj A .
det A
At the end of this section, we list the basic properties of the inverse matrix.
Properties.
1 1 1 T 1
1. A A 3. A AT
1 1
2. det A 1
4. AB B 1A 1
det A
1.10. Systems of linear equations (SLE)

Systems of linear equations and their solutions constitute one of the major topics
that refers to linear algebra. In this section, we will introduce some basic terminology
for such systems.
Def. A linear equation in the n variables x1 , x2 ,..., xn is called an expression in
the form:
a1 x1 a2 x2 ... an xn b,
27
where a1 , a2 ,..., an and b are constants, and the a’s are not all zero.
Def. A finite set of linear equations is called a system of linear equations (SLE)
or, more briefly, a linear system. The variables x1 , x2 ,..., xn are called unknowns or
variables.
In the general case, the linear system of m equations in the n unknowns
x1 , x2 ,..., xn can be written as:
a11 x1 a12 x2 ... a1n xn b1 ,

a21 x1 a22 x2 ... a2 n xn b2 ,
(1.12)
...
am1 x1 am 2 x2 ... amn xn bm .
In system (1.12) the number aij is called the coefficient of the variable x j in the jth
equation, the number bi is called the constant term of the jth equation.
The system (1.12) is also called the m n system. If n m , it is called the
square system. If all the constant terms are equal to zero ( b1 b2 ... bm 0 ), the
system
a11 x1 a12 x2 ... a1n xn 0,
a21 x1 a22 x2 ... a2 n xn 0,
(1.13)
...
am1 x1 am 2 x2 ... amn xn 0
is called a homogeneous linear system. Otherwise, the system (1.12) is called a

nonhomogeneous linear system.
Def. A solution of a linear system in n unknowns x1 , x2 ,..., xn is a sequence of n
numbers s1 , s2 ,..., sn for which the substitution x j s j , j 1, n makes each equation of
(1.12) a true statement.

In general, we say that a linear system is consistent if it has at least one solution
and inconsistent if it has no solutions. Every system of linear equations has zero, one,
or infinitely many solutions. There are no other possibilities.
Def. If a linear system has infinitely many solutions, then a set of parametric
equations from which all solutions can be obtained by assigning numerical values to
28
the parameters is called a general solution of a linear system.
It should be noted that any homogeneous linear system is always consistent
because all such systems have at least x j 0, j 1, n as a solution. This solution is
called a trivial solution; if there are other solutions, they are called nontrivial
solutions.
For instance, three linear systems, two of which are nonhomogeneous and the
last one is homogeneous, have different numbers of solutions.
x 2y z 1
3x 4 y z 1 has unique solution : x 1, y 0, z 2,
2 x y 5z 8
x y z 2
x 2 y 3z 5 has no solution ,
x 4 y z 10
x y 0 x t,
3y z 0 hasinfinitely manysolutions : y t , t R general solution .
3x z 0 z 3t ,
You can verify the solutions by substituting them in the corresponding system.
1.11. Matrix form of SLE. Rouche-Capelli Theorem

In this section, we will answer the questions: does the linear system have a
solution and how many solutions does the system have if it is consistent?
Let’s consider again the system (1.12) of m linear equations in n unknowns:
a11 x1 a12 x2 ... a1n xn b1 ,
a21 x1 a22 x2 ... a2 n xn b2 ,
(1.12)
...
am1 x1 am 2 x2 ... amn xn bm .
Such a system is associated with the following matrices:
29
a11 a12 a1n x1 b1 a11 a12 a1n b1
a21 a22 a2 n x2 b2 a21 a22 a2 n b2
A ,X ,b , Ab ,
am1 am 2 amn xn bm am1 am 2 amn bm
where A is called the matrix of coefficients or the coefficient matrix, X – the

column (vector) of unknowns, b – the column (vector) of constants, A b – the
augmented matrix. Using these matrices the system (1.12) can be written in the
matrix form:
A X b. (1.14)
The equation (1.14) is also called the matrix equation of the SLE (1.12).
The next theorem gives the condition when the system (1.12) is consistent, that
is, when the system (1.12) has at least one solution.
The Rouche-Capelli Theorem.
A system (1.12) of m linear equations in n unknowns has a solution if and only
if the rank of its coefficient matrix A is equal to the rank of its augmented matrix
A b , that is:
r A r Ab . (1.15)
To determine the number of solutions of the consistent system the following

corollary is useful.
Corollary. If the rank of an augmented matrix of consistent system (1.12) is
equal to the number of unknowns n , that is rank Ab n , then the system (1.12)
has an unique solution. Otherwise ( rank Ab n ), the system (1.12) has infinitely
many solutions.
1.12. Matrix solution of SLE. Cramer’s rule for SLE

The solution’s methods of the SLE considering in this section are applied to the
systems (1.12), which have a unique solution. According to the corollary of Rouche-
Capelli Theorem, such systems must have an augmented matrix, which rank is equal
30
to the number of unknowns. Hence, such systems must have as many equations as
unknowns and their coefficient matrices must be square.
Let’s consider a consistent linear system of n equations in n unknowns in the
general form:
a11 x1 a12 x2 ... a1n xn b1 ,
a21 x1 a22 x2 ... a2 n xn b2 ,
(1.16)
...
an1 x1 an 2 x2 ... ann xn bn ,
or in the matrix form:

A X b, (1.17)
where
a11 a12 a1n x1 b1
a21 a22 a2 n x2 b2
A ,X ,b .
an1 an 2 ann xn bn
Suppose the system (1.16) or (1.17) has a unique solution. Under this
assumption we receive that the rank of coefficient matrix A must be equal to the
number of unknowns, that is r ( A) n . According to the definition of the rank of a
matrix we have that the determinant of matrix A is nonzero:
det( A) 0 . (1.18)
From condition (1.18) we make the conclusion that the matrix A is invertible and has
the inverse matrix A 1 (see the theorems 2, 3 Section 1.9). Multiplying both sides of
the equation (1.17) by A 1 on the left, we obtain:
A1 A X A 1
b.
By the properties of the matrix multiplication and the inverse matrix
( A 1 AX A 1A X I X X ) we simplify the last equation to the form:
1
X A b. (1.19)
The relation (1.19) is given a matrix solution of SLE (1.15) or (1.16).
Using the formula for the inverse of an invertible matrix (see theorem 3
31
Section 1.9) and the Laplace expansions of a determinant, from the matrix solution
(1.19) one can prove the next theorem.
Theorem (Cramer’s rule)

If (1.16) is a system of n linear equations in n unknowns such that det( A) 0 ,
then the system has a unique solution. This solution is
det( A1 ) det( A2 ) det( An )
x1 , x2 ,..., xn , (1.20)
det( A) det( A) det( A)
where A j is a matrix obtained by replacing the entries in the j-th column of A by the
constant column b .
Example. Solve the linear system by: a) Cramer’s rule; b) the matrix method.
x 2y z 1
3x 4 y z 1
2 x y 5z 8
Solution.
a) Find the determinant of coefficient matrix:
1 2 1 1 2
det( A) 3 4 1 3 4 20 4 3 8 1 30 12 .
2 1 5 2 1
Since det A 12 0 , so by Cramer’s rule the system has a unique solution.
Therefore, we have to find the auxiliary determinants det Aj , j 1,2,3 :
1 2 1 1 2
det A1 1 4 1 1 4 20 16 1 32 1 10 12 ,
8 1 5 8 1
1 1 1 1 1
det A2 3 1 1 3 1 5 2 24 2 8 15 0 ,
2 8 5 2 8
32
1 2 1 1 2
det A3 3 4 1 3 4 32 4 3 8 1 48 24 .
2 1 8 2 1
Applying Formulas (1.20) gets:
det A1 12 det A2 0 det A3 24
x 1, y 0, z 2.
det A 12 det A 12 det A 12
b) There are three matrices, which correspond to the given system:
1 2 1 1
A 3 4 1 – the coefficient matrix, b 1 – the column of constants and
2 1 5 8
x
X y – the column of unknowns.
z
Since det A 12 0 , so according to Theorem 2 Section 1.9 the coefficient
matrix A has an inverse matrix A 1 . To construct A 1 we have to find the cofactors

to all elements of the matrix A (see the definition Section 1.5):
1 1 4 1 2 1 2 1
C11 1 20 1 19, C21 1 10 1 9,
1 5 1 5
3 1 2 1 1 2 3 1
C31 1 2 4 2, C12 1 15 2 13,
4 1 2 5
2 2 1 1 3 2 1 1
C22 1 5 2 3, C32 1 1 3 2,
2 5 3 1
1 3 3 4 2 3 1 2
C13 1 3 8 5, C23 1 1 4 3,
2 1 2 1
3 3 1 2
C33 1 4 6 2.
3 4
Using Theorem 3 Section 1.9 we get:
33
19 9 2
1 1
A 13 3 2 .
12
5 3 2
Applying Formula (1.19) yields:
19 9 2 1 19 1 9 1 2 8
1 1 1
X A b 13 3 2 1 13 1 3 1 2 8
12 12
5 3 2 8 5 1 3 1 2 8
12 1
1
0 0 ,
12
24 2
or x 1, y 0, z 2.
In conclusion, it should be mentioned that if a system is consistent, then the both
methods (Cramer’s rule and matrix method) give the same answer, as you can see in
the foregoing example.
1.13. Gaussian elimination for SLE

Now we know two methods to solve SLE if it has a unique solution. However,
these methods are not suitable for a linear system with a rectangular coefficient
matrix or square singular matrix. The method being considered in this section allows
to solve an arbitrary linear system without any conditions and restriction to its
application. This method is called Gaussian elimination. The modification of this
method is called Gauss-Jordan elimination.
Now we will give a step-by-step elimination procedure that can be used to
reduce any matrix to a reduced row echelon form. This procedure is based on the
elementary row operations (see Section 1.7), therefore at each step of the elimination
procedure we get an equivalent matrix to an origin matrix.
Step 1. Locate the leftmost column that does not consist entirely of zeros.
Step 2. Interchange the top row with another row, if necessary, to bring a
nonzero entry to the top of the column found in Step 1.
Step 3. If the entry that is now at the top of the column found in Step 1 is a ,
34
multiply the first row by 1/ a in order to introduce a leading 1.
Step 4. Add suitable multiples of the top row to the rows below so that all entries
below the leading 1 become zeros.
Step 5. Now cover the top row in the matrix and begin again with Step 1 applied
to the submatrix that remains. Continue in this way until the entire matrix is in row
echelon form.
Step 6. Beginning with the last nonzero row and working upward, add suitable
multiples of each row to the rows above to introduce zeros above the leading 1’s.
The procedure we have just described for transforming a matrix into reduced
row echelon form is called Gauss–Jordan elimination. This algorithm consists of
two parts, a forward phase in which zeros are introduced below the leading 1’s and a
backward phase in which zeros are introduced above the leading 1’s. If only the
forward phase is used, then the procedure produces a row echelon form and is called
Gaussian elimination. After applying the elimination procedure it should be solved
the system which corresponds to the equivalent augmented matrix in row echelon
form.
Let’s consider these method in the examples.
Example 1. Solve by Gaussian elimination the system
x 2y z 1
3x 4 y z 1
2 x y 5z 8
Solution.
According to the elimination procedure and using only first five steps of it we
will transform the augmented matrix of the given system into a matrix in row echelon
form.
Step 1. Locate the leftmost nonzero column of the augmented matrix:
1 2 1 1 *3 *( 2)
3 4 1 1 ~
2 1 5 8
the leftmost nonzero column
35
Step 2 and 3. As the top element of the chosen column is nonzero and equals 1,
we skip these steps. So, we have the leading 1 in the first column.
Step 4. Adding 3 times the first row to the second row and 2 times the first row
to the third row yields:
1 2 1 1
~ 0 2 2 4 ~
0 3 3 6
Step 5. Cover the first row in the matrix and begin again with Step 1 applied to
the submatrix that remains.
Step 1. Locate the leftmost nonzero column
1 2 1 1
~ 0 2 2 4 * 1/ 2 ~
0 3 3 6

Step 2. As the top element a22 of the chosen column is nonzero and equals 2
(remember that we cover the first row), we skip this step.
Step 3. Multiply the second row by 1 / 2 in order to introduce a leading 1
1 2 1 1
~ 0 1 1 2 * 3 ~
0 3 3 6
So, we have the leading 1 in the second column.

Step 4. Add 3 times the second row to the third row
1 2 1 1
~ 0 1 1 2
0 0 6 12
Step 5. Cover the first two rows in the received matrix and begin again with Step
1 applied to the submatrix that remains.
Step 1. Locate the leftmost nonzero column of the submatrix.
36
1 2 1 1
~ 0 1 1 2 ~
0 0 6 12 * 1 / 6

Step 2. As the top element of the chosen column a33 6 0 (remember that we
cover the first two rows), we skip this step.
Step 3. Multiply the third row by 1/ 6 in order to introduce a leading 1
1 2 1 1
~ 0 1 1 2 .
0 0 1 2
In such way, we transform the augmented matrix into the equivalent one in row
echelon form.
To solve the system we need to write the system, which corresponds the
augmented matrix in the row echelon form:
x 2y z 1
y z 2
z 2
The last equation of this system gives that z 2 , so from the equation above the last
one we can find the unknown y :
y 2 2 or y 0 .
As we know the unknowns x and y , so we can solve the first equation of the
foregoing system in x :
x 2 0 2 1 or x 1 .
Thus, we get the same solution as in the example of the previous section:
x 1, y 0, and z 2.
Example 2. Solve by Gaussian elimination the system
x y z 2
x 2 y 3z 5
x 4 y z 10
37
Solution.
The given system is associated with the following matrices:
1 2 1 x 2 1 2 1 2
A 1 2 3 ,X y ,b 5 , Ab 1 2 35 .
1 4 1 z 10 1 4 110
By analogy to the previous example, using Gaussian elimination the augmented

matrix A b of the given system is reduced to an equivalent matrix in row echelon
form, as follows:
1 1 1 2 *1 *( 1)
1 2 35 ~
1 4 110

Step 2 and 3. As the top element of the chosen column is nonzero and equals 1,
we skip these steps. So, we have the leading 1 in the first column.
Step 4. Adding the first row to the second row and subtracting the first row from
the third row yield:
1 1 1 2
~ 0 3 27 ~
0 3 28
Step 5. Cover the first row in the last matrix and begin again with Step 1 applied
to the submatrix that remains.
1 1 1 2
~ 0 3 2 7 *(1 / 3) ~
0 3 28

Step 2. As the top element of the chosen column (without considering the first
row) is nonzero and equals 3 , we skip this step.
38
Step 3. Multiply the second row by 1 / 3 in order to introduce a leading 1
1 1 1 2
~ 0 1 2 / 3 7 / 3 *( 3) ~
0 3 2 8
Step 4. Adding 3 times the second row to the third row yields:
1 1 1 2
~ 0 1 2/37
0 0 0 1
Since the received matrix is the equivalent augmented matrix in the row echelon
form, so the elimination procedure is finished.
To find the solution of the given system we need to write the system, which
corresponds the last equivalent augmented matrix
x y z 2
2
y z 7
3
0 1
Since in the third equation of this system we get the contradiction 0 1 , so the given
system has no solution. Hence, the given system is inconsistent.
Another way to show that a system is inconsistent is applying Rouche-Capelli
Theorem.
Recall that the elementary row operations, which are used in the elimination
procedure, don’t alter the rank of a matrix. As we have found the equivalent
augmented matrix in the row echelon form, that is
1 1 1 2
Ab ~ 0 1 2/37 ,
0 0 0 1
thus the ranks of the coefficient matrix A and the augmented matrix A b are equal
2 and 3 respectively: r A 2, r Ab 3 . Since these ranks are not equal
(r A 2 r Ab 3 ), therefore according to Rouche-Capelli Theorem the given
39
system is inconsistent.
Example 3. Solve by Gauss–Jordan elimination the system
2 x3 7 x5 12
2 x1 4 x2 10 x3 6 x4 12 x5 28
2 x1 4 x2 5 x3 6 x4 5 x5 1
Solution.
We can write down the augmented matrix for the given system and use the
elimination procedure to reduce it to the reduced row echelon form.
0 0 2 0 7 12
2 4 10 6 12 28 ~
2 4 5 6 5 1

Step 2. Interchange, for example, the rows 1 and 2 to bring the nonzero element
on the top of the column 1 chosen in Step 1.
2 4 10 6 12 28 *1 / 2
~ 0 0 2 0 7 12 ~
2 4 5 6 5 1
Step 3. Multiply the first row by 1/ 2 in order to introduce a leading 1

1 2 5 3 6 14 *( 2)
~ 0 0 2 0 7 12 ~
2 4 5 6 5 1
Step 4. Add 2 times the first row to the third row.

1 2 5 3 6 14
~ 0 0 2 0 7 12 ~
0 0 5 0 17 29
Step 5. Cover the top row in the matrix and begin again with Step 1 applied to
the submatrix that remains.
40
1 2 5 3 6 14 1 2 5 3 6 14
~ 0 0 2 0 7 12 * ( 1 / 2) ~~ 0 0 1 0 7 / 2 6 *( 5) ~
0 0 5 0 17 29 0 0 5 0 17 29
1 2 5 3 6 14 1 2 5 3 6 14
~ 0 0 1 0 7/2 6 ~ 0 0 1 0 7/2 6
0 0 0 0 1 / 2 1 *2 0 0 0 0 1 2
The entire matrix is now in the row echelon form. This procedure is called
Gaussian elimination. To find the reduced row echelon form we need to do the
additional step 6.
Step 6.
1 2 5 3 6 14 1 2 5 3 02
~ 0 0 1 0 7/2 6 ~ 0 0 1 0 0 1 *5 ~
0 0 0 0 1 2 *7 / 2 * ( 6) 0 0 0 0 12
1 2 0 3 07
~ 0 0 1 0 01
0 0 0 0 12
The whole procedure is called Gauss-Jordan elimination.

Now we write the linear system corresponding to the equivalent augmented
matrix in the reduced row echelon form:
x1 2 x2 3x4 7
x3 1
x5 2
The unknowns corresponding to the leading 1’s are called leading variables
( x1 , x3 , x5 ), the remaining unknowns – free variables ( x2 , x4 ). As the ranks of the
coefficient matrix and the augmented matrix are equal, so the system is consistent by
Rouche-Capelli Theorem. Even more the system has infinitely many solutions,
because the rank of the coefficient matrix is less the number n of unknowns, that is
r Ab 3 n 5 . To find a general solution we will express the leading variables
in the free variables.
41
x1 7 2 x2 3x4
x3 1
x5 2
The free variables can be treated as parameters and assigned arbitrary values t , r
respectively. Thus, the general solution can be expressed in the following form:
x1 7 2t 3r , x2 t , x3 1, x4 r , x5 2,
where t , r are any numbers.
42
Chapter 2. Systems of coordinate
In geometry, a coordinate system is a system that uses one or more numbers, or
coordinates, to determine uniquely the position of the points on a line, in a plane or in
a space. The order of the coordinates is significant, and they are sometimes identified
by their position in an ordered tuple and sometimes by a letter, as in “the x-
coordinate”. The coordinates are taken to be real numbers in elementary mathematics,
but may be complex numbers. Using a coordinate system allows problems in
geometry to be translated into problems about numbers and vice versa; this is the
basis of analytic geometry we will consider in Chapter 4.
2.1. Coordinate system on a line

The simplest example of a coordinate system is the identification of points on a
line with real numbers using the number line. In basic mathematics, we have the
following definition.
Def. A number line (or a real line) is a picture of a graduated straight line that
serves as abstraction for real number, denoted by R .
Usually we denote a number line as x-axis, or y-axis and so on, if we need more
than one number lines. A number line is usually represented as being horizontal, but
in a plane a number line can be represented vertically. The point that is relevant to the
number 0 is called the origin of a real line and denoted by O (Fig. 1). According to
the convention, positive numbers always lie on the right side of O , negative numbers
always lie on the left side of O , the arrowhead indicates the direction in which
numbers grow. The line continues infinitely in the positive and negative directions
according to the rules of geometry, which define a line without endpoints as an
infinite line.
Fig. 1
As a unit of length is chosen, so any point on a number line can be determined a
43
signed distance between it and the origin, which is measured according to a chosen
scale. If a point lies on the right (left) side of O , then a distance is considered to be
positive (negative). This distance is called a coordinate of a point. For example, the
points P and M in Fig. 1 have the positive and negative coordinates respectively. So
we can state the following: every point of a number line is assumed to correspond to
a real number, and conversely every real number corresponds to a point. In such
way, we determine the one-to-one correspondence between real numbers and points
on a number line, so, in general, if the point P corresponds the number x , than we
write this as P x (read as “a point P with a coordinate x ”).
A number line is also called a Cartesian coordinate system for a one-
dimensional space R .
2.2. Rectangular coordinate system in a plane

A Cartesian coordinate system in two dimensions (also called a rectangular
coordinate system or an orthogonal coordinate system) is defined by an ordered pair
of perpendicular number lines, called axes, a single unit of length for both axes, and
an orientation for each axis. The point where the axes meet is taken as the origin for
both, thus turning each axis into a number line. For any point P , a line is drawn
through P perpendicular to each axis, and the position where it meets the axis is
interpreted as a number. Two numbers, in that chosen order, are called the Cartesian
coordinates or, simply, coordinates of P (Fig. 2). The reverse construction allows to
determine the point P given its coordinates.
Fig. 2
44
The first and the second coordinates are called the abscissa and the ordinate of
P , respectively, and the point where the axes meet is called the origin of coordinate
system. The coordinates are usually written as two numbers in parentheses, in that
order, separated by comma, as in 2.1,4 . Thus the origin has coordinates 0,0 ,
and the points on the positive half-axes, one unit away from the origin, have the
coordinates 1,0 and 0,1 .
In mathematics, physics, and engineering, the first axis is usually defined or
depicted as horizontal and oriented to the right, and the second axis is vertical and
oriented upwards. The origin is often labeled O , and two coordinates are often
denoted by the letters x and y , or X and Y . The axes may be referred to as x-axis
and y-axis. A plane with a chosen Cartesian coordinate system is called a Cartesian
plane, or coordinate plane. A plane with coordinate system is also called 2-space and
denoted by R2 .
Two axes divide the coordinate plane into four quadrants, the quadrants may be
named or numbered in various ways, but usually the quadrant where all coordinates
are positive is called the first quadrant, and other ones are numbered in the
counterclockwise direction and called the second, the third, and the fourth
quadrants, respectively.
If the coordinates of a point in 2-space are x, y , that is called the ordered pair
of real numbers, then its distances from the x-axis and y-axis are y and x ,
respectively. In conclusion, we write the following statement: in a coordinate plane a
point P is uniquely defined by a ordered pair x, y of numbers, and conversely a
ordered pair x, y determines a unique point P . Thus, we define the one-to-one

correspondence between ordered pairs of real numbers and points on a coordinate
plane. Thus, in general, if the point P corresponds the ordered pair x, y , also called
2-tuple, than we write this as P x, y (read as “a point P with coordinates x, y ”).
45
2.3. Polar coordinates in 2-space
In this section, we will consider another method for representing points in 2-
space.
In a rectangular coordinate system, the ordered pair x, y denotes the point
which directed distances from the x- and y-axes are y and x , respectively. Another
method for representing points is to use polar coordinates. We begin with a fixed
point O , which is called the origin, or pole, and a directed half-line, called the polar
axis, with the endpoint O. Next, we consider any point P in the plane different from
O. If, as illustrated in Fig. 3, r (r 0) is the length of the segment OP and denotes
the measure of any angle determined by the polar axis and OP , then r and are
polar coordinates of P and the symbols r , or P r , are used to denote P . As
usual, is considered positive if the angle is generated by a counterclockwise
rotation of the polar axis and negative if the rotation is clockwise. Either radian or
degree measure may be used for . The number r is called the radial coordinate of
P and the number – the angular coordinate (or polar angle) of P .
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
46
The polar coordinates of a point are not unique. For example, 3, / 4 ,
3,9 / 4 and 3, 7 / 4 all represent the same point (see Fig. 4). To avoid this
ambiguity, we will consider only the angles satisfied one of the inequalities:
or 0 2 . (2.1)
We agree that the pole O has polar coordinates 0, for any . An assignment of
ordered pairs of the form r , to points in a plane is a polar coordinate system, and
the plane is an r -plane. Thus, we can state the following:
In the polar coordinate system any ordered pair r , represents an unique
point P r , and, conversely, any point P in a plane is represented by an unique
ordered pair r , in the polar coordinate system.

Let us next superimpose an xy-plane on an r -plane so that the positive x-axis
coincides with the polar axis. Any point P in the plane may then be assigned
rectangular coordinates x, y or polar coordinates r, . Under the foregoing
conditions, we can state the following results.
The rectangular coordinates x, y and polar coordinates r , of a point P are
related as follow:
x r cos ,
(2.2)
y r sin ,
r x2 y2 , (2.3)
and is a solution of the system
x
cos ,
r
(2.4)
y
sin ,
r
and satisfies (2.1).
We may use the preceding result to change from one system of coordinates to
another.
Example 1. Find the rectangular coordinates of the point P which polar
47
coordinates are r , 4, / 3 .
Solution.
Substituting the polar coordinates r 4 and / 3 in (2.2) yields
1 3
x 4cos 4 2, y 4sin 4 2 3.
3 2 3 2
Thus, the rectangular coordinates of P are x, y 2,2 3 .
Example 2. Find polar coordinates of the point P which rectangular coordinates
are 1, 3 .
Solution.
Since the rectangular coordinates of P are x 1 and y 3 , substituting in

(2.3) yields:
2 2
r 1 3 1 3 2.
As r is known, to determine we have to find the solution of the system (2.4):

1
cos ,
2
3
sin ,
2
which satisfies the inequality 0 2 (see (2.1)). The unique angle satisfied this
task is 2 / 3 . So, the polar coordinates of P are r , 2,2 / 3 . All other polar
coordinates of P can be expressed in the form 2,2 / 3 2 n , where n is an

integer.
2.4. Rectangular coordinate system in a space

A Cartesian coordinate system in three-dimensional space (also called a
rectangular coordinate system in 3-space) is defined by an ordered triplet of lines
(the axes) that go through a common point (the origin) and are pair-wise
perpendicular, an orientation for each axis, and a single unit of length for all three
axes. The point where the axes meet is taken as the origin for all three axes. As in the
48
two-dimensional case, each axis becomes a number line.
A three-dimensional space with a chosen Cartesian coordinate system is called a
Cartesian space and denoted by R3 .
Fig. 5
For any point P of a space, one considers a plane through P perpendicular to
each coordinate axis, and interprets the point where that plane cuts the axis as a
number. Those ordered three numbers are called the coordinates of a point P
(Fig. 5). The reverse construction determines the point P given by three coordinates.
Alternatively, each coordinate of a point P can be taken as the distance from P to the
plane, defined by the other two axes, with the sign determined by the orientation of
the corresponding axis. The coordinates are usually written as three numbers
surrounded by parentheses and separated by commas as in 4, 3,1.2 . Therefore, the
origin has coordinates 0,0,0 , and the unit points on the three axes are
1,0,0 , 0,1,0 , and 0,0,1 .

Three coordinates are usually named the abscissa, the ordinate, and the
applicate of a point in 3-space. The coordinates are often denoted by the letters x, y ,
and z , or X ,Y , and Z . The axes may then referred to as the x-axis, y-axis, and z-
axis, respectively. Each pair of axes defines a coordinate plane. Then the coordinate
planes can be referred to as the xy-plane, yz-plane, and xz-plane. These planes divide
49
space into eight parts, called octants.
If coordinates of a point in 3-space are x, y, z , which is called the ordered
triple of real numbers or 3-tuple, then its distances from the xy-, xz-, and yz-plane are
z , y , and x , respectively. In conclusion, we write the following statement: in
Cartesian space a point P is uniquely defined by an ordered triple x, y, z of
numbers, and conversely an ordered triple x, y, z determines a unique point P .

Thus, we define the one-to-one correspondence between ordered triples of real
numbers and points in 3-space. So, in general, if the point P corresponds the ordered
triple x, y, z , than we write this as P x, y, z (read as “a point P with coordinates
x, y, z ”).
2.5. Cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems

In this section we will discuss two new types of coordinate systems in 3-space
that are often more useful than rectangular coordinate systems for studying surfaces
with symmetries. These new coordinate systems also have important applications in
navigation, astronomy, and the study of rotational motion about an axis.
a) b)
Fig. 6
Three coordinates are required to establish the location of a point in 3-space. We
50
have already done this using rectangular coordinates. However, Fig. 6 shows two
other possibilities: the cylindrical coordinates r, , z of P (Fig. 6a), and the
spherical coordinates , , of P (Fig. 6b). In a rectangular coordinate system the

coordinates can be any real numbers, but in cylindrical and spherical coordinate
systems there are restrictions on the allowable values of the coordinates (as indicated
in Fig. 6).
A cylindrical coordinate system is a three-dimensional coordinate system that
specifies point positions by the distance from a chosen reference axis, the direction
from the axis relative to a chosen direction, and the distance from a chosen reference
plane perpendicular to the axis. The latter is given as a positive or negative number
depending on which side of the reference plane faces the point.
The origin of the system is the point where all three coordinates can be given as
zero. This is also the intersection between the reference plane and the reference axis.
The axis is called the cylindrical or longitudinal axis, to differ it from the polar axis,
which is the ray that lies in the reference plane. The polar axis starts at the origin and
points in the reference direction. Other directions perpendicular to the longitudinal
axis are called radial lines. Fig. 7 shows the cylindrical coordinate system with the
polar axis p , the longitudinal axis L , and the origin O .
Fig. 7
According to the foregoing considerations, three coordinates r , , z define a
51
point P (Fig. 7) in the cylindrical system, and shortly we can write P r , , z . The
distance r ( r 0 ) from the cylindrical axis is called the radial distance or radius,
while the angular coordinate is referred to as the angular position or as the
azimuth. The radius and the azimuth are together determined the polar coordinate
system in the reference plane. The third coordinate z is called the height or altitude.
As in polar coordinates, the same point with cylindrical coordinates r , , z has
infinitely many equivalent coordinates, namely r, 2 n, z , where n is any

integer. Moreover, if the radius r is zero, than the azimuth is arbitrary. To avoid this
ambiguity, we will consider only the angles satisfied one of the inequalities:
or 0 2 . (2.5)
Just as we need to convert between rectangular and polar coordinates in 2-space,
so we will need to be able to convert between rectangular and cylindrical coordinates
in 3-space.
For the conversion between cylindrical and rectangular coordinates, it is
convenient to assume that the reference plane of the former is the xy-plane of the
latter, and the cylindrical axis is the z-axis in rectangular coordinate system. Since the
z-coordinate is the same in both systems, then the correspondence between
cylindrical r, , z and Cartesian x, y, z coordinates are the same as for polar
coordinates, namely:
x r cos ,
y r sin , (2.6)
z z,
in one direction, and in the other:
r x2 y2 , z z, (2.7)
x
cos ,
(2.8)
y
sin ,
where satisfies (2.5).
52
Example 1. Find the rectangular coordinates of the point P with cylindrical
coordinates r , , z 6,2 / 3, 3 .
Solution.
Applying the conversion formulae (2.6) yields:
2 1 2 3
x r cos 6cos 6 3, y r sin 6sin 6 3 3, z 3
3 2 3 2
Thus, the rectangular coordinates of P are x, y, z 3,3 3, 3 .
Example 2. Find the cylindrical coordinates of the point P with the rectangular
coordinates x, y, z 2 3, 2,4 .
Solution.
Applying the formulae (2.7) yields:
2 2
r x2 y2 2 3 2 12 4 4, z 4.
According to (2.8) the azimuth z is the solution of the system:
2 3 3
cos , cos ,
4 or 2
2 1
sin , sin .
4 2
The unique solution of the last system satisfied the inequality 0 2 (see (2.5)) is
7 / 6 . Thus, the cylindrical coordinates of P are r , , z 4,7 / 6,4 .
A spherical coordinate system (Fig. 8) is defined by choosing two orthogonal

directions, the zenith (ray L ) and the azimuth reference (ray p ), and an origin point
in space. These choices determine a reference plane that contains the origin and is
perpendicular to the zenith. The spherical coordinates , , of a point P are then
defined as follows. The radius is the distance from the origin to P . The
inclination or polar angle is the angle between the zenith direction and the line
segment OP . The azimuth (or azimuthal angle) is the signed angle measured from
the azimuth reference direction to the orthogonal projection of the line segment OP
on the reference plane. As usual, is considered positive if the angle is generated by
53
a counterclockwise rotation of the azimuth reference and negative if the rotation is
clockwise. If the inclination is zero or radians, the azimuth is arbitrary. If the
radius is zero, both azimuth and inclination are arbitrary.
Fig. 8
Any spherical coordinate triplet , , specifies a single point of three-
dimensional space. On the other hand, every point has infinitely many equivalent
spherical coordinates. One can add or subtract any number of full turns to either
angular measure without changing the angles themselves, and therefore without
changing the point, that is, the spherical coordinates , 2 k, 2 l , where k , l
are any integer, determine the same point in 3-space. Moreover, , , is
equivalent to , , . To avoid this ambiguity, we must restrict their ranges as

follows:
0, 0 2 ,0 . (2.9)
However, the azimuth is often restricted to the interval , . This is the

standard convention for geographic longitude.
As the spherical coordinate system is only one of many three-dimensional
coordinate systems, there exist equations for converting coordinates between the
spherical coordinate system and others.
The spherical coordinates , , of a point P can be obtained from its
54
Cartesian coordinates x, y, z by the formulae:
x2 y2 z2 , (2.10)
1 z
cos , (2.11)
where cos 1 x arccos x is the inverse cosine function, and the polar angle is the
solution of the following system:
x
cos ,
sin
(2.12)
y
sin ,
sin
which satisfies the inequality 0 2 (see (2.9)).
These formulae assume that the two systems have the same origin, that the
spherical reference plane is the Cartesian xy-plane, that is inclination from the z
direction, and that the azimuth angles are measured from the Cartesian x-axis (so that
the y-axis has / 2 ).
Conversely, the Cartesian coordinates x, y, z may be retrieved from the
spherical coordinates , , by the formulae:
x sin cos ,
y sin sin , (2.13)
z cos .
Example 3. Find the rectangular coordinates of the point P with spherical
coordinates , , 8,5 / 6,3 / 4 .
Solution.
Applying the conversion formulae (2.13) yields:
3 5 2 3
x sin cos 8sin cos 8 2 6,
4 6 2 2
3 5 2 1
y sin sin 8sin sin 8 2 2,
4 6 2 2
55
3 2
z cos 8cos 8 4 2.
4 2
Thus, the rectangular coordinates of P are x, y, z 2 6,2 2, 4 2 .
Example 4. Find the spherical coordinates of the point P with the rectangular
coordinates x, y, z 9, 3 3,6 .
Solution.
Applying the formulae (2.10)-(2.11) yields:
2
x2 y2 z2 92 3 3 62 81 27 36 12 ,
1 z 1 6 1 1
cos cos cos .
12 2 3
The polar angle is the solution of the system (2.12):
9
cos , 3
12sin / 3 cos ,
or 2
3 3 1
sin , sin .
12sin / 3 2
The unique solution of the last system which satisfies the inequality 0 2 (see
(2.9)) is 11 / 6 .
Thus, the spherical coordinates of P are , , 12,11 / 6, / 3 .
In the end, the cylindrical coordinates r, , z may be converted into the
spherical coordinates , , by the formulae:
r2 z2 , , (2.14)
1 z
cos , (2.15)
and, conversely, the spherical coordinates may be converted into the cylindrical ones
by the formulae:
r sin , , z cos . (2.16)
Spherical coordinates are related to longitude and latitude coordinates used in
56
navigation. To see why this is so, let’s construct a right-hand rectangular coordinate
system with its origin at the center of the Earth, its positive z-axis passing through the
North Pole, and its positive x-axis passing through the prime meridian (Fig. 9). If we
assume the Earth to be a sphere of radius 6400 kilometers, then each point on the
Earth has spherical coordinates of the form 6400, , , where and determine
the longitude and latitude of the point. It is common to specify longitudes in degrees
east or west of the prime meridian and latitudes in degrees north or south of the
equator. However, the following example shows that it is a simple matter to
determine and from such data.
Fig. 9
Example 5. The city of New Orleans is located at 90 west longitude and 30
north latitude. Find its spherical and rectangular coordinates relative to the coordinate
axes of Fig. 9. (Assume that distance is in kilometers.)
Solution.
The longitude of 90 west corresponds to 360 90 270 or 3 /2
radians; and the latitude of 30 north corresponds to 90 30 60 or /3
radians. Thus, the spherical coordinates of New Orleans are
57
, , 6400,3 / 2, / 3 .
To find the rectangular coordinates we apply the conversion formulae (2.13).
This yields
3 3
x sin cos 6400sin cos 6400 0 0(km) ,
3 2 2
3
y sin sin 6400 1 3200 3 (km) ,
2
1
z cos 6400cos 6400 3200 (km) .
3 2
Thus, the rectangular coordinates of New Orleans are
x, y, z 0, 3200 3,3200 .
2.6. Transformations of rectangular coordinate system in 2-space

In this section, we will consider two transformations of a rectangular coordinate
system in two-dimensional space, which is sometimes useful to determine the type of
figure given by an equation in two variables. These transformations are called
translation and rotation of a rectangular coordinate system.
Fig. 10
Let’s consider a rectangular coordinate system with the x- and y-axes, and the
center at the point O in 2-space and choose an arbitrary point P in this coordinate
system (Fig. 10). We call this system as the coordinate system xOy or the old
coordinate system. Assume that the point P has the coordinates a, b in the system
58
xOy. Next, we need to introduce new rectangular coordinate system x1O1 y1 . The
center O1 of new coordinate system x1O1 y1 coincides with the point P in the old
coordinate system, and the x1 - and y1 -axes of new system are parallel to the
corresponding axes of old system. Such type of the coordinate system’s
transformation is called the translation of coordinate system in 2-space.
Our goal is to find the relations between the coordinates of any point in the old
and new coordinate systems. Let’s consider an arbitrary point M which has the
coordinates x, y in the old system and the coordinates x1 , y1 in the new system. It
is obvious from the geometric examination of Fig. 10, that for any point M the
relations between its coordinates in these two coordinate system can be expressed by
the following formulae:
x x1 a,
(2.17)
y y1 b,
and
x1 x a,
(2.18)
y1 y b.
So, if in 2-space we know the coordinates of any point in the old coordinate system,
then we can find its coordinates in the new coordinate system by using (2.18), and in
opposite direction by using (2.17).
Our next transformation of a rectangular coordinate system is called the rotation
of coordinate system, and it is a bit complicated then the translation of coordinate
system. Let’s consider a rectangular coordinate system in 2-space, which is defined
by the x - and y -axes, and the origin O (Fig. 11). Then we rotate the coordinate axes
counterclockwise around the origin O through an angle , and new positions of the
axes are denoted by an x1 - and y1 -axes of new coordinate system. In such way, we
receive two rectangular coordinate systems with the same origin O . As in the
foregoing discussion of the translation of coordinate system, the coordinate systems
xOy and x1Oy1 are called old and new, respectively.
59
Fig. 11
As shown in Fig. 11, each point P in the plane has coordinates x, y as well as
coordinates x1 , y1 . To see how the two coordinates are related, let r be the distance
from the common origin to the point P , and let be the angle between OP and x1 -
axis. It follows that
x r cos , y r sin , (2.19)
and
x1 r cos , y1 r sin . (2.20)
Using familiar trigonometric identities, the relationships in (2.19) can be written as
x r cos cos r sin sin ,
y r sin cos r cos sin ,
and on substituting (2.20) in these equations we obtain the following relationships
called the rotation equations:
x x1 cos y1 sin ,
(2.21)
y x1 sin y1 cos .
If the rotation equations (2.21) are solved for x1 and y1 in terms of x and y ,
another rotation equations can be obtained:
x1 x cos y sin ,
(2.22)
y1 x sin y cos .
Example 1. Find the new coordinates of the point 4,6 if the coordinate axes
are rotated through an angle of / 3.
60
Solution.
Using the rotation equation (2.22) with x 4, y 6 , and / 3 , we obtain:
1 3
x1 4 cos 6sin 4 6 2 3 3,
3 3 2 2
3 1
y1 4 sin 6cos 4 6 2 3 3.
3 3 2 2
Thus, the new coordinates are 2 3 3,2 3 3 .
61
Chapter 3. Vector algebra
Engineers and physicists distinguish between two types of physical quantities –
scalars, which are quantities that can be described by a numerical value alone, and
vectors, which are quantities that require both a number and a direction for their
complete physical description. For example, temperature, length, and speed are
scalars because they can be fully described by a number that tells “how much” – a
temperature of 30 C, a length of 5 cm, or a speed of 75 km/h. In contrast, velocity
and force are vectors because they require a number that tells “how much” and a
direction that tells “which way” – say, a boat moving at 10 knots in a direction 45°
northeast, or a force of 100 kg acting vertically. Although the notions of vectors and
scalars that we will study in this chapter have their origins in physics and
engineering, we will be more concerned with using them to build mathematical
structures and applying those structures to some fields of mathematics and physics.
3.1. Vectors in 2-Space, 3-Space

Scientists represent vectors in two dimensions (also called 2-space) or in three
dimensions (also called 3-space) by arrows. In 2-space and 3-space we can define the
vector as below.
Def. A vector is a straight segment with direction.
a) b)
Fig. 1.
The direction of the arrowhead specifies the direction of the vector and the
length of the arrow specifies the magnitude or the norm, or the length of the vector.
Mathematicians call these geometric vectors. The tail of the arrow is called the initial
62
point of the vector and the tip — the terminal point (Fig. 1a).
Def. A vector which initial point isn’t defined is said to be a free vector.
The initial point of a free vector can be placed in an arbitrary point of 2-space or
3-space.
We will denote vectors such as a, b, v and we will denote scalars in lowercase
italic type such as a, k, v, and x. When we want to indicate that a vector v has an
initial point A and a terminal point B (Fig. 1b), then we will write v AB
Def. Vectors v and w with the same length and direction are called to be equal
and denoted by v w.
The vector which initial and terminal points coincide has length zero, so we call
this the zero vector and denote it by 0 . The zero vector has no natural direction, so
we will agree that it can be assigned any direction that is convenient for the problem
at hand.
3.2. Algebraic operations on vectors in 2- or 3-space

There are a number of important algebraic operations on vectors, all of which
have their origin in laws of physics.
a) Vector addition
Parallelogram Rule for Vector Addition. If v and w are vectors in 2-space or 3-
space that are positioned so their initial points coincide, then the two vectors form
adjacent sides of a parallelogram, and the sum v w is the vector represented by the
arrow from the common initial point of v and w to the opposite vertex of the
parallelogram (Fig. 2a).
Here is another way to form the sum of two vectors.
Triangle Rule for Vector Addition. If v and w are vectors in 2-space or 3-space
that are positioned so the initial point of w is at the terminal point of v , then the sum
v w is represented by the arrow from the initial point of v to the terminal point of
w (Fig. 2b).
63
a) b)
Fig. 2.
b) Vector subtraction
In ordinary arithmetic we can write a b a ( b) , which expresses
subtraction in terms of addition. There is an analogous idea in vector arithmetic.
Def. The negative of a vector w , denoted by w , is the vector that has the same
length as w but is oppositely directed (Fig. 3a), and the difference of w from v ,
denoted by v w , is taken to be the sum
v w v w .
a) b) c)
Fig. 3
The difference of w from v can be obtained geometrically by the parallelogram
method shown in Fig. 3b, or more directly by positioning v and w so their initial
points coincide and drawing the vector from the terminal point of w to the terminal
point of v (Fig. 3c).
c) Scalar multiplication
Sometimes there is a need to change the length of a vector or change its length
and reverse its direction. This is accomplished by a type of multiplication in which
64
vectors are multiplied by scalars. As an example, the product 2v denotes the vector
that has the same direction as v but twice the length, and the product 2v denotes
the vector that is oppositely directed to v and has twice the length. Here is the
general result.
Def. If v is a nonzero vector, and if k is a nonzero scalar, then we define the

scalar product of v by k to be the vector whose length is |k| times the length of v
and whose direction is the same as that of v if k is positive and opposite to that of v
if k is negative. If k 0 or v 0 , then we define k v to be 0 .
Suppose that v and w are vectors with a common initial point. If one of the
vectors is a scalar multiple of another, then the vectors lie on a common line, so it is
reasonable to say that they are collinear (Fig. 4a). However, if we translate one of the
vectors, as indicated in Fig. 4b, then the vectors are parallel but no longer collinear.
This creates a linguistic problem because translating a vector does not change it. The
only way to resolve this problem is to agree that the terms parallel and collinear
mean the same thing when applied to vectors. Although the vector 0 has no clearly
defined direction, we will regard it as parallel to all vectors when convenient.
(a) (b)
Fig. 4
3.3. Vectors in coordinate systems

Up until now, we have discussed vectors without reference to a coordinate
system. However, as we will soon see, computations with vectors are much simpler
to perform if a coordinate system is present to work with.
65
If a vector v in 2-space or 3-space is positioned with its initial point at the origin
of a rectangular coordinate system, then the vector is completely determined by the
coordinates of its terminal point (Fig. 5). We call these coordinates the components
of v relative to the coordinate system. We will write v v1, v2 to denote a vector v
in 2-space with components v1 , v2 , and v v1, v2 , v3 to denote a vector v in
3-space with components v1 , v2 , v3 .
Fig. 5.
At first, we will consider vectors which the initial point is positioned at the
origin of a coordinate system. For such vectors we have the following definition.
Def. A position or position vector, also called a radius vector and usually
denoted by r , is a vector that represents the position of a point P in space in relation
to an arbitrary reference origin O .
It should be noted that the components of a position vector numerically coincide
with the coordinates of a terminal point (Fig. 5).
It should be evident geometrically that two vectors in 2-space or 3-space are
equal if and only if they have the same terminal point when their initial points are at
the origin. Algebraically, this means that two vectors are equal if and only if their
corresponding components are equal. Thus, for example, the vectors v v1, v2 , v3
and w w1, w2 , w3 in 3-space are equal if and only if

v1 w1 , v2 w2 , v3 w3 .
66
It is sometimes necessary to consider vectors that initial points are not at the
origin. If P1 P2 denotes the vector with an initial point P1 x1, y1 and terminal point
P2 x2 , y2 , then the components of this vector are given by the formula
PP
1 2 x2 x1, y2 y1 . (3.1)
That is, the components of P1 P2 are obtained by subtracting the coordinates of the
initial point from the coordinates of the terminal point. For example, in Fig. 6 the
vector P1 P2 is the difference of vectors OP2 and OP1 , so
PP
1 2 OP2 OP1 x1, y1 x2 , y2 x2 x1, y2 y1 . (3.2)
Fig. 6
As you might expect, the components of a vector in 3-space that has initial point
P1 x1, y1, z1 and terminal point P2 x2 , y2 , z2 are given by
PP
1 2 x2 x1, y2 y1, z2 z1 (3.3)
Example. Find the components of vector P1 P2 with P1 1,2,5 and P2 3,4, 2 .

Solution.
The components of the vector P1 P2 with initial point and P1 1,2,5 terminal
point P2 3,4, 2 are
PP
1 2 3 1 ,4 2, 2 5 4,2, 7 .
3.4. Vector in n-space

The idea of using ordered pairs and triples of real numbers to represent points in
67
two-dimensional space and three-dimensional space was well known in the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
To explore these ideas further, we start with some terminology and notation. The
set of all real numbers can be viewed geometrically as a line. It is called the real line
and is denoted by R or R1 . The superscript reinforces the intuitive idea that a line is
one-dimensional. The set of all ordered pairs of real numbers (called 2-tuples) and
the set of all ordered triples of real numbers (called 3-tuples) are denoted by R2 and
R3 , respectively. The superscript reinforces the idea that the ordered pairs correspond
to points in the plane (two-dimensional) and ordered triples to points in space (three-
dimensional). The following definition extends this idea.
Def. If n is a positive integer, then an ordered n-tuple is a sequence of n real
numbers v1, v2 ,..., vn . The set of all ordered n-tuples is called n-space and is denoted
by Rn .
Remark. You can think of the numbers in an n-tuple v1, v2 ,..., vn as either the
coordinates of a generalized point or the components of a generalized vector,
depending on the geometric image you want to bring to mind – the choice makes no
difference mathematically, since the algebraic properties of n-tuples do not depend on
your choice.
Our next goal is to define useful operations on vectors in Rn . These operations
will all be natural extensions of the familiar operations on vectors in R2 and R3 . We
will denote a vector v in Rn using the notation v v1, v2 ,..., vn and we will call
0 0,0,...,0 the zero vector.
Def. Vectors v v1, v2 ,..., vn and w w1, w2 ,..., wn in Rn are said to be equal
if
v1 w1 , v2 w2 ,..., vn wn . (3.4)
We indicate this by writing v w.

Our next objective is to define the operations of addition, subtraction, and scalar
multiplication for vectors in Rn .
68
n
Def. If v v1, v2 ,..., vn and w w1, w2 ,..., wn are vectors in , and if k is any
scalar, then we define

v w v1 w1, v2 w2 ,..., vn wn (3.5)
kv kv1, kv2 ,..., kvn (3.6)
w w1, w2 ,..., wn (3.7)
v w v1 w1, v2 w2 ,..., vn wn (3.8)
Remark. In words, vectors are added (or subtracted) by adding (or subtracting)
their corresponding components, and a vector is multiplied by a scalar by multiplying
each component by that scalar.
Using the foregoing definition, we can give another definition of collinear
vectors.
Def. Two vectors v and w in Rn are collinear if one of these vectors (say, v )
represents by scalar product of another vector by scalar, that is
v k w. (3.9)
The last equality can be rewritten as following
v1 v2 vn
... k, (3.10)
w1 w2 wn
where k is a scalar. In other words, two vectors are collinear if there corresponding
components are proportional.
The following theorem summarizes the most important properties of vector
operations.
Theorem 1.
If u , v and w are vectors in Rn , and if k and m are scalars, then:
a) u v v u e) k u v ku kv
b) u v w u v w f) k m u ku mu
c) u 0 0 u u g ) k mu km u
d) u u 0 h) 1 u u
69
The following additional properties of vectors in Rn can be deduced easily by
expressing the vectors in terms of components.
Theorem 2.
If v is a vector in Rn and k is a scalar, then:
a) 0 v 0
b) k 0 0
c) 1 v v
Addition, subtraction, and scalar multiplication are frequently used in
combination to form new vectors. For example, if v1 , v2 and v3 are vectors in Rn ,
then the vectors
u 2v1 3v2 v3 and w 7v1 6v2 8v3
are formed in this way. In general, we make the following definition.
Def. If w is a vector in Rn , then w is said to be a linear combination of the

vectors v1 , v2 ,…, vr in Rn if it can be expressed in the form
w k1 v1 k2 v2 ... kr vr (3.11)
where k1 , k2 ,..., kr are scalars. These scalars are called the coefficients of the linear
combination.
Example. Let u 1,2, 3,0 , v 4,7,2, 3 , and w 5,3,1, 4 . Find the

components of
1
a) u v , b) 4w , c) 2u 3v w.
2
Solution.
Applying the formulae (3.5)-(3.8), (3.11) yields:
a) u v 1,2, 3,0 4,7,2, 3 1 4,2 7, 3 2,0 3 3,9, 1, 3 ;
b) 4w 4 5,3,1, 4 4 5 ,4 3,4 1,4 4 20,12,4, 16 ;
1 1
c) 2u 3v w 2 1,2, 3,0 3 4,7,2, 3 5,3,1, 4 2,4, 6,0
2 2
12,21,6, 9 5 / 2,3 / 2,1/ 2, 2 33 / 2, 31/ 2, 11/ 2,7 .
70
3.5. Norm of vector
In this section we will denote the length of a vector v by the symbol v , which
is read as the norm of v , the length of v , or the magnitude of v (the term “norm”
being a common mathematical synonym for length). As suggested in Fig. 7a, it
follows from the Theorem of Pythagoras that the length of a vector v v1, v2 in R2
is
v v12 v22 (3.12)
a) b)
Fig. 7
Similarly, for a vector v v1, v2 , v3 in R3 , it follows from Fig. 7b and two
applications of the Theorem of Pythagoras that
2
v OR 2 RP 2 OQ 2 QR 2 RP 2 v12 v22 v32
and, hence, that
v v12 v22 v32 (3.13)
Motivated by the pattern of the formulae (3.12) and (3.13), we make the
Def. If v v1, v2 ,..., vn is a vector in Rn , then the length of v (also called the
norm of v or the magnitude of v ) is denoted by v , and is defined by the formula
v v12 v22 ... vn2 . (3.14)
71
The next theorem holds for any vector.
Theorem.
If v is a vector in Rn and k is any scalar, then
a) v 0
b) v 0 if and only if v 0
c) kv k v
Theorem generalizes to Rn the following three familiar facts about vectors in

R2 and R3 :
a) Distances are nonnegative.
b) The zero vector is the only vector of length zero.
c) Multiplying a vector by a scalar multiplies its length by the absolute value of
that scalar.
It is important to recognize that just because these results hold in R2 and R3
does not guarantee that they hold in Rn – their validity in Rn must be proved using
algebraic properties of n-tuples.
Example. Find the length of v 3, 1,4, 3 .
Solution.
According to the formula (3.14) we have
2 2
v 32 1 42 3 9 1 16 9 35 .
3.6. Unit vectors

Def. A vector of length 1 is called a unit vector.
Such vectors are useful for specifying a direction of vector when length is not
relevant to the problem at hand. You can obtain a unit vector in a desired direction by
choosing any nonzero vector v in that direction and multiplying v by the reciprocal
1
of its length. For example, if v is a vector of length 2 in R2 or R3 , then v is a unit
2
vector in the same direction as v . More generally, if v is any nonzero vector in Rn ,
72
then
1
u v (3.15)
v
defines a unit vector that is in the same direction as v . We can confirm that u is a
1
unit vector by applying part (c) of Theorem 1 Section 3.5 with k to obtain
v
1
u kv k v k v v 1.
v
The process of multiplying a nonzero vector by the reciprocal of its length to

obtain a unit vector is called normalizing v .
a) b)
Fig. 8
Let’s consider a vector v v1, v2 in R2 (see Fig. 8a) and find the
corresponding unit vector u by the formula (3.15):
1 1 v1 v2
u v v1 , v2 , . (3.16)
v v12 v22 v12 v22 v12 v22
It is easy to see from Fig. 8a that the first component of vector u is equal to cos ,
and the second component equals to cos , that is:
v1 v2
cos ,cos . (3.17)
2 2 2 2
v
1 v 2 v 1 v
2
73
These cosines are called the direction cosines of the vector v .
Remark. It should be reminded that the cosine (sine) of angle is equal to the
fraction of the adjacent (opposite) cathetus of right triangle to its hypotenuse.
By analogy, for a vector v v1, v2 , v3 in R3 (Fig. 8b) we can find the
corresponding unit vector u and receive the formulae of the direction cosines of v :
1 v1 v2 v3
u v , , , (3.18)
v v12 v22 v32 v12 v22 v32 v12 v22 v32
v1 v2 v3
cos ,cos ,cos . (3.19)
v12 v22 v32 v12 v22 v32 v12 v22 v32
As you can see from two last formulae, the components of u and the direction
cosines of v are equal. Therefore, we can rewrite (3.18) as follows:
u cos ,cos ,cos .
That is why, the unit vector u , that is in the same direction as v , is called the
direction of a vector v .
It should be noted the main property of the direction cosines: the sum of the
squared direction cosines of any vector in R3 is always equal to 1
cos2 cos2 cos2 1. (3.20)
Hence, if you need to define an arbitrary unit vector by the angles between this vector
and the coordinate axes, you could choose two of these angles arbitrary, but the third
angle must be found from relation (3.20). The same property holds for the direction
cosines of a vector in R2 , but in this case there the right side of (3.20) has only two
first terms.
Example. Find the unit vector v 2, 1,5 .
Solution.
2
Let’s find the length of v : v 22 1 52 30 . Applying of the
formula (3.18) yields:

2 1 5
u , , .
30 30 30
74
It is easy to verify that u 1 . Also we can write the direction cosines of v :
2 1 5
cos , cos , cos .
30 30 30
3.7. Standard unit vectors

When a rectangular coordinate system is introduced in R2 or R3 , the unit
vectors in the positive directions of the coordinate axes are called the standard unit
vectors (see Fig. 9). In R2 these vectors are denoted by
i 1,0 , j 0,1 (3.21)
and in R3 by
i 1,0,0 , j 0,1,0 , k 0,0,1 (3.22)
a) b)
Fig. 9
Every vector v v1, v2 in R2 and every vector v v1, v2 , v3 in R3 can be
expressed as a linear combination of standard unit vectors by writing
v v1 , v2 v1 1,0 v2 0,1 v1 i v2 j
(3.23)
v v1 , v2 , v3 v1 1,0,0 v2 0,1,0 v3 0,0,1 v1 i v2 j v3 k
Moreover, we can generalize these formulae to Rn by defining the standard unit

vectors in Rn to be
e1 1,0,...,0 , e2 0,1,...,0 ,..., en 0,0,...,1
n
in which case every vector v v1, v2 ,..., vn in can be expressed as
v v1, v2 ,..., vn v1 e1 v2 e2 ... vn en . (3.24)

75
3.8. Partitioning segment in a given ratio
In this section, we will consider how to find a point on a line segment, which
divides it into two segment with the lengths in a given ratio.
Let two points A x1 , y1 , z1 and B x2 , y2 , z2 be given in 3-space (Fig. 10). Our
goal is to determine a point C x3 , y3 , z3 , which lies on the line segment AB and

partitions this segment in a ratio a : b , that is
AC : CB a : b . (3.25)
Fig. 10
Two vectors AC and CB are collinear and their lengths are proportional as the
lengths of the line segments in (3.25). So, according to (3.9) we receive
AC k CB , (3.26)
where k a :b. Introducing three position vectors r1 OA x1, y1, z1 ,
r2 OB x2 , y2 , z2 , and r3 OC x3 , y3 , z3 we can express the vectors AC and
CB as the differences of these position vectors:

AC r3 r1 and CB r2 r3 .
Substituting the last relations in (3.26) yields
r3 r1 k r2 r3 .
76
Solving this equation in r3 we get
r3 k r3 r1 k r2 ,
or
r1 k r2
r3 (3.27)
1 k
The vector equation (3.27) can be rewritten in the component form:
x1 k x2 y1 k y2 z1 k z2
x3 , y3 , z3 . (3.28)
1 k 1 k 1 k
Since the coordinates of any point and the components of its position vector are
numerically equal, so (3.28) give us the formulae to determine the coordinates of the
point C , which divide the line segment AB in the ratio a : b k .
If C is the middle point of the segment AB , then AC : CB 1:1 and substituting
k 1 in (3.28) we receive its coordinates:
x1 x2 y1 y2 z1 z2
xm , ym , zm . (3.29)
2 2 2
Example 1. Find the coordinates of the point that divides the line segment AB
with the coordinates of endpoints at A( 2,6,5) and B(10,14, 3) in the ratio 3:1 .
Solution.
Let C ( x3 , y3 , z3 ) be the point that divides AB in the ratio 3:1 . After substituting
( x1 , y1 , z1 ) ( 2,6,5) , ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) (10,14, 3) , a : b 3:1 and k 3 in (3.28) we get
the coordinates of C
2 3 10 6 3 14 5 3 ( 3)
x3 7, y3 12, z3 1.
1 3 1 3 1 3
Thus, the point C has the coordinates ( x3 , y3 , z3 ) (7,12, 1) .
Example 2. Find the points that divide the line segment MN with the
coordinates of endpoints at M 3, 4, 1 and N 5,1,2 in three equal part.
Solution.
Let P and Q be the points that divide the line segment MN in three equal part,
that is MP : PQ : QN 1:1:1 . Since MP : PN 1: 2 , the point P divides MN in the
77
ratio 1: 2 . After substituting ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) (3, 4, 1) , ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) ( 5,1, 2) , a : b 1: 2
and k 1/ 2 in (3.28) we get the coordinates of P
3 ( 5)
1
1/ 2 1 4 12 1 7/2 7 1 12 2
x3 2
, y3 , z3 0.
1 1/ 2 3/ 2 3 1 1/ 2 3/ 2 2 1 1/ 2
Thus, the point P has the coordinates 1
3 , 7
2 ,0 .
Analogously, since MQ : QN 2 :1 , the point Q divides MN in the ratio 2 :1 .

Substituting k 2 in (3.28) yields
3 2 ( 5) 7 4 2 1 2 1 2 2
x4 , y4 , z4 1
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2
Thus, the point Q has the coordinates 7
3 , 2
3 ,1 .
3.9. Dot product

Our next objective is to define a useful multiplication operation on vectors in
R2 and R3 and then extend that operation to Rn . To do this we will first need to
define exactly what we mean by the “angle” between two vectors in R2 or R3 . For
this purpose, let u and v be nonzero vectors in R2 or R3 that have been positioned
so that their initial points coincide. We define the angle between u and v to be the
angle determined by u and v that satisfies the inequalities 0 (see Fig. 11).
.
Fig. 11.
Def. If u and v are nonzero vectors in R2 or R3 , and if is the angle between

u and v , then the dot product (also called the Euclidean inner product) of u and v
is denoted by u v and is defined as
u v u v cos (3.30)
Obviously, if u 0 or v 0 , then dot product is equal to 0.
78
For computational purposes, it is desirable to have a formula that expresses the
dot product of two vectors in terms of components.
Let u u1, u2 , u3 and v v1, v2 , v3 be two nonzero vectors. it can be derived
the following formula for dot product:
u v u1 v1 u2 v2 u3 v3 . (3.31)
The companion (similar) formula for vectors in 2-space is
u v u1 v1 u2 v2 . (3.32)
Motivated by the pattern in the formulae (3.31) and (3.32), we make the
Def. If u u1, u2 ,..., un and v v1, v2 ,..., vn are vectors in Rn , then the dot
product (also called the Euclidean inner product) of u and v is denoted by u v and
is defined by
u v u1 v1 u2 v2 ... un vn (3.33)
In words, to calculate the dot product multiply corresponding components and

add the resulting products.
Dot products have many of the same algebraic properties as products of real
numbers.
Properties.
If u , v , and w are vectors in Rn , and if m is a scalar, then:
a) u v v u
b) u v w u v u w
c) m u v mu v
d ) v v 0 and v v 0 if and only if v 0

e) u v if and only if u v 0
2
f)u u u
g) i i j j k k 1, i j j k k i 0
Example. Calculate the dot product of the vectors u 1,3,5,7 and
79
v 3, 4,1,0 in R4 .
Solution.
Using the formula (3.33) we receive
u v 1 3 3 4 5 1 7 0 3 12 5 0 4
3.10. Application of the dot product

In this section we will discuss some geometric and physics applications of the
dot product.
1. Length of the vector.
In the special case where u v in definition of dot product in Rn , we obtain the
relationship
2
v v v12 v22 ... vn2 v .
This yields the following formula for expressing the norm or length of a vector
in terms of a dot product:
v v v or v v12 v22 ... vn2 (3.34)
Example 1. Find the length of the vector v 3, 4,1,5 .

Solution.
According to (3.34) we get
v ( 3) 2 ( 4) 2 12 52 .
2. Angle between vectors.

Let two vectors u u1, u2 , u3 and v v1, v2 , v3 in 3-space (or 2-space) be
given in the component form. The sign of the dot product reveals information about
the angle that we can obtain by rewriting the formula (3.30) as
u v
cos . (3.35)
u v
Since 0 , it follows from the formula (3.35) and properties of the cosine
function studied in trigonometry that
80
– is acute ( 0 / 2 ) if u v 0
– is obtuse ( / 2 ) if u v 0
– if u v 0 .
2
Example 2. Find the angle (the cosine of the angle) between the vectors
u (2,1, 3,4) and v ( 5,0, 2,7) .
Solution.
According to the formula (3.35) we have to find the dot product of the vectors u
and v , and obtain their lengths:
u v 2 ( 5) 1 0 ( 3) 2 4 7 10 6 28 24 ,
u 22 12 ( 3) 2 42 30 , v ( 5)2 02 ( 2)2 72 77 .
Substituting in (3.35) yields
24
cos
30 77
3. Orthogonality of vectors.
It follows from previous application that angle for the vectors in R2 or

2
R3 if and only if u v 0 . Thus, we make the following definition.
Def. Two nonzero vectors u and v in Rn are said to be orthogonal (or

perpendicular) if u v 0 . We will also agree that the zero vector in Rn is
orthogonal to every vector in Rn .
Thus, we can formulate the next statement: any two vectors in Rn are
orthogonal if and only if its dot product is equal to zero.
This statement is called the condition of orthogonality of two vectors.
4. Scalar projection of a vector on another vector (geometrical application).
Consider two vectors u u1, u2 , u3 and v v1, v2 , v3 in 3-space that are
positioned so their initial points coincide at a point A (Fig. 12).
81
Fig. 12
The scalar projection of the vector v on the vector u , denoted by proju v , is
defined as
proju v v cos .
Substituting (3.35) into the last formula, we receive the formula of the scalar
projection
u v
proju v v ,
u v
or after simplifying
u v
proju v . (3.36)
u
It should be noted that scalar projection could be positive or negative number

similarly to the dot product.
Example 3. Find the scalar projection of the vector v 4,2, 1 on the
direction of the vector MN , where M (7, 3,2) and N (4, 1,5) .

Solution.
Let u be the vector MN , that is u MN ( 3,2,3) . Then, applying the formula
(3.36) yields
( 3) ( 4) 2 2 3 ( 1) 13
proju v
( 3)2 22 32 22
5. Work done on object under the action of force.
Consider the displacement d of an object under the action of a force F . The
resulting work done by the force on the object, W, is the product of the displacement
82
and the scalar projection of the force in the direction of displacement or, alternatively,
product of the force and the scalar projection of the displacement in the direction of
the force. From Fig. 13 we receive
W F cos d Fd cos F d (3.37)
Thus we can say that the work done on the object is equal the dot product of
displacement d and force F .
Fig. 13
Example 4. Find the work done by the force F 2i 5j 4k on the object,

that moves along the straight line from the point A(6, 4,1) to the point B( 2,5,3) .
Solution.
As the object moves from the point A to the point B , the displacement d of the
object is equal to the vector AB . That is, d AB ( 8,9,2) . Thus, applying the
formula (3.37) yields
W F d ( 2) ( 8) 5 9 ( 4) 2 53
3.11. Cross product

In section 3.9 we defined the dot product of two vectors u and v in n-space.
That operation produced a scalar as its result. We will now define a type of vector
multiplication that produces a vector as the result but which is applicable only to the
vectors in 3-space. Before introducing this multiplication we need to give a definition
of relative arrangement for three vectors in 3-space.
Right-hand rule. A right hand is so placed that the thumb is perpendicular to the
plane of a and b , and the fingers are parallel to this plane and point in the direction
83
that a line rotates in passing over the geometric angle from a to b (not b to a ).
Fig. 14
Def. The cross (vector) product of two vectors a and b (Fig. 14), denoted by
a b is defined as a vector c of length a b sin , where is the angle between
the two vectors. It acts in a direction perpendicular to the plane of the vectors a and
b in accordance with the right-hand rule (Fig. 14).
a b c (3.38)
Thus, by the definition the result of the cross product (a vector c a b ) is

perpendicular to each vectors a and b .
This definition is quite independent of any physical interpretation. It has
geometrical significance in that the length of vector c numerically represents the area
of a parallelogram having sides a and b , as shown in Fig. 15.
Fig. 15.
The following properties of cross product hold for any vectors a, b, c and a
scalar k .
84
Properties.
1. a b b a skew commutative law
2. a b c a b a c distributive laws
a b c a c b c
3. k a b a kb k a b
4. a || b a b 0
5. a a 0
Corollary : i i j j k k 0
6. i j k, j k i, k i j;
j i k, k j i, i k j.
7. If the vectors a, b are given in the component forms so that
a a1, a2 , a3 , b b1, b2 , b3 , then
i j k
a b a1 a2 a3 . (3.39)
b1 b2 b3
All these properties can be proved using the definition of cross product.
Example 1. Simplify the expression (2u v ) (u 4v ) .
Solution.
Applying the properties 2,3 yields
(2u v ) u 4v 2u u 8u v v u 4v v
According to the property 5, the first and the last terms in the foregoing expression
are equal to zero.
[u u 0, v v 0] 8u v v u
Using the property 1 the expression can be simplified to the form
9u v .
Example 2. Find the cross product of the vectors a (5, 4,1) and
b 2i 7j 3k .
85
Solution.
Applying the property 7 yields
i j k
a b 5 4 1 12i 2 j 35k 8k 15 j 7i 5i 17 j 43k
2 7 3
3.12. Application of the cross product

In this section, we will consider some geometric and physics applications of the
cross product.
1. Area of parallelogram and triangle.
If a and b are vectors in 3-space, then a b is equal to the area of the
parallelogram determined by a and b (Fig. 15), that is
S par a b . (3.40)
Therefore, the area of the triangle determined by vectors a and b can be found
by the formula
1
Str a b . (3.41)
2
Example 1. Find the area of the triangle determined by the vectors
a 3i 7j k and b 5, 2,4 .
Solution.
First of all, we find the cross product of the vectors a and b
i j k
a b 3 7 1 28i 5j 6k 35k 12 j 2i 30i 17 j 29k
5 2 4
Next, we need to obtain the length of that cross product:
a b 302 17 2 ( 29) 2 900 289 841 2030
According to the formula (3.41) we get the answer
86
1
Str 2030
2
2. Condition of collinearity.
By the property 4 of cross product, vectors a a1, a2 , a3 and b b1, b2 , b3 are
collinear if and only if their cross product is equal to zero, that is a b 0 . So,
i j k
a || b a1 a2 a3 0.
b1 b2 b3
Hence, the vectors a a1, a2 , a3 and b b1, b2 , b3 in 3-space are collinear if

and only if their components are proportional, that is
a1 a2 a3
a || b . (3.42)
b1 b2 b3
3. Torque of the force (physical application).
Let’s consider a force F applied to a body at a point P (Fig. 16). The force F
and the radius r OP are inclined to each other at an angle , where the point O is
the center of coordinate system.
Fig. 16
To calculate the torque C applied to the body we resolve the force into two
components: one perpendicular to r , F , and one in the direction of r , F|| . The first
87
component is the only one that will produce a turning effect on the body. Now
F F sin in magnitude; hence, the magnitude of the torque can be found by the
formula C r F sin .
Physically, torque is a vector quantity since its direction is taken onto account.
The following convention is generally accepted.
The torque vector C is perpendicular to the plane containing the force F and
the radius r . The direction of C is that of a screw turned in a way that brings r by
the shortest route into the direction of F (Fig. 17). As we already know, this is called
the right-hand rule.
Fig. 17
Therefore, we can make a conclusion that the torque C is equal to the cross
product of the radius vector r and the force F :
C r F. (3.43)
Example 2. Find the torque of the force F i 3 j 5k applied to a body at
the point B( 3,1, 2) relatively to the point A 1,6,0 .

Solution.
In this task, the radius r is the vector AB . So, r AB ( 2, 5, 2) . Applying
the formula (3.43) yields
88
i j k
C r F 2 5 2 25i 2 j 6k 5k 10 j 6i 19i 12 j 11k
1 3 5
3.13. Scalar triple product

Among various combination of dot and cross products with three vectors in 3-
space, in different branches of sciences the most useful combination is so called
scalar triple product.
Def. If a , b , and c are vectors in 3-space, then a b c is called the scalar
triple product of a , b , and c .
Remark. The symbol a b c makes no sense because we cannot form the
cross product of a scalar and a vector. Thus, no ambiguity arises if we write a b c
rather than a b c . However, for clarity we will usually keep the parentheses.
Below we will list some properties and application of the triple scalar product.
Properties and application.
1. If three vectors a a1, a2 , a3 , b b1, b2 , b3 and c c1, c2 , c3 are given in
the component form, then scalar triple product can be found by the determinant of
third order:
a1 a2 a3
a b c b1 b2 b3 . (3.44)
c1 c2 c3
2. Three vectors a , b , and c in 3-space so that their initial points coincide are
ordered by the right-hand rule if and only if their scalar triple product is positive.
Otherwise, three vectors are ordered by the left-hand rule if and only if their scalar
triple product is negative.
Def. Three vectors a , b and c are called coplanar if they lie in one plane or
parallel planes.
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3. Three vectors a , b and c are coplanar if and only if their scalar triple
product is equal to zero, that is
a, b, c coplanar a b c 0. (3.45)
Fig. 16.
4. Volume of parallelepiped and tetrahedron (geometrical application). Let’s
consider three vectors a , b , and c , which have the same initial point. Such vectors
determine a parallelepiped and a tetrahedron (a triangular pyramid) in 3-space (Fig.
18). The volume Vp of the parallelepiped is given by the formula
Vp a b c , (3.46)
and the volume Vt of the tetrahedron (triangular pyramid) is given by the formula
1
Vt a b c . (3.47)
6
Example 1. Determine whether three vectors a (0,7,8) , b ( 3, 4,6) , and
c 9i 2k are ordered by the right-hand rule if their initial points coincide.

Solution.
Let’s find the scalar triple product of the given vectors by the formula (3.44)
0 7 8
a (b c ) 3 4 6 0 378 0 288 42 0 48 .
9 0 2
Since a (b c ) 48 0 , according to the property 2 these three vectors are not

ordered by the right-hand rule. They are ordered by the left-hand rule.
90
Example 2. Find the volume of the tetrahedron determined by the vectors
a (3,1, 5), b ( 2,6,8) , and c (7,4, 9) .
Solution.
Firstly, the scalar triple product can be obtained:
3 1 5
a (b c ) 2 6 8 162 56 40 210 18 96 30 .
7 4 9
According to the formula (3.47), we get the answer
1
Vt 30 5
6
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Chapter 4. Analytic geometry in two- and three-dimensional spaces
Plane geometry includes the study of figures – such as lines, circles, and
triangles – that lie in a plane. In analytic geometry, geometric figures – such as
surfaces, planes, curves and lines – are investigated by introducing coordinate
systems and then using equations and formulas. If the study of analytic geometry
were to be summarized by means of one statement, perhaps the following would be
appropriate: given an equation, find its graph, and conversely, given a graph, find its
equation. In this chapter we will apply coordinate methods to several basic figures.
4.1. Equations of a surface and curve

Coordinates of a single fixed point P in 3-space are three fixed numbers. If
these coordinates are changing, we get a moving point that runs over some set in 3-
space. We will consider the cases when this set is some surface or some curve. The
case of a curve differs from the case of a surface by its dimension or, in other words,
by the number of degrees of freedom. Each surface is two-dimensional – a point on a
surface has two degrees of freedom. Each line is one-dimensional – a point on a line
has one degree of freedom. Lines and surfaces contain infinitely many points.
Therefore, they cannot be described by enumeration where each point is described
separately. Lines and surfaces are described by means of equations.
Let’s consider the next equation in three unknowns:
x2 y2 z2 r2 , r const (4.1)
which describes a ”surface”. As you know this surface is called the sphere. The
equation (4.1) represents the sphere in 3-space with the radius r and the center at the
origin of the Cartesian coordinate system. Every point lying on the sphere is
equidistant from the center and satisfies the equation (4.1). In other hand, an arbitrary
point not lying on the sphere doesn’t satisfy the equation (4.11). Therefore, only the
points on the sphere satisfy the equation (4.1).
In generalizing the foregoing discussions we should say: an equation in x, y, z
F x, y, z 0 (4.2)
92
represents, usually, a surface. The surface consists of all those points and only those
points, that coordinates, when substituted for x, y, z in the equation (4.2), satisfy it.
Shifting the point of view, we assume now that it is a surface, and not an
equation, which is given. Then we should say: the equation of a given surface is an
equation (4.2) in x, y, z which is satisfied by the coordinates of every point of the
surface and by the coordinates of no other point.
According to our discussion, the equation (4.1) is the equation of sphere. The
simplest surface in 3-space is a plane being considered in the following sections.
If two surfaces intersect, then their intersection represents, usually, a “curve”.
For instance, the intersection of a sphere and a plane is a circle. In general, the curve
in 3-space is given by the intersection of two surfaces:
F1 x, y, z 0
, (4.3)
F2 x, y, z 0
or by the set of parametric equations:

x x t ,
y y t ,t M, (4.4)
z z t ,
where M is a set from R , the set of real numbers. By analogy with the surfaces, the
curve is represented by the equation (4.3) or (4.4) if only the components of the
points lying on the curve satisfy the equation and no other point satisfy this equation.
The simplest curve in 2- or 3-space is a line, which we will consider in this
chapter. In next chapters some surfaces in R3 and some curves in R2 will be studied.
4.2. General equation of a plane in 3-space

Planes are important things in the analytic geometry, and we must think about
them and the nature of their equations. To start the proceedings, we can think of the
top surface of a flat sheet of paper as being a part of a plane . Let P1 be a point in
. A vertical pencil then represents vector n , that is normal (perpendicular) to the
plane. Without bothering to decide how the fact is related to this or that set of
93
postulates and definitions in Euclid geometry, we shall use the fact that a point P
different from P1 lies in if and only if the vector P1 P is perpendicular to the vector
n (see Fig. 1).
Fig. 1.
Let n be a vector of positive length which is perpendicular to and has the
components A, B, C . Let P1 x1, y1 , z1 be a point in . According to the previous
consideration a point P lies in if and only if (see Section 3.9 Property e)
n PP
1 0. (4.5)
This means that the vector P1 P is perpendicular to the vector n . Thus, the point
P x, y, z lies in the plane if and only if
A x x1 B y y1 C z z1 0. (4.6)
Equation (4.6) is called the equation of a plane passing through point P1 and
perpendicular to a vector n . Vector n A, B, C or any another vector, which is

perpendicular to a plane, is called a normal vector or, simply, a normal to a plane,
therefore (4.6) is also called the point-normal equation of a plane. After opening
brackets in (4.6) and grouping the same terms the next equation can be received
Ax By Cz Ax1 By1 Cz1 0
or
Ax By Cz D 0 , (4.7)
where A, B, C, D are constants and A, B, C are not all zero. The equation (4.7) is
called the general equation of a plane. One can prove the following theorem.
94
Theorem 1.
Every plane can be represented analytically by a linear equation (4.7) in x, y, z ,
and, conversely, any equation (4.7) with A, B, C , which aren’t all zero, describes a
plane.
Let’s consider the location of a plane if one or more constants in (4.7) are equal
to zero:
1) if D 0 , then the plane Ax By Cz 0 passes through the origin;
2a) if A 0 , then the plane By Cz D 0 is parallel to x-axis;
2b) if B 0 , then the plane Ax Cz D 0 is parallel to y-axis;
2c) if C 0 , then the plane Ax By D 0 is parallel to z-axis;
3a) if A D 0 , then the plane By Cz 0 passes through x-axis;
3b) if B D 0 , then the plane Ax Cz 0 passes through y-axis;
3c) if C D 0 , then the plane Ax By 0 passes through z-axis;
4a) if A B 0 , then the plane Cz D 0 is perpendicular to z-axis;
4b) if A C 0 , then the plane By D 0 is perpendicular to y-axis;
4c) if B C 0 , then the plane Ax D 0 is perpendicular to x-axis;
5) the coordinate planes are given by the equations:
xy plane : z 0;
xz plane : y 0;
yz plane : x 0.
There are other forms of the equation of a plane. Some of them we will consider
in the next section.
Example. Find the equation of a plane passing through the point M ( 2,1,3) and
perpendicular to the vector n (3, 4,2) .
Solution.
Substituting A 3, B 4, C 2 and x1 2, y1 1, z1 3 in (4.6) we get
3( x ( 2)) ( 4)( y 1) 2( z 3) 0
After opening the brackets and grouping the same terms we receive the general
equation of the sought plane
95
3x 4 y 2 z 4 0
4.3. Other equations of a plane in 3-space

Suppose that the plane is given by the general equation
Ax By Cz D 0 (4.8)
and this plane doesn’t pass through the origin of coordinate system, that is D 0.
After transferring the term D to the right side of (4.8) and dividing by D we
receive:
Ax By Cz D D ,
x y z
1. (4.9)
D/A D/B D/C
D D D
Denoting the denominators by: a, b, c , the following
A B C
equation can be written:
x y z
1, (4.10)
a b c
which is called the equation of a plane in the intercept form. This name is given to
the equation (4.10) because constant a, b, c give us the segments, which the plane
cuts off on the coordinate axes. That is, the points P1 a;0;0 , P2 (0; b;0), P3 0;0; c are
the intersection’s points of the plane and the axes (see Fig. 2).
Fig. 2.
Example 1. Find the segments that the plane given by the equation
96
4 x 3 y 5 z 15 0 cuts off on the coordinate axes.
Solution.
Since the constant term D 15 of the general equation of the plane is not equal
to zero, this equation can be reduced to the equation in the intercept form:
4 x 3 y 5z 15 ( 15) ,
x y z
1.
15 / 4 5 3
Thus, the plane cuts off the segments a 15 / 4 , b 5 , and c 3 on the coordinate
axes x, y,and z , respectively.
The next equation of a plane can be received from the well-known postulate:
three points, not lying on a straight line, determine a plane. Let
P1 x1 , y1, z1 , P2 x2 , y2 , z2 , P3 x3 , y3 , z3 be the given distinct points, not lying on a
line. Thus, the plane, denoted by , passes through these three points. For any point
P x, y, z lying in the plane , we receive that three vectors PP
1 , PP
1 2 , and PP
1 3 are
coplanar. Therefore, by the property 3 Section 3.13, three vectors are coplanar if and
only if their scalar triple product is equal to zero, that is:
PP
1 PP
1 2 PP
1 3 0, (4.11)
or in the component form:

x x1 y y1 z z1
x2 x1 y2 y1 z2 z1 0. (4.12)
x3 x1 y3 y1 z3 z1
The latter is called the equation of a plane passing through three points. After
calculating and simplifying the determinant in the right side of the equation (4.12) it
can be received the general equation (4.7) of a plane with normal vector
n PP
1 2 PP
1 3.
Example 2. Find the equation of a plane passing through three points P1 ( 4,3,2) ,
P2 ( 2,0,5) , and P3 (6, 3,1) .
Solution.
97
Applying (4.12) yields
x 4 y 3 z 2
2 4 0 3 5 2 0
6 4 3 3 1 2
After obtaining the determinant and simplifying, we have
x 4 y 3 z 2
2 3 3 3( x 4) 30( y 3) 12( z 2) 30( z 2) 2( y 3)
10 6 1
18( x 4) 21( x 4) 32( y 3) 18( z 2) 21x 32 y 18z 48
Thus, the equation of the plane passing through these points is
21x 32 y 18 z 48 0
It is easy to verify that the components of each points P1 , P2 ,and P3 satisfy this
equation.
4.4. Angle between two planes

In this section we will deduce a formula to determine an angle between two
planes and write the conditions for parallel and perpendicular planes.
Let’s consider two planes given by the general equations:
1 : A1 x B1 y C1 z D1 0,
2 : A2 x B2 y C2 z D2 0.
The normals to these planes have A1 , B1 , C1 and A2 , B2 , C2 respectively as the
components, that is n1 A1 , B1 , C1 , n2 A2 , B2 , C2 (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3.
Between the two planes 1 and 2 there are, in general, two different angles
98
having values between 0 and 180 inclusive (or between 0 and radians), and
these angles are supplementary. They are equal to the angles between the normals to
these planes. Since we know the components of the normals, the cosines of the angles
between the normals are given by the formulae (see application 2 Section 3.10):
n1 n2
cos (4.13)
n1 n2
Since among two angles between planes only one is acute and the cosine of such
angles is non-negative, so to determine the smallest angle between planes we have to
choose the sing ‘+’ or ‘ ‘ such that the cosine in the formula (4.13) was non-
negative. In general, it is simpler to take the numerators in the formula (4.13) by the
absolute value to get the same result:
n1 n2
cos (4.14)
n1 n2
or
A1 A2 B1B2 C1C2
cos . (4.15)
A12 B12 C12 A22 B22 C22
It is obvious, the planes are perpendicular (parallel) if and only if their normals
are perpendicular (parallel). Consequently, we have the following theorems.
Theorem 1.
The planes 1 and 2 are perpendicular when and only when
n1 n2 0 or A1 A2 B1B2 C1C2 0. (4.16)
Theorem 2.
The planes 1 and 2 are parallel when and only when
A1 B1 C1
A1 : B1 : C1 A2 : B2 : C2 . (4.17)
A2 B2 C2
Remark. The equations of two parallel planes can be transformed to the same
form differing only in the constant terms. That is, the equations of the parallel planes
can be written as Ax By Cz D1 0 and Ax By Cz D2 0 , respectively.
Example. Find the angle between the planes 2 x 3z 16 0 and
99
x y 3z 3 0 .
Solution.
First of all, we need to find the normals of the given planes from their equation:
n1 ( 2,0,3) and n2 (1, 1,3) .
Next, we obtain the cosine of the angle by the formula (4.15)
2 0 9 7
cos
4 0 9 1 1 9 143
Thus, the angle between the planes is equal to 54.171 .
4.5. Distance from point to plane in 3-space

Assume that a plane is determined by an equation in the general form:
Ax By Cz D 0 . (4.18)
Fig. 4
Let M1 x1, y1, z1 be a given point not in the plane, and M 0 x0 , y0 , z0 be an
arbitrary point in (Fig. 4). Since the vectors n and M 1K are both perpendicular to
the plane , so these vectors are parallel. Thus, the distance d between the point M 1
and the plane is equal to the absolute value of the projection of the vector M 0 M 1
on the vector n A, B, C :
M 0 M1 n
d projn M 0 M 1 .
n
Therefore,
A x1 x0 B y1 y0 C z1 z0
d (4.19)
2 2 2
A B C
100
As the point M 0 lies in the plane , so the coordinates of this point satisfy the
equation (4.18), that is:
Ax0 By0 Cz0 D 0 or D Ax0 By0 Cz0 .
Substituting the last relationship in (4.19), we receive the formula for the distance d
from the point M 1 ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) to the plane :
Ax1 By1 Cz1 D

d . (4.20)
2 2 2
A B C
It should be noted, that, if the point M 1 lies in the plane , than the numerator
of the fraction in formula (4.20) is equal to zero. Therefore, in this case the distance
d is also equal to zero. This result is obvious from the geometrical construction.
Remark. To calculate the distance between two parallel planes, it should be
determined an arbitrary point in one of these planes and find the distance from the
chosen point to another plane by formula (4.20).
Example. Find the distance from the point M ( 2,4,1) to the plane
2x y 2z 1 0 .
Solution.
From the general equation of the plane 2 x y 2 z 1 0 we can find the
normal to this plane: n (2, 1, 2) . Substituting in the formula (4.20)
x1 2, y1 4, z1 1 (the coordinates of the point M ), A 2, B 1, C 2 (the
components of the normal n ), and D 1 (the constant term in the general equation of
the given plane) we get
2 ( 2) 1 4 2 1 1 9
d 3.
2 2
( 1) 2
( 2) 2
9
Thus, the distance between the point M and given plane is equal to 3.
4.6. Line in 3-space

A line is the simplest curve in 3-dimensional space. In this section we will study
the different analytical equations describing a line in 3-space.
101
Let’s consider a line L in 3-space (Fig. 5). Suppose that the point P0 x0 , y0 , z0
lies on the line L and the vector s l , m, n is parallel to L . The components l , m, n

of the vector s are called the direction components or the direction ratio of the line
L . In general, any vector s which is parallel to a line is called the direction vector of
a line.
Fig. 5.
Let P x, y, z be any point on the line L. Then the vectors
P0 P x x0 , y y0 , z z0 and s are collinear. Therefore, the components of these
vectors must be proportional, that is PP0 t s . Thus, we can write a vector equation
of a line
r r0 t s, (4.21)
where r and r0 are the position vectors of points P and P0 , that is r OP ( x, y, z )
and r0 OP0 x0 , y0 , z0 . The factor of proportionality, t , varies in value as point P

changes position.
In particular, if r0 and r1 are position vectors in 3-space, then the line that passes
through the terminal points of these vectors can be expressed in vector form as
r r0 t (r1 r0 ) , (4.22a)
or
r (1 t ) r0 t r1 , (4.22b)
as indicated in Fig. 5. It is common to call either (4.22a) or (4.22b) the two-point
vector form of a line. It is understood that t varies from to . However, if we
102
restrict t to vary over the interval 0 t 1 , then r will vary from r0 to r1 . Thus, the
equation
r (1 t ) r0 t r1 (0 t 1) (4.23)
represents the line segment in 3-space (or 2-space) that is traced from r0 to r1 .
The equation (4.21) can be written in the component form:
x l t x0 ,
y m t y0 , t R, (4.24)
z n t z0 ,
which is called the parametric equation of a line. Instead of (4.24), we can write
x x0 y y0 z z0
, (4.25)
l m n
which is called the symmetrical equation of a line or the equation of a line passing
through the point P0 and having the direction ratio l , m, n .
As you know, through two distinct points we can draw only one line. Let
P1 x1, y1, z1 and P2 x2 , y2 , z2 be the distinct points. Then the line passing through
these points has the direction ratio x2 x1 , y2 y1 , z2 z1 and is represented by the
following equation:
x x1 y y1 z z1
, (4.26)
x2 x1 y2 y1 z2 z1
which is called the equation of a line passing through two points.
Remark. In the equations (4.25) and (4.26) we have no fractions only the
proportions. Thus, the denominators of these proportions can be equal to zero. If the
denominator of a proportion equals to zero, it means that the corresponding
numerator must be also equal to zero.
Example. Find the parametric and symmetric equations of a line passing through
a point M ( 5,7,3) and parallel to a vector s (2, 3,0) .
Solution.
The vector s is the direction vector of the sought line, because it is parallel to
this line. So, according to the formulas (4.24) and (4.25) we get the parametric
103
equation of the line:
x 2t 5,
y 3t 7,
z 3,
and the symmetric one:
x 5 y 7 z 3
.
2 3 0
4.7. Line as intersection of two planes

If we look again at Fig. 3, then we realize that the intersection of two distinct
planes is a line. Thus, we can determine a line in 3-space as an intersection of two
distinct planes.
Let distinct non-parallel planes 1 and 2 be given by the equations in the
general form, that is:
1 : A1 x B1 y C1 z D1 0,
2 : A2 x B2 y C2 z D2 0.
Then the following system of simultaneous linear equations:
A1 x B1 y C1 z D1 0,
(4.27)
A2 x B2 y C2 z D2 0
describes a line in 3-space. The system (4.27) is called the non-symmetrical equation
of a line. As the planes aren’t parallel, so it can be proved that the system (4.27) has
infinitely many solution.
To transform the non-symmetrical equation of a line (4.27) into the symmetrical
or parametrical equation we should know a direction vector of a line and an arbitrary
point lying on a line.
As the line describing by the equation (4.27) lies in the both planes 1 and 2 ,
so the line is perpendicular to the normals of these planes. Therefore, a direction
vector of the line can be found as the cross product of normals, that is:
104
i j k
s n1 n2 A1 B1 C1 .
A2 B2 C2
To determine a point on the line, we need to find a particular solution of the

system (4.27). If we substitute, for instance, z 0 in (4.27), we receive the next
system in two variables:
A1 x B1 y D1 0,
A2 x B2 y D2 0.
If this system has a unique solution x x0 , y y0 , then the point P0 x0 , y0 ,0 lies on
the line. Otherwise, we should do other substitution, for example, y 0 or x 0 and

find a solution of a reduced system. In this way we can find a point on the line and
write the symmetrical or parametrical equation of the line, as we know vector s . For
instance, the symmetrical equation can be written as
x 0 y y0 z z0
(4.28)
B1 C1 A1 C1 A1 B1
B2 C2 A2 C2 A2 B2
Example. Find the symmetrical equation of the line given by
2x 3y z 2 0
x 4 y 3z 7 0
Solution.
Since the line is given by the non-symmetrical equation, to determine a direction
vector s of this line we should find normals to two planes that are represented by the
equations of the given system and then obtain their cross product
i j k
s 2 3 1 9i j 8k 3k 6j 4i 13i 7 j 5k ( 13, 7,5)
1 4 3
Substituting x 0 in the given system yields

3y z 2 0
4 y 3z 7 0
105
which is y 1, z 1 (verify).
Since the point P(0,1,1) lies on the line and s ( 13, 7,5) is the direction
vector of it, we can write the symmetrical equation of the given line by Formula
(4.25)
x 0 y 1 z 1
13 7 5
4.8. Angle between lines in 3-space

In this section we will determine an angle between two lines and derive a
formula to calculate it.
Let two lines be given, for instance, by the symmetrical equations (Fig. 6):
x x1 y y1 z z1
L1 : ,
l1 m1 n1
x x2 y y2 z z2
L2 : .
l2 m2 n2
By analogy to the angle between two planes, the angle between two lines can be
determined as the angle between their direction vectors s1 l1, m1, n1 and
s2 l2 , m2 , n2 . Therefore, the cosine of the angle can be obtained by the formula:
s1 s2
cos (4.29)
s1 s2
As among two angles between lines only one is acute and the cosine of such angles is
non-negative, so to determine the smallest angle between lines we have to choose
Fig. 6
the sing ‘+’ or ‘ ‘ such that the cosine in Formula (4.29) was non-negative. In
106
general, it is simpler to take the numerators in Formula (4.29) by the absolute value to
get the same result:
s1 s2
cos (4.30)
s1 s2
or
l1l2 m1m2 n1n2
cos . (4.31)
2 2 2 2 2 2
l
1 m 1 n1 l
2 m 2 n 2
It is obvious, that the lines are perpendicular (parallel) if and only if their
direction vectors are perpendicular (parallel). Consequently, we have the following
theorems.
Theorem 1.
The lines L1 and L2 are perpendicular when and only when
s1 s2 0 or l1l2 m1m2 n1n2 0. (4.32)
Theorem 2.
The lines L1 and L2 are parallel when and only when
l1 m1 n1
l1 : m1 : n1 l2 : m2 : n2 . (4.33)
l2 m2 n2
Corollary. The direction vector of the one of parallel lines is also the direction
vector of other one.
x 1 y 3 z
Example. Calculate the angle between the lines and
2 1 4
x 5 y 4 z 2
3 1 2
Solution.
Since the given lines are represented by the symmetrical equations, their
direction vectors are s1 (2, 1,4) and s2 ( 3,1,2) . Thus, applying Formula (4.30)
yields
6 1 8 1 1
cos
4 1 16 9 1 4 21 14 7 6
107
4.9. Distance from point to line in 3-space. Distance between two skew lines
Let’s consider a line L given, for instance, by the symmetrical equation:
x x0 y y0 z z0
, (4.34)
l m n
and a point M1 x1 , y1 , z1 not lying on this line. The distance d from the point M 1 to
the line L is the length of the altitude passing through the point M 1 to this line.
Fig. 7
The equation (4.34) allows us to determine the direction vector s l , m, n of
the line L and a point M 0 x0 , y0 , z0 lying in this line. If we position the vector s
that its initial point coincide with the point M 0 , than two vectors M 0 M 1 and s
determining a triangle M 0 M 1K (Fig. 7). The area of this triangle can be obtained by
Formula (3.41):
1
S M 0 M1 s . (4.35)
2
In other hand, as you know, the area of the triangle can be found by the other
formula:
1
S a h,
2
where a is the length of the base (any side of triangle), h is the altitude of triangle
(altitude denotes the length of a perpendicular from the vertex opposite the base onto
the line containing the base). In our case, we rewrite the last formula in the following
form:
1
S s d. (4.36)
2
108
The left sides of Formulas (4.35) and (4.36) are equal, so their right sides are
also equal, that is:
1 1
M 0 M1 s s d.
2 2
Therefore, from the last relationship we receive the formula for the distance d :
M 0M1 s
d . (4.37)
s
Remark. By analogy with the distance between two parallel planes, the distance
between two parallel lines could be obtained by formula (4.37) as the distance from
an arbitrary point on one of these lines to another line.
Fig. 8
If two lines are not parallel and don’t intersect, then these lines are called the
skew lines (Fig.8).
Let’s consider two skew lines L1 and L2
x x1 y y1 z z1 x x2 y y2 z z2
L1 : , L2 : .
l1 m1 n1 l2 m2 n2
The distance d between these lines is the length of the straight segment, which is
perpendicular to both these lines.
For each of these lines, we could find the point M i , i 1,2 lying on the line and
the direction vectors si , i 1,2 , that is:
M i xi , yi , zi Li , si li , mi , ni || Li , i 1,2 .
The distance d is given by the formula:
M 1M 2 s1 s2
d . (4.38)
s1 s2
109
We accept this formula without proving. You could deduce this formula yourself
using the applications of the cross and scalar triple products and the knowledge of
stereometry.
Example. Find the distance from the point M 1 ( 1,0,3) to the line
x 1 y 3 z 1
.
2 1 4
Solution.
From the symmetrical equation of the given line we determine the point
M 0 (1,3, 1) lying on it and its direction vector s ( 2,1,4) . As M 0 M 1 ( 2, 3,4) , we
get
i j k
M 0 M1 s 2 3 4 16i 8k
2 1 4
Let’s obtain the lengths of the cross product and direction vector:
M 0M1 s ( 16) 2 02 ( 8) 2 8 5,
s ( 2)2 12 42 21 .
8 5
Applying Formula (4.37) yields: d
21
4.10. Angle between line and plane in 3-space

Let’s consider a plane given by the general equation:
: Ax By Cz D 0 ,
and a line L (not parallel to the plane ) given by the symmetrical equation:
x x0 y y0 z z0
L: .
l m n
In Fig. 9 a line L0 is the orthogonal projection of the line L to the plane . The
angle between a plane and a line we determine as the smallest angle between two
lines L and L0 . Obviously, the angle is acute or right ( 0 / 2 ). Placing the
110
initial points of the normal n A, B, C and the direction vector s l , m, n in the
intersection point of the plane and line, we notice that the angle between these vectors
is one of the supplementary angles or . Moreover, the angles and satisfy
Fig. 9
one of the equalities / 2 . Thus, cos cos /2 sin . Applying
Formula (3.35) to find an angle between two vectors and taking into account that
sin 0 for all in 0, / 2 , we receive the next formula for the angle between the
plane and line:
n s
sin (4.39)
n s
The following theorems give the conditions for a plane and a line, which are
parallel or perpendicular.
Theorem 1.
A plane and a line are parallel if and only if the normal of plane is perpendicular
to the direction vector of line, that is the dot product of these vectors is equal to zero.
|| L n s n s 0 or Al Bm Cn 0 . (4.40)
Theorem 2.
A plane and a line are perpendicular if and only if the normal of plane is parallel
to the direction vector of line, that is, the corresponding components of these vectors
are proportional.
A B C
L n || s n s 0 or . (4.41)
l m n
Example. Determine the angle between the plane 2 x 5 y 3 0 and the line
111
x 2 y 3 z 1
.
4 3 7
Solution.
As n (2, 5,0) is the normal of the plane and s ( 4,3,7) is the direction
vector of the line, so applying Formula (4.39) yields
2 ( 4) ( 5) 3 0 7 23
sin 0.4965
22 ( 5)2 02 ( 4)2 32 72 29 74
Thus, 29.77 .
4.11. Line in 2-space

So far, we studied a lot about a line in 3-space. In this section we will restrict
our discussion to lines that lie in a coordinate plane (2-dimensional space).
The following concept is fundamental in the studying of lines in 2-space. Let L
be a line that is not parallel to the y-axis, and let P1 x1, y1 and P2 x2 , y2 be distinct
points on L (Fig. 10).
Fig. 10.
Def. The slope k of line L is
y2 y1
k . (4.42)
x2 x1
If L is parallel to the y-axis, then the slope of L is not defined.
If the line L makes an angle with the positive direction of x-axis, then the
slope k is equal to the trigonometric tangent of
k tan . (4.43)
112
Therefore, the direction of a line is defined by the slope k .
Let’s find an equation of a line L passing through a point P1 x1, y1 with a slope
k . If P x, y is any point with x x1 , then P is on L if and only if the slope of the
line passing through P1 and P is k , that is

y y1
k. (4.44)
x x1
This equation might be written in the form
y y1 k x x1 . (4.45)
which is called the equation of a line in the point-slope form.
If we open brackets in (4.45) and group the terms, we receive y kx y1 kx1
or
y kx b , (4.46)
where b y1 kx1 . The equation (4.46) is called the equation of a line in the slope-
intercept form, because this line intersects the y-axis in the point 0,b and has the
slope k .
Remark. If a line is parallel to the y-axis, then the equation of such line is:
x a. (4.47)
Using (4.42) and (4.44), we can write the equation:
y y1 y2 y1
x x1 x2 x1
or
x x1 y y1
, (4.48)
x2 x1 y2 y1
which is called the equation of a line passing through two points P1 and P2 .
We can simplify the equation (4.45) given in the point-slope form to the
equation of a line in general form:
Ax By C 0 (4.49)
where A, B, C are constant and A2 B2 0 . The location of line (4.49) can be
113
defined by a normal vector n A, B , which is perpendicular to a line. By analogy
with 3-space the following theorem holds in 2-space.
Theorem.
Any linear equation (4.49) describes a line in a coordinate plane, and,
conversely, any line in a coordinate plane can be represented by (4.49).
Remark. We can receive the general equation (4.49) of a line in 2-space as the
intersection of a plane in 3-space and the xy-plane, that is:
Ax By Cz D 0
Ax By D 0.
z 0
Denoting by m x2 x1 , n y2 y1 in (4.48), we receive the equation of a line

passing through point P1 having direction ratios m, n :
x x1 y y1
. (4.50)
m n
The direction of a line in the form (4.50) is defined by the direction vector s m, n ,
which is collinear to a line.
Remark. As a normal (direction vector) of the line L we can choose any vector,
which is perpendicular (collinear) to L.
There are other forms of the equations of a line.
Example. Find the slope-intercept equation of the line passing through two
points P1 ( 2,3) and P2 (1, 6) .
Solution.
Applying Formula (4.48) yields
x 2 y 3 x 2 y 3
or ,
1 2 6 3 3 9
which is the equation of the given line passing through two points. Using the main
property of ratios, we get
9( x 2) 3( y 3) ,
or
9 x 18 3 y 9 .
114
Solving the last equation in y we receive
y 3x 3 ,
which is the equation of the given line in the slope-intercept form.
4.12. Angle between two lines in 2-space

We know how to represent a line in the coordinate plane by different equations.
The next our objective is to determine an angle between two lines (Fig. 11).
Fig. 11.
Let’s consider two straight lines L1 and L2 with slopes k1 and k 2
( ki tan i , i 1,2 ):
L1 : y k1 x b1 , L2 : y k2 x b2 .
In Fig. 11 the angle is denoted the angle between L1 and L2 measured from L1 and
L2 in the counterclockwise direction. From plane geometry we know that ACB and
the angle are equal as vertical opposite angles, that is ACB . Since the angle
2 is the exterior angle to the triangle ABC , then 2 ACB BAC , that is
2 1 . Thus, 2 1 and tan tan( 2 1 ) . Applying the subtraction

formula for trigonometric tangent to the right side of the last equality, we receive the
formula to determine the angle between two lines:
k2 k1
tan (4.51)
1 k1 k2
If the lines L1 and L2 is collinear, than the angle is equal to zero, that is
k1 k 2 from formula (4.51). The converse statement is also true.
The lines L1 and L2 are perpendicular if and only if the slopes of the lines are
115
1
negative reciprocal, that is k1 k2 1 or k2 .
k1
If the lines are given in general form
L1 : A1 x B1 y C1 0 and L2 : A2 x B2 y C2 0,
then the angle between their normals is equal to the one of the supplementary angle
or between these lines. Therefore, the smallest angle between two lines can
be obtained by the formula:
n1 n2
cos , (4.52)
n1 n2
where n1 ( A1 , B1 ) and n2 ( A2 , B2 ) .
In this case, the conditions of perpendicularity and collinearity are defined as:
A1 B1
1) L1 || L2 n1 || n2
A2 B2
2) L1 L2 n1 n2 A1 A2 B1B2 0.
The analogous formulas to obtain the angle between two lines given by the
equations in the other forms could be written.
Example. Find the angle between the lines given by the equations y 2x 5
x 2 y 1
and .
4 3
Solution.
The first line is given by the equation y 2 x 5 in the slope-intercept form,
but another is given by the equation in the form (4.50). Therefore, to apply Formula
(4.51) we transform the second equation in the slope-intercept form:
x 2 y 1
,
4 3
3
( x 2) y 1,
4
or
3 5
y x .
4 2
116
3
Thus, substituting k1 2 and k2 in Formula (4.51) we get
4
3
( 2) 5
1
tan 4 4
,
1 4 ( 2)
3 5
2 2
and 26.565 .
4.13. Distance from a point to a line in 2-space

In this section we will deduce the formula for a distance between a point and
line in two-dimensional space.
Assume that in 2-space a line L is determined by the general equation:
Ax By C 0. (4.53)
Let M1 x1 , y1 L be a given point not in the line, and M 0 x0 , y0 L be an arbitrary

point on L (Fig. 12). Then a distance d between the point M 1 and the line L is the
length of perpendicular segment from the point to the line. According to Section 3.10,
d is equal to the absolute value of scalar projection of M 0 M 1 ( x1 x0 , y1 y0 ) on
Fig. 12.
the normal vector n A, B :
M 0 M1 n
d projn M 0 M 1 .
n
or
A x1 x0 B y1 y0
d . (4.54)
2 2
A B
117
As point M 0 lies on the line L , so the coordinates of this point satisfy the
equation (4.53), that is:
Ax0 By0 C 0 or C Ax0 By0 .
Substituting the last relationship in (4.54), the formula for the distance d from the
point M 1 to the line L is written as:
Ax1 By1 C
d . (4.55)
2 2
A B
Example. Evaluate the distance from the point M 1 ( 3,4) to the line
x 3y 1 0 .
Solution.
Applying Formula (4.55) yields
( 3) 3 4 1 10
d 10
12 32 10
118
Chapter 5. Curves and surfaces of the second degree
In the previous chapter, we studied the simplest surface in 3-space – a plane that
is described by an equation of the first degree in three variables, and the simplest
curve in the plane – a line that is also described by an equation of the first degree but
in two variables. In this chapter, we will study the curves on the plane – conics that
are described by second-degree algebraic equations in two variable, and consider
some surfaces described by second-degree algebraic equations in three variables. The
conics play an important role in calculus and also arise naturally in a broad range of
applications in such fields as planetary motion, design of telescopes and antennas,
geodetic positioning, and medicine, to name a few.
5.1. Definition and general equation of conic sections

Consider a circle C . Let L be the line through the center of C perpendicular to
the plane of C , and let V be a point on L not in the plane of C , as shown in Fig. 1.
Let P be a point on C , and draw the infinite straight line through P that also passes
through V . As P moves around C , the line PV builds up a right circular cone (or
simply a cone) with axis L and vertex V . Each of the lines PV is called a generator
of the cone, and the angle between the axis and any generator is called the vertex
angle. The cone shown in Fig. l has a vertical axis, and the upper and lower portions
of the cone that meet at the vertex are called the nappes of the cone.
Fig. 1.
119
The curves obtained by intersection a cone with a plane that does not pass
through the vertex are called conic sections, or simply conics. If the plane is parallel
to a generator, the conic is called a parabola. Otherwise, the conic is called an ellipse
or a hyperbola, depending on whether the plane cuts just one or both nappes. The
hyperbola is to be thought of as a single curve consisting of two "branches," one on
each nappe. These three curves are illustrated in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2
It should be noted that if the intersection plane in Fig. 2 is parallel to a generator
and passes through the vertex, then we get three so-called degenerate conic sections,
namely, a single straight line, a point, and a pair of intersecting straight lines.
Conic sections can be defined as follows. In the xy-plane select a point F , called
the focus, and a line D not through F . This line is called the directrix. The set of
points P satisfying the condition that the distance from F to P , call it r PF , is
120
some multiple times the distance d PP1 , where d represents the perpendicular
distance from the point P to the line D . The resulting equation for the conic section
is obtained from the equation
r d (5.1)
with the geometric interpretation of this equation illustrated in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3.
The plane curve resulting from (5.1) is called a conic section with eccentricity
, focus F and directrix D and if the eccentricity satisfies:
0 1 , the conic section is an ellipse;
1 , the conic section is a parabola.
1 , the conic section is a hyperbola.
All these conics (generate and degenerate) in Cartesian coordinate system are
represented by a general equation of the second degree that has the form:
Ax 2 Bxy Cy 2 Dx Ey F 0, (5.2)
where A, B, C, D, E, F are constants. In appropriate coordinate system the equation
(5.2) for each conics has the simplest form, which is called a standard or canonical
equation of a conic.
In following sections, we will consider each of the mentioned conics, their
canonical equations and properties separately.
5.2. Ellipse
An ellipse may be defined as follows.
121
Def. An ellipse is the set of all points in a plane, the sum of whose distances
from two fixed points called the foci in the plane is a positive constant denoted by
2a .
Fig. 4
Let a point P x, y be an arbitrary point in an ellipse and the foci be denoted as
F1 and F2 (Fig. 4). The distances from the point P to the foci F1 , F2 are called the
focal distances or focal radii and denoted by r1 , r2 , correspondingly. By the definition
of the ellipse, any point P in the ellipse satisfies the following equation:
r1 r2 2a . (5.3)
To deduce a standard equation of an ellipse we introduce the following
perpendicular coordinate system: x-axis passes through the foci, y-axis is
perpendicular bisector of the segment F1F2 (Fig. 4). We denote the distance between
the foci by 2c a c . So the components of the foci are c,0 , that is F1,2 c,0 ,
and the focal distances from the point P are equal:
2 2
r1 x c y 2 , r2 x c y2 .
Substituting the last relations in the equation (5.3), we receive:

2 2
x c y2 x c y2 2a . (5.4)
Transpose one of the radicals and square:

2 2 2
x c y2 4a 2 4a x c y2 x c y2 .
Hence
2
a x c y2 a 2 cx .
To remove this radical, square again:

122
a2 x2 2a 2cx a 2c 2 a2 y 2 a4 2a 2cx c 2 x 2 ,
or
a2 c2 x2 a2 y2 a2 a2 c2 .
Denoted by
b2 a2 c2 , (5.5)
we receive:
b2 x 2 a2 y2 a 2b2 ,
or
x2 y2
1. (5.6)
a2 b2
This is the standard equation of an ellipse.
Remark. It could be proved that the equation (5.4) and (5.6) are equivalent, that
is any solution of (5.4) is the solution of (5.6) and conversely.
Fig. 5
Let’s consider the properties of an ellipse (Fig. 5).
Properties.
1. The ellipse has two axes of symmetry. One (major) axis of symmetry (x-axis)
passes through the foci, another (minor) axis (y-axis) is the perpendicular bisector of
the line segment F1F2 .
2. The ellipse has the centre of symmetry, which is the intersection of the axes
of symmetry. In Fig. 5 the centre of symmetry is the point O .
3. The ellipse has four vertices – the points, in which it intersects the
123
symmetry’s axes. The vertices are V1 a,0 ,V2 a,0 ,V3 b,0 ,V4 b,0 . The
distances between the vertices 2a and 2b are called the major axis and the minor
axis correspondingly. The constant a is called the semi-major axis, the constant b –
the semi-minor axis.
c
4. The ratio is called the eccentricity of the ellipse and satisfies inequality
a
0 1.
5. The focal radii can be expressed in form:
r1 a x, r2 a x. (5.7)
6. The ellipse has two directrices. They don’t intersect the ellipse and are
represented by the equations:
a
x . (5.8)
7. If in the standard equation (5.6) the semi-major axis equals the semi-minor
axis ( a b ), then we receive a particular case of ellipse, which is called a circle and
presented by the standard equation:
x2 y2 a2 . (5.9)
For this circle the foci and the centre coincide and place in the origin of coordinate
system. As a b , so c 0 and, hence, the eccentricity of a circle is equal to zero
( 0 ).
8. Assume that the curve of an ellipse has the mirror reflection property (Fig. 6).
If a point light source is located at a focus of the ellipse, then rays of light meet at the
other focus after being reflected.
Fig. 6 Fig. 7
In other words, at any point of the ellipse, the tangent line forms equal angles
124
with the focal radiuses.
Remark. If we take the foci on the y-axis, we obtain the standard equation of an
ellipse in form:
x2 y2
1, (5.10)
b2 a2
where a is semi-major axis, b – semi-minor axis ( a b ). In this case (Fig. 7), the
vertices of the ellipse are V1,2 0, a ,V3,4 b,0 and the foci are F1,2 0, c . To obtain
the correct formulas like (5.7), (5.8) for this ellipse we need to replace the variable x
by y .
Example. The point P ( 2, 1) lies on the ellipse given by the equation
x2 2 y2 4 . Write the standard equation of ellipse. Find the foci, eccentricity,

directrices, and focal radii (distances) from P .
Solution.
To write the standard equation of ellipse we should divide the given equation by
4 and simplify. Thus, we get:
x2 y2
1,
4 2
that is the standard equation of ellipse with the semi-major axis a 2 and the semi-
minor axis b 2 . Applying Formula (5.5) yields
2
2 22 c 2 , or c 2 2,
and so c 2.
Therefore, the foci are F1,2 2,0 . According to Properties 4 and 6 the
eccentricity is equal
c 2 1
,
a 2 2
and
2
x , or x 2 2
1/ 2
125
are the equations of directrices.
Using Formulas (5.7) with x 2 as the corresponding coordinate of the point
P, we can find the focal radii
1 1
r1 2 2 3 and r2 2 2 1
2 2
5.3. Hyperbola
The definition of a hyperbola is similar to that of an ellipse. The only change is
that instead of using the sum of distances from two fixed points, we use the
difference.
Def. A hyperbola is the set of all points in a plane, the difference of whose
distances from two fixed points (the foci) in the plane is a positive constant denoted
by 2a .
To find a simple equation for a hyperbola, we choose a coordinate system with
foci at F1 c,0 and F2 c,0 c a . The midpoint of the segment F1F2 (the origin)
is called the center of the hyperbola. Referring to Fig. 8, we see that a point P x, y
is on the hyperbola if and only if the following equation is true:
r1 r2 2a . (5.11)
where r1 , r2 are the focal distances or focal radii from the point P x, y to the foci.
The two parts that make up the hyperbola are called the right branch and the left
branch of the hyperbola.
Fig. 8
Using the analogous procedure that we used to deduce an equation of ellipse, we
126
can rewrite the preceding equation as:
x2 y2
1.
a2 c2 a2
If we let
b2 c2 a2 (5.12)
in the preceding equation, we obtain the standard equation of a hyperbola:
x2 y2
1. (5.13)
a2 b2
Any hyperbola has the following properties.
Properties.
1. The hyperbola has two axes of symmetry. One axis of symmetry (x-axis)
passes through the foci, another axis (y-axis) is the perpendicular bisector of the line
segment F1F2 .
2. The hyperbola has the centre of symmetry, which is the intersection of axes of
symmetry. In Fig. 9 the centre of symmetry is the point O .
3. The hyperbola has two vertices – the points, in which it intersects the
symmetry’s axes (Fig. 9). The vertices are V1 a,0 ,V2 a,0 . The distance 2a
between the vertices is called the transverse axis and the distance 2b between the
points W1 ,W2 is called the conjugate axis.
Fig. 9
c
4. The ratio is called the eccentricity of the hyperbola and satisfies
a
inequality 1.
127
5. The focal radii to the point P x, y can be expressed in form:
r1 x a , r2 x a . (5.14)
In the above formulas we have to apply the sign ‘+’ for the points on the right branch
of hyperbola, while the sign ‘–‘ is used for the points on the left branch hyperbola.
6. The directrices of hyperbola are two lines represented by the equations:
a
x . (5.15)
7. Two straight lines

b
y x (5.16)
a
are the asymptotes of hyperbola.
8. Assume that the curve of a hyperbola has the mirror reflection property. If a
point light source is located at a focus of the hyperbola, then the other focus is the
image source of rays that being reflected (Fig. 10).
Fig. 10
Remark. If we take the foci on y-axis, we obtain the equation of a hyperbola:
y2 x2
1. (5.17)
a2 b2
In this case, the vertices of the hyperbola are V1,2 0, a and the foci are F1,2 0, c .
To obtain the correct formulas like (5.14)-(5.16) for that hyperbola we need to
interchange the variables x and y .
Example. The hyperbola with the foci that lie on x-axis is symmetric to the
3
coordinate axes and passes through the points P1 17, and P2 8,3 3 . Find
4
128
the standard equation of hyperbola. Also find the foci, the eccentricity, the
directrices, the asymptotes, and the focal radii to the point P2 .
Solution.
In this case, the standard equation of hyperbola is represented in the form (5.13):
x2 y2
1,
a2 b2
where a 0, b 0 . Since the hyperbola passes through two points, these points satisfy
the standard equation. Hence, after substituting the coordinates of the points P1 and
P2 in the foregoing equation we receive the system in two parameters a and b
17 9
1,
2
a 16b 2
64 27
1.
a 2 b2
The solution of this system can be found as follows:
64 27
1, a 2b 2
a 2
b 2
64b 2 27a 2 a 2b 2 , ( 16) 64b 2 27a 2 a 2b 2 ,
17 9 2 2 272b 2 9a 2 16a 2b 2 , 752b 2 423a 2 0,
1, a b ,
a 2 16b 2
16 2 16 4 16 4
64b 2 27a 2 a 2b 2 , 64b 2 27 b b , 16b 2 b 0,
9 9 9
16 2
a2 b , 4 4
9 a b, a b,
3 3
2 b2
16b 1 0,
9 b 3,
4 a 4.
a b,
3
Thus, the standard equation of hyperbola is
x2 y2
1.
16 9
From Formula (5.12) we can find
c2 a 2 b2 25 , or c 5 .
129
c 5
So, the foci are F1,2 5,0 and the eccentricity is equal .
a 4
16
According to Properties 6, 7 we can write the equations of directrices x ,
5
3
and the equations of asymptotes y x.
4
Using Formulas (5.14) with sing ‘+’ as the point P2 lies on the right branch of
hyperbola and with x 8 as the corresponding coordinate of P2 , we can find the
focal radii to P2 :
r1 x a (5 / 4) 8 5 15 , r2 x a 5.
5.4. Parabola
We can give a geometrical definition of parabola as follows.
Def. A parabola is the set of all points in a plane equidistant from a fixed point
F (the focus) and a fixed line L (the directrix).
Fig. 11
The midpoint of the perpendicular line from the focus to the directrix is called
the vertex of the parabola. To find a simple equation for this curve, we introduce the
Cartesian coordinate system: x-axis passes through the focus F and is perpendicular
to the directrix, y-axis passes through the vertex of the parabola (Fig. 11). Let the
focus be the point F p,0 , where the parameter p is a positive number, and the
directrix to be the line x p . If M x, y is an arbitrary point on the parabola, then
130
by using the distance formula the defining condition can be written as
2
x p y2 x p.
By squaring and simplifying, we receive:

x2 2 px p2 y2 x2 2 px p2 ,
or
y2 4 px , (5.18)
which is called a standard equation of a parabola.
The following properties of parabola hold.
Properties.
1. The parabola has only one axis of symmetry, passing through the focus and
vertex of parabola. Therefore, the parabola doesn’t have a centre of symmetry.
2. The parabola has one vertix (the origin).
3. The eccentricity of the parabola is equal to 1, that is 1.
4. The focal radius to the point M x, y can be expressed in form:
r x p. (5.19)
5. The directrix of parabola is a line represented by the equation:
x p. (5.20)
6. Let an ellipse be the mirror reflection curve. If a point light source is located
at a focus of the ellipse, then rays of light are parallel after being reflected.
Fig. 12
Other forms for the equation of a parabola are obtained by replacing p by p
and interchanging the variables x and y . In Fig. 13 one can observe that the
upward/downward and right/left opening of the parabola depend on the sign before
131
the parameter p and the axis of symmetry.
Fig. 13.
Example. Find an equation of the parabola that is symmetric about the y-axis,
has its vertex at the origin, and passes through the point M (5,2) . Also find the focus,
the directrix, and the focal radius to the point M .
Solution.
Since the parabola is symmetric about the y-axis and has its vertex at the origin,
the equation is of the form
x2 4 py or x 2 4 py ,
where the sign depends on whether the parabola opens up or down. But the parabola
must open up since it passes through the point M (5,2) , which lies in the first
quadrant. Thus, the standard equation is of the form
x2 4 py .
Since the parabola passes through M , we must have 52 4 p 2 or p 25 / 8 .

Therefore, the standard equation of the parabola is
25
x2 y.
2
As the parameter of parabola is equal 25 / 8 , that is p 25 / 8 , the focus is
F (25 / 8,0) and
x 25 / 8
132
is the equation of the directrix (see Equation (5.20)). According to Formula (5.19)
with x 5 as the x-coordinate of the point M , the focal radius to M is
r 5 25 / 8 65 / 8 8.125
5.5. Polar equation of conics

In this section, we will deduce the equations of conics in the polar coordinate
system.
In the beginning, we introduce the notion of a polar equation in general case. A
polar equation is an equation in r and . A solution of a polar equation is an ordered
pair a, b that leads to equality if a is substituted for r and b for . The graph of a
polar equation is the set of all points (in an r -plane) that correspond to the solutions.
The simplest polar equation is r a where a is a positive real number. Since the
solutions of the polar equation r a are of the form a, for any angle , it follows
that the graph is a circle of radius a with center at the pole.
We may use the relationships (see Section 2.3) between rectangular and polar
coordinates to transform a polar equation to an equation in x and y, and vice versa.
Fig. 14
At first, let’s consider an ellipse given by the standard equation in the
corresponding rectangular coordinate system:
x2 y2
1. (5.21)
a2 b2
Let’s introduce a polar coordinate system as follows: a pole O p is in the left focus of
the ellipse and a polar axis coincides with the x-axis of the rectangular coordinate
133
system (see Fig. 14). Let P be an arbitrary point on the ellipse, then the point P has
the components r, in the polar coordinate system, that is P r , . As the pole of the
polar coordinate system and the left focus of the ellipse coincide, so the distances
from the point P to the pole and to the left focus of the ellipse are same and equal to
r . We know that any conic section can be represented by Equation (5.1):
r d, (5.22)
where, in our case, r is the distance from the point P on the ellipse to the left focus
and d is the distance from the point P to the left directrix.
We can find the distance d as follows:
d DF1 F1K , (5.23)
but
a
DF1 OD OF1 c. (5.24)
Besides, we can find F1 K from the right-angle triangle F1PK :

F1K r cos . (5.25)
Using Formulas (5.24), (5.25) we rewrite (5.23) as:
a
d c r cos . (5.26)
Substituting (5.26) into (5.22)

a
r c r cos
and simplifying
r a c r cos or r 1 cos b2 / a ,
we receive the equation of an ellipse in the polar coordinate system:
b2 / a
r , (5.27)
1 cos
if the pole of polar system is in the left focus of an ellipse. By analogy, if the pole of
the polar coordinate system is in the right focus of an ellipse, we could deduce the
following equation of an ellipse in the polar system:
134
b2 / a
r . (5.28)
1 cos
Equations (5.27) and (5.28) are called the polar equations of an ellipse.
In same way, if a hyperbola is given in the corresponding rectangular coordinate
x2 y2
system by the standard equation 2 1 and the pole of polar coordinate system
a b2
is in the left focus of a hyperbola (see Fig. 15), we can receive the polar equations of
a hyperbola:
b2 / a
r – for the left branch (5.29a)
cos 1
and
b2 / a
r – for the right branch. (5.29b)
cos 1
Fig. 15
If the pole of a polar coordinate system is in the right focus of a hyperbola, then the
corresponding polar equations of a hyperbola have the forms:
b2 / a
r – for the left branch (5.30a)
cos 1
and
b2 / a
r – for the right branch. (5.30b)
cos 1
Finally, we consider a parabola given by the standard equation:
y2 4 px
135
in the corresponding rectangular coordinate system (see Fig. 16). By analogy with the
Fig. 16
foregoing discussions, if the pole of a polar coordinate system is in the focus of a
parabola and the polar axis coincides with x-axis, then the polar equation of a
parabola can be written in the form:
2p
r . (5.31)
1 cos
As a conclusion of this section we summarize our discussion by the following
statement.
A polar equation that has the one of the equations:
p
r , (5.32)
1 cos
where p is some positive or negative parameter, is a conic section. The conic is a
parabola if 1 , an ellipse if 0 1 and p 0 , a hyperbola if 1.
5.6. Conversions of the second-degree equation in two variables

In the preceding sections, we obtained equations of conic sections with axes
parallel to the coordinate axes. In this section, we will study the equations of conics
that are “tilted” relative to the coordinate axes. This will lead us to investigate the
second-degree equations in two variables by the transformations of coordinate
systems such as translation and rotation of coordinate axes (see Section 2.6).
As it was mentioned in Section 5.1, a general second-degree equation in two
variable
136
Ax 2 Bxy Cy 2 Dx Ey F 0, (5.33)
where A, B, C, D, E, F are constants, is represented a conic (generate and degenerate)
in Cartesian coordinate system. Equation (5.33) is called a quadratic equation in x
and y. It is usually the case that the graph of any second-degree equation is a conic
section. If B 0 , then (5.33) reduces to
Ax 2 Cy 2 Dx Ey F 0 (5.34)
and the conic section has its axis or axes parallel to the coordinate axes. However, if
B 0 , then (5.33) contains a cross-product term Bxy , and the graph of the conic
section represented by the equation has its axis or axes “tilted” relative to the
coordinate axes.
To study conics that are tilted relative to the coordinate axes it is frequently
helpful to rotate the coordinate axes (see Formulas (2.21)), so that the rotated
coordinate axes are parallel to the axes of the conic. The following theorem tells how
to determine an appropriate rotation of axes to eliminate the cross-product term of the
second-degree equation in x and y.
Theorem.
If the equation (5.33) is such that B 0 , and if an x1 y1 -coordinate system is
obtained by rotating the xy-axes through an angle satisfying
A C
cot 2 , (5.35)
B
then, in x1 y1 -coordinates, Equation (5.33) will have the form
A1x12 C1 y12 D1x1 E1 y1 F1 0 . (5.36)

Proof.
Substituting (2.21) into (5.33) and simplifying yields
A1x12 B1x1 y1 C1 y12 D1x1 E1 y1 F1 0, (5.37)
where
A1 A cos 2 B cos sin C sin 2 ,
B1 B(cos 2 sin 2 ) 2(C A)sin cos ,
C1 A sin 2 B sin cos C cos 2 ,
137
D1 D cos E sin ,
E1 D sin E cos ,
F1 F.
(Verify.) To complete the proof we must show that B1 0 if (5.35) holds. However,
by using the trigonometric double-angle formulas, we can rewrite B1 in the form
B1 B cos 2 (C A)sin 2 .
Considering the last equation when B1 0 yields
B cos 2 (C A)sin 2 0.
After dividing by sin 2 provided 0 or / 2 , we have
B cot 2 (C A) 0 ,
or, equivalently,
A C
cot 2 .
B
So, B1 0 in (5.37) if an angle satisfy Equation (5.35). This complete the proof.
Thus, by an appropriate rotation of coordinate axes Equation (5.33) is reduced to
the form (5.36). In problems where it is inconvenient to solve (5.35) for , the values
of sin and cos needed for the rotation equations can be obtained by first
calculating cos 2 from the formula
cot 2
cos 2 , (5.38)
2
1 cot 2
and then computing sin θ and cos θ from the identities
1 cos 2 1 cos 2
sin and cos . (5.39)
2 2
To identify a conic represented by Equation (5.36) we should complete the
squares of the quadratic terms in (5.36)
D1 E1
A1 x12 x1 C1 y12 y1 F1 0,
A1 C1
2 2
2 D D1 D12 2 E E1 E12
A1 x 1 2 1 x1 C1 y 1 2 1 y1 F1 0,
2 A1 2 A1 4 A12 2C1 2C1 4C12
138
2 2
D1 E1 D12 E12
A1 x1 C1 y1 F1 0, (5.40)
2 A1 2C1 4 A1 4C 1
provided A1 0 and B1 0.
Next, we should make the translation of coordinate system
D1
x2 x1 ,
2 A1
E1
y2 y1 .
2C1
After substituting, (5.40) is written as

A1 x22 C1 y22 F2 0, (5.41)
D12 E12
where F2 F1 . Thus, depending on the coefficients A1 , B1 , F2 , Equation
4 A1 4C 1
(5.41) describes some conic in the standard form. In this way, any second-degree
equation (5.33) can be reduced to an equation that represents a conic.
Example 1. Identify the curve 153x 2 192 xy 97 y 2 30 x 40 y 200 0 .
Solution.
To find an angle of rotation that eliminates the cross product term in the given
equation we use Formula (5.35) when A 153, B 192 , and C 97 . So, we find
153 97 56 7
cot 2 .
192 192 24
Applying Formulas (5.38) and (5.39) yields
7 / 24 7 / 24 7
cos 2 ,
1 7 / 24
2 25 / 24 25
and
1 7 / 25 16 4 1 7 / 25 3
sin , cos .
2 25 5 2 5
After substituting (2.21)
139
3 4
x x1 y1 ,
5 5
4 3
y x1 y1 ,
5 5
in the given second-degree equation, we have
2 2
3 4 3 4 4 3 4 3
153 x1 y1 192 x1 y1 x1 y1 97 x1 y1
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
3 4 4 3
30 x1 y1 40 x1 y1 200 0
5 5 5 5
or, equivalently,
9 2 24 16 2 12 2 7 12 2
153 x1 x1 y1 y1 192 x1 x1 y1 y1
25 25 25 25 25 25
16 2 24 9 2
97 x1 x1 y1 y1 18 x1 24 y1 32 x1 24 y1 200 0.
25 25 25
And, finally, simplifying yields
25x12 225 y12 50 x1 200 0 ,
or
x12 9 y12 2 x1 8 0 .
Completing the square of the x-terms yields
x12 2 x1 1 1 9 y12 8 0 ,
or
2
x1 1 9 y12 9 0 .
After translating the coordinate system (2.17)
x2 x1 1,
y2 y1 ,
we receive
x22 9 y22 9 0 ,
or, equivalently,
x22 9 y22 9, 9
140
x22
y22 1 .
9
The last equation is the standard one of an ellipse with the semiaxes a 3 and
b 1 in the x2 y2 -coordinate system. Therefore, the original equation also describes
the ellipse with these semiaxes.
Example 2. Identify the curves:
a) 7 x 2 52 xy 32 y 2 72 5 x 144 5 y 720 0 ,
b) x 2 2 3xy 3 y 2 x 3y 6 0 .
Solution.
a) Using Formula (5.35) when A 7, B 52 , and C 32 , we find an angle
of rotation that eliminates the cross product term in the given equation
7 32 39 3
cot 2 .
52 52 4
Applying Formulas (5.38) and (5.39) yields
3/ 4 3/ 4 3 1 3/5 1 1 3/5 2
cos 2 , sin , cos .
1 (3 / 4) 2 5/ 4 5 2 5 2 5
Making the rotation of axes (2.21)

2 1
x x1 y1 ,
5 5
1 2
y x1 y1 ,
5 5
we have
2
2 1 2 1 1 2
7 x1 y1 52 x1 y1 x1 y1
5 5 5 5 5 5
2
1 2 2 1 1 2
32 x1 y1 72 5 x1 y1 144 5 x1 y1 720 0
5 5 5 5 5 5
or, equivalently,
20 x12 45 y12 360 y1 720 0, 5
4 x12 9 y12 72 y1 144 0 .
141
Completing the square of the y-terms yields
4 x12 9 y12 8 y1 16 16 144 0 ,
2
4 x12 9 y1 4 0.
Translating the axes of coordinate system (2.17)
x2 x1 ,
y2 y1 4,
we get
4 x22 9 y22 0.
In the last equation, factoring using the difference of squares yields
( 2 x2 3 y2 )(2 x2 3 y2 ) 0 ,
or
2 x2 3 y2 0, and 2 x2 3 y2 0.
Thus, in this example, we receive the degenerate conic, namely, a pair of intersecting
lines
2 2
y2 x2 , and y2 x2 .
3 3
b) From (5.35) we find an angle of rotation that eliminates the cross product
term in the given equation
1 3 1
cot 2 .
2 3 3
2
As 0 , so 2 and . Therefore, Formula (2.21) is written in the
2 3 3
form
x1 y1 3
x ,
2 2
x1 3 y1
y .
2 2
After rotating the coordinate system, we have
142
2 2
x1 y1 3 x y1 3 x1 3 y1 x 3 y1
2 3 1 3 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
x1 y1 3 x1 3 y1
3 6 0,
2 2 2 2
or, equivalently,
2 x12 x1 3 0 .
3
This quadratic equation has two solutions x1 1 and x1 . Thus, in this
2
example we receive a pair of parallel lines (degenerate conic).
5.7. Quadratic surfaces

In this section, we will study an important class of surfaces that are the three-
dimensional analogs of the conic sections.
Although the general shape of a curve in 2-space can be obtained by plotting
points, this method is not usually helpful for surfaces in 3-space because too many
points are required. It is more common to build up the shape of a surface with a
network of mesh lines, which are curves obtained by cutting the surface with well-
chosen planes. For example, Fig. 17, which was generated by a CAS (computer
algebra system), shows the graph of z x3 3xy 2 rendered with a combination of
mesh lines. This surface is called a “monkey saddle” because a monkey sitting astride
the surface has a place for its two legs and tail.
The mesh line that results when a surface is cut by a plane is called the trace of
the surface in the plane (Fig. 18). One way to deduce the shape of a surface is by
examining its traces in planes parallel to the coordinate planes. For example, consider
the surface
z x2 y2 (5.42)
To find its trace in the plane z k , we substitute this value of z into (5.42), which
yields
x2 y2 k. (5.43)
143
Fig. 17 Fig. 18
If k 0 , this equation has no real solutions, so there is no trace. However, if k 0 ,
then the graph of (5.43) is a circle of radius k centered at the point 0,0,k on the
z-axis (Fig. 19a). Thus, for nonnegative values of k the traces parallel to the xy-plane
form a family of circles, centered on the z-axis, whose radii start at zero and increase
with k . This suggests that the surface has the form shown in Fig. 19b.
a) b)
Fig. 19
To obtain more detailed information about the shape of this surface, we can
examine the traces of (5.42) in planes parallel to the yz-plane. Such planes have
equations of the form x k , so we substitute this in (5.42) to obtain
144
z k2 y2 ,
or, equivalently,
z k2 y2 . (5.44)
For simplicity, let us start with the case where k 0 (the trace in the yz-plane), in
which case the trace has the equation z y 2 . You should be able to recognize that
this is a parabola in the plane x 0 that has its vertex at the origin, opens in the
positive z-direction, and is symmetric about the z-axis. You should also be able to
recognize that the k 2 term in (5.44) has the effect of translating the parabola z y2
in the positive z-direction, so its new vertex in the plane x k is at the point
(k ,0, k 2 ) . Thus, the traces in planes parallel to the yz-plane form a family of
parabolas whose vertices move upward as k 2 increases (Fig. 20a). Similarly, the
traces in planes parallel to the xz-plane have equations of the form z x2 k2
(y k ), which again is a family of parabolas whose vertices move upward as k 2

increases (Fig. 20b).
a) b)
Fig. 20
In the discussion of Formula (5.33) in Section 5.6 we noted that a second-degree
equation represents a conic section (possibly degenerate). The analog of this equation
in an xyz-coordinate system is
145
Ax 2 By 2 Cz 2 Dxy Exz Fyz Gx Hy Iz J 0 (5.45)
that is called the second-degree equation in x, y , and z . The graphs of such
equations are called quadric surfaces or sometimes quadrics.
Below we will consider six common types of quadric surfaces – ellipsoids,
hyperboloids of one sheet, hyperboloids of two sheets, elliptic cones, elliptic
paraboloids, and hyperbolic paraboloids. (The constants a, b , and c that appear in
the equations are assumed to be positive.) Observe that none of the quadric surfaces
have cross-product terms in their equations. This is because of their orientations
relative to the coordinate axes.
An ellipsoid represented by the equation
x2 y2 z2
1 (5.46)
a2 b2 c2
is shown in Figure 21. The traces in the coordinate planes are ellipses, as are the
traces in those planes that are parallel to the coordinate planes and intersect the
surface in more than one point. If a b c in (5.46), we receive the equation of a
sphere with the radius a :
x2 y2 z2 a2 . (5.47)
Fig. 21
A hyperboloid of one sheet given by the equation
x2 y2 z2
1 (5.48)
a2 b2 c2
is shown in Figure 22. The trace in the xy-plane is an ellipse, as are the traces in
planes parallel to the xy-plane. The traces in the yz-plane and xz-plane are hyperbolas,
146
as are the traces in those planes that are parallel to these and do not pass through the
x- or y-intercepts. At these intercepts the traces are pairs of intersecting lines.
Fig. 22
A hyperboloid of two sheets represented by the equation
z2 x2 y2
1 (5.49)
c2 a2 b2
is shown in Figure 23. There is no trace in the xy-plane. In planes parallel to the xy-
plane that intersect the surface in more than one point the traces are ellipses. In the
yz- and xz-planes, the traces are hyperbolas, as are the traces in those planes that are
parallel to these.
Fig. 23
An elliptic cone given by the equation
147
2 x2 y2
z (5.50)
a2 b2
is shown in Figure 24. The trace in the xy-plane is a point (the origin), and the traces
in planes parallel to the xy-plane are ellipses. The traces in the yz- and xz-planes are
pairs of lines intersecting at the origin. The traces in planes parallel to these are
hyperbolas.
Fig. 24 Fig. 25
An elliptic paraboloid represented by the equation
x2 y2
z (5.51)
a2 b2
is shown in Figure 25. The trace in the xy-plane is a point (the origin), and the traces
in planes parallel to and above the xy-plane are ellipses. The traces in the yz- and xz-
planes are parabolas, as are the traces in planes parallel to these.
A hyperbolic paraboloid given by the equation
y2 x2
z (5.52)
b2 a2
is shown in Figure 26. The trace in the xy-plane is a pair of lines intersecting at the
origin. The traces in planes parallel to the xy-plane are hyperbolas. The hyperbolas
above the xy-plane open in the y-direction, and those below in the x-direction. The
traces in the yz- and xz-planes are parabolas, as are the traces in planes parallel to
these.
148
Fig. 26
In the special case where the elliptic cross sections of an elliptic cone or an
elliptic paraboloid are circles, the terms circular cone and circular paraboloid are
used.
As a second-degree equation (5.33) in two variables, the second-degree equation
(5.45) in three variables can be reduced to the equations (5.46)-(5.52) or, possibly, to
the degenerate cases, but it is beyond the scope of this text.
149
Навчальне видання

ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
Author Kostiantyn Mykolaiovych Arkhypenko
Підп. до друку
Формат 60х84/16. Папір офсет. Ум.друк. арк.
Тираж пр. Зам. №
НУ «ОМА», центр «Видавінформ»

65029, м. Одеса, Дідріхсона,8, корп.7
Свідоцтво ДК №1292 від 20.03.2003
Тел./факс:(0482)34-14-12
publish@ma/odessa.ua
150

Linear and Vector Algebra. Analytic Geometry: K. M. Arkhypenko

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K. M.

LINEAR AND VECTOR ALGEBRA.

LINEAR AND VECTOR ALGEBRA.

Recommended by Scientific council of Electrical Engineering and Radio

Reviewers: Popov V.G. – the head of Department of Higher Mathematics in

Linear and Vector Algebra. Analytic Geometry: lecture notes for

© National University «Odessa Maritime Academy», 2020

1.1. Matrices. Basic concepts

an1 an 2 an3 anm

in the ith row and jth column.

(say n m ) and their corresponding elements are equal, that is:

1.2. Special types of matrices

all elements below the main diagonal are zero.

then A is lower triangular.

1.3. Matrix operations

b) Addition and subtraction

Def. The product of a matrix A aij by a scalar k , written kA , is a matrix

obtained by multiplying each element of A by k , that is:

kan1 kan 2 kanm

A matrix A 1 A is called the negative of a matrix A . Using a negative

Example 2. Find the linear combination 2 A 3B , where the matrices A, B are

Using Formula (1.1), we receive the answer:

1.4. Determinants of the 2nd and the 3rd orders

a11 a12 a13 a1n

Thus, the determinant of a 1 1 matrix A a11 is a scalar a11 . The determinant of

1.5. Expansion of determinants by a row or column

submatrix of A obtained by deleting its ith row and jth column.

“(-1) to the power of i j ”), that is:

For n-order determinants the following theorem holds.

expansion by a row or column.

1.6. Properties of determinants

a11 a12 a13 a11 a21 a31

a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13

first two rows, namely r3 2r1 r2 .

1.7. Gaussian elimination

The last matrix is in reduced row echelon form.

By analogy with the foregoing consideration, before the determinant we write

The matrix of the last determinant is upper triangular, so this determinant is

Def. The rank of a matrix A aij , denoted by r A or rank A , is defined

Obviously, the rank of a matrix A aij satisfies the inequality:

2. The elementary row operations do not alter the rank of a matrix.

1.9. Inverse matrix

C11 C21 Cn1

is called the adjoint matrix of A and is denoted by adj A .

1.10. Systems of linear equations (SLE)

a11 x1 a12 x2 ... a1n xn b1 ,

is called a homogeneous linear system. Otherwise, the system (1.12) is called a

numbers s1 , s2 ,..., sn for which the substitution x j s j , j 1, n makes each equation of

(1.12) a true statement.

1.11. Matrix form of SLE. Rouche-Capelli Theorem

Such a system is associated with the following matrices:

am1 am 2 amn xn bm am1 am 2 amn bm

where A is called the matrix of coefficients or the coefficient matrix, X – the

To determine the number of solutions of the consistent system the following

1.12. Matrix solution of SLE. Cramer’s rule for SLE

or in the matrix form:

Theorem (Cramer’s rule)

Since det A 12 0 , so by Cramer’s rule the system has a unique solution.

Therefore, we have to find the auxiliary determinants det Aj , j 1,2,3 :

Since det A 12 0 , so according to Theorem 2 Section 1.9 the coefficient

matrix A has an inverse matrix A 1 . To construct A 1 we have to find the cofactors

Using Theorem 3 Section 1.9 we get:

1.13. Gaussian elimination for SLE