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Aa-Lovett
Aa-Lovett
Set Theory
1.1 – Sets and Functions
Exercise: 1 Section 1.1
Question: Let U = n N n
{ ∈ | ≤ } { } {
10 and consider the subsets A = 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 , B = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 , and }
C = { }
= 1, 2, 5, 7, 8 . Calculate the following operations.
a) A B∩
∪ −
b) (B C ) A
c) (A B ) (A C ) (B C )
∩ ∩ ∩ ∩ ∩
d) ((A − − ∩ − −
((A B ) C ) (A (B C )) ))
Solution: We apply the definitions of of set operations:
a) A B = 1, 3, 5
∩ { }
∪ − { }−{ } { }
b) (B C ) A = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 = 2, 4, 8
∩ ∩ ∩ ∩ ∩ { }∩{ }∩{ } {
c) A B A C B C = 1, 3, 5 }∩{
1, 5, 7 1, 2, 5 = 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10 }∩{ 4, 6, 8, 9, 10}
d) ((A
((A B ) C ) (A (B C ))
− − ∩ − − ) ) = ( 7, 9
{ } − ∩ − { } { } ∩ { C ) (A 3, 4 ) = 9 1, 5, 7, 9 = 9
} {}
Exercise: 2 Section 1.1
{ } { } {
Question: Let U = a,b,c,d,e,f,g and consider the subsets A = a,b,d , B = b,c,e , and C = c,d,f . } { }
Calculate the following operations.
∩
∩
a) C (A B ) ∪
∪
b) (A C ) B −
c) (A B C ) (A B C )
∪ ∪ − ∩ ∩
d) (A B ) (B C )
− ∪ −
Solution: We apply the definitions of
of set operations:
a) C (A B ) = C
∩
∩ ∪ ∩{a,b,c,d,e = c, d
∩ { } { }
∪ − {
b) (A C ) B = a,b,c,d,f }− { }
B = a,d,f
∪ ∪ − ∩ ∩ {
c) (A B C ) (A B C ) = a,b,c,d,e,f }−∅ { = a,b,c,d,e,f }
− ∪ −
d) (A B ) (B C ) = a, d{ } ∪ { } { }
b, e = a,b,d,e
1
2 CHAPTER
CHAPTER 1. SET THEOR
THEORY
⇒ ⊆
a) (= ): Suppose A B . Then, a A, ∀ ∈
A , a B. ∈
B . Sinc
Sincee P(B ) contains all the possible subsets of B , all the
possible subsets
subsets of A
A must be in P(B ) because A
because A B. ⊆
B . Therefore, P(A) P (B ). ⊆
(⇐=):
=): Suppose P(A) ⊆ P(B ). Then Then ∀{a} ∈ P(A), {a} ∈ P(B ). Therefore, Therefore, there
there must exist a subset C
of P(B ) that contains every {a} from P(A). The subse subsett C leads
C leads to the conclusion that every a ∈ A
must also be in B Therefore, A ⊆ B.
in B . Therefore, A B .
b) By definition, P(A ∩ B ) = {{t1 , t2 ,...,tn } | ti ∈ A, ti ∈ B }. This This implies
implies {ti } ∈ P(A) and {ti } ∈ P(B ).
Therefore, by definition of intersection, P(A ∩ B ) = P (A) ∩ P(B ).
c) (=⇒): Suppose there are two sets A and B such that neither A ⊆ B nor B ⊆ A. Let a ∈ A − B and
b ∈ B − A.
A . Then
Then thethe set
set { a, b} is in P(A ∪ B)
B ) but not in P(A) or in P(B ). Theref Therefore
ore by
by the
contrapositive, P(A ∪ B ) = P (A) ∪ P(B ) if A A ⊆ B or B
or B ⊆ A.
A.
(⇐=): Suppose A ⊆ B.
=): Suppose A Then, A ∪ B = B
B . Then, A = B so P(A ∪ B ) = P (B ). Now suppose B
suppose B ⊆ A. Then A ∪ B = A
A . Then A = A so
so
P(A ∪ B ) = P (A). Either way, P(A ∪ B ) = P (A) ∪ P(B ).
P( {1, 2, 3, 4}) = {∅, {1}, {2}, {3}, {4}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {1, 4}, {2, 3}, {2, 4}, {3, 4},
{1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 4}, {1, 3, 4}, {2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3, 4}}.
B B
A C A C
a)
−
In the first Venn diagram, the lighter shade represents ( A B ), and the darker shade, which overlaps some
−
of (A B ), represents (A − −
(A B ) C . In the second Venn Venn diagram,
diagram, the lighter
lighter shade represents
represents (A
( A C ),
), −
while the darker shade represents (A − − −
( A C ) (B C ). ). We observe from the diagrams that the darker regions
are equal.
2 CHAPTER
CHAPTER 1. SET THEOR
THEORY
⇒ ⊆
a) (= ): Suppose A B . Then, a A, ∀ ∈
A , a B. ∈
B . Sinc
Sincee P(B ) contains all the possible subsets of B , all the
possible subsets
subsets of A
A must be in P(B ) because A
because A B. ⊆
B . Therefore, P(A) P (B ). ⊆
(⇐=):
=): Suppose P(A) ⊆ P(B ). Then Then ∀{a} ∈ P(A), {a} ∈ P(B ). Therefore, Therefore, there
there must exist a subset C
of P(B ) that contains every {a} from P(A). The subse subsett C leads
C leads to the conclusion that every a ∈ A
must also be in B Therefore, A ⊆ B.
in B . Therefore, A B .
b) By definition, P(A ∩ B ) = {{t1 , t2 ,...,tn } | ti ∈ A, ti ∈ B }. This This implies
implies {ti } ∈ P(A) and {ti } ∈ P(B ).
Therefore, by definition of intersection, P(A ∩ B ) = P (A) ∩ P(B ).
c) (=⇒): Suppose there are two sets A and B such that neither A ⊆ B nor B ⊆ A. Let a ∈ A − B and
b ∈ B − A.
A . Then
Then thethe set
set { a, b} is in P(A ∪ B)
B ) but not in P(A) or in P(B ). Theref Therefore
ore by
by the
contrapositive, P(A ∪ B ) = P (A) ∪ P(B ) if A A ⊆ B or B
or B ⊆ A.
A.
(⇐=): Suppose A ⊆ B.
=): Suppose A Then, A ∪ B = B
B . Then, A = B so P(A ∪ B ) = P (B ). Now suppose B
suppose B ⊆ A. Then A ∪ B = A
A . Then A = A so
so
P(A ∪ B ) = P (A). Either way, P(A ∪ B ) = P (A) ∪ P(B ).
P( {1, 2, 3, 4}) = {∅, {1}, {2}, {3}, {4}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {1, 4}, {2, 3}, {2, 4}, {3, 4},
{1, 2, 3}, {1, 2, 4}, {1, 3, 4}, {2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3, 4}}.
B B
A C A C
a)
−
In the first Venn diagram, the lighter shade represents ( A B ), and the darker shade, which overlaps some
−
of (A B ), represents (A − −
(A B ) C . In the second Venn Venn diagram,
diagram, the lighter
lighter shade represents
represents (A
( A C ),
), −
while the darker shade represents (A − − −
( A C ) (B C ). ). We observe from the diagrams that the darker regions
are equal.
1.1. SETS AND FUNCTION
FUNCTIONS
S 3
S S
B B
A C A C
b)
−
In the Venn diagram above, the lighter shade represents B C , and the darker shade represents A
represents A (B C ).
). − −
−
In the second diagram, the lighter region represents A B , and the darker region represents A
represents A C , which −
overlaps some of A −
of A B . Thus, (A − ∪ −
(A B ) (A C ) = A (B C ). ). − −
Exercise: 9 Section 1.1
Question: Let A
Let A,, B , and C
and C be
be subsets of a set S .
S .
a) Prove
Prove that ∅
that A B = if and only if Aif A =
= B
B..
b) Prove
Prove that
that A (B C ) = (A B ) (A C ).
∩ ∩ ∩).
Solution: Let A
Let A,, B , and C
and C be
be subsets of a set S .
S .
a) Suppose that A ∅
that A B = . Then by definition of the symmetric difference
(A − B ) ∪ (B − A) = ∅.
If the union of two sets is the empty set, then each of the two sets must be empty. Hence we deduce that
− ∅ − ∅
A B = and B A = . Now for and two sets U sets U and T
and T ,, the identity U −
− ∅
identity U T = is equivalent to U
to U T .
T . ⊆
⊆
Hence we deduce that A B and B ⊆
and B A. ⊆
A . Consequently, A
Consequently, A = B = B..
The argument of the opposite direction is identical. Suppose that A = B = B.. Then A
Then A B and B
and B A. ⊆
A . Thus ⊆
− ∅ − ∅
A B = and B A = . We deduce that A B = (A B ) (B A) = . − ∪ − ∅
b) There are a variety
ariety of ways to prove
prove the identity ∩
identity A (B C ) = (A B ) (A C ). ∩ ∩ ). We could useuse a well
well
designed
designed Venn
Venn diagram. We could also use a mem membership
bership table which lists all p ossibilities
ossibilities of an element
element
whether it is in or not in one of the given three sets. Here is a membership table for both side of the equality.
√
In this table, we put an in a column to indicate membership and nothing to indicate non-membership.
√
Hence if there is a in the A
the A and C column
C column and nothing in the B column, that refers to the situations of
an element in A
in A,, not in B
in B and in C
in C ..
√A B√ √C
(B C ) A ∩ (B C ) (A
√∩ B ) (A
√∩ C ) (A ∩ B)(A ∩ C )
√ √ √ √ √ √
√ √ √ √ √ √
√
√ √
√ √
√ √
Since the A ∩
the A (B C ) and column and the (A
(A ∩ B)(A ∩ C ) of this membership table are the same, then
the sets are equal.
Solution: Let S
Let S be
be a set and let Ai i∈I be { }
be a collection of subsets of S .
S .
4 CHAPTER
CHAPTER 1. SET THEOR
THEORY
a) We will prove
prove the equation by proving
proving set inclusion
inclusion in both directions
directions..
⇒
(= ) Let a ∈
Ai . Then
Then a / ∈
∈ Ai or a
or a / A i for every i ∈ I . And this
this implies
implies that
that a ∈ A i for every
i ∈I i
∈I
i ∈ I . So then a
then a ∈
Ai . And so
⊆ Ai Ai .
i ∈I i∈I i
∈I
⇐
( =) Let a ∈
Ai . Then
Then a ∈ A i for every i ∈ I . Which
Which implies ∈
implies that a / A i for eversy i ∈ I . And
And so
i ∈I
a/ ∈
Ai . Which implies a
implies a ∈
Ai . So
⊆ Ai Ai .
i
∈I i
∈I i
∈I i
∈I
And so
Ai = Ai .
i
∈I i∈I
b) We will prove
prove this equation by proving
proving set inclusion
inclusion in both directions.
directions.
(= ) Let a
⇒Let a ∈
Ai . So a
So a / ∈
∈ Ai . So a
So a / A i for at least one i ∈ I . So a
So a ∈ A i for at least one i ∈ I . So
i
∈I i∈I
a ∈
Ai . Which implies that
⊆ Ai Ai .
i
∈I i
∈I i
∈I
( =) Let a
⇐Let a ∈
Ai . Then a
Then a ∈ Ai for at least one i ∈ I . This implie
impliess that a
that a ∈
/ A i for at least one i ∈ I .
i ∈I
It follows that a
that a / ∈
Ai . Which implies that a
that a ∈
Ai . So
⊆ Ai Ai .
i
∈I i ∈I i∈I i
∈I
So
Ai = Ai .
i ∈I i
∈I
x0 =
2a ± √ 4a2 − 4b = a ± − a2 b.
2
if a 2
In particular, we note that there exists an x 0 if and only if a − b ≥ 0, confirming the hypothesis that b ≤ a2.
z k3 k2 k1
A B A B
∩
In the above diagrams, the left diagram represents A B, and the right diagram represents A B. In ∪
∪
the A B diagram, represents A, represents B, and represents where they overlap. A B is ∪
represented by the union of these shaded regions. We can observe the shaded regions from both diagrams
describes the same set, thus A B = A B.
∩ ∪
b) Observe the Venn diagrams below:
U U
A B A B
In the above diagrams, the left diagram represents A B, and the right diagram represents A
∪ ∩ B. In the
A B diagram,
∩ represents A, represents B, and represents A B. Notice, the
∩ shaded
region describes the same set that is shaded in the A B diagram, hence A B = A B.
∪ ∪ ∩
A graph of the function g(x) = x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1 shows that g(x) has no solutions. Thus, the only
solution to f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) is x1 = x 2 . Thus f is injective. For surjectivity, we see that y = f (x) implies
√ −
that x = 5 y 1, which is defined for all y. Hence f is surjective. (f is bijective.)
∗
d) f (x) = 2 ( x/2 ).
◦ ∈
Solution: Assume g f is not injective. Then there would exist a 1 , a 2 A such that a 1 = a 2 and g f (a1 ) = ◦
g f (a2 ). Let b1 = f (a1 ) and b2 = f (a2 ). We know that b 1 = b 2 because f is bijective. Using substitution, we
◦
notice that g(b1 ) = g(b2 ), but b1 = b 2 . This creates a contradiction since g is bijective. Thus, g f is injective.
◦
Now assume that g f is not surjective. Then there would exist at least one c C such that a A, g(f (a)) = c.
◦ ∈ ∀ ∈
By substituting we observe b B, g(b) = c. However, since g is bijective, this creates a contradiction. Therefore
∀ ∈
◦ ◦
g f is surjective. Hence, g f is bijective.
Let f (a) = b and g(b) = c. Then g(f (a)) = c so (g f )−1 (c) = a. Therefore,
◦
(g f )−1 (c) = a = f −1 (b) = f −1 (g−1 (c))
◦
so (g f )−1 = f −1 g −1 .
◦ ◦
Exercise: 21 Section 1.1
◦
Question: Suppose that f and g are functions and that f g is injective.
a) Prove that g is injective.
b) Does it also follow that f is injective? Justify your answer (with a proof or counter-example).
Solution:
a) For the sake of contradiction, we assume g is not injective. Then for some a, b that exist in the domain of
g, g(a) = g(b). However, then f (g(a)) = f (g(b)) as well. This contradicts the injectivity of f g. Therefore ◦
g must be injective.
b) No it does not. Consider the following functions f , g : Z Z: −→
2x if x 0 ≥
g(x) =
||
2 x + 1 if x < 0.
f (x) = x 2 .
Now, g sends non-negative numbers to a unique, non-negative, even number and negative numbers to a
unique, positive, odd number. However, f is injective on non-negative numbers so that f g is injective,
◦
but is not injective on all of Z . (Note: What is necessary is that f be injective on the range of g (in our
case, the nonnegative numbers) but not necessarily the codomain of g(in our case, all of Z ))
f (x)
x2 −2
2
x
−2 −1 1 2
−1
−2
√ √
Therefore, the pre-image of g −1 ([1, 2]) is {[−2, − 3], [ 3, 2]}.
c) f −1 (T ) = h−1 ([−1, 0]) Notice that 1 is a zero of the polynomial x3 − 2x + 1. This allows us to find the
x-values that satisfy x 3 − 2x = −1.
f (x)
2 x3 − 2x
1
−2 −1 1 2
x
−1
−2
−√ 2], [0, −1+2 5 ], [1, √ 2]}.
√ 5 √
Therefore, the pre-image of h −1 ([ 1, 0]) is [ −1−2
− { ,
10 CHAPTER 1. SET THEORY
3. Find an example of a function f : A → B and subsets S and T in A such that f (S ∩ T ) = f (S ) ∩ f (T ).
Solution:
∪ ⊆ ∪ ∈ ∪
a) We prove first that f (S T ) f (S ) f (T ). Suppose that y f (S T ). Then there exists x S T such ∈ ∪
∈ ∈ ∈ ∈
that f (x) = y. We have x S or x T , so y = f (x) f (S ) or y = f (x) f (T ). Hence y f (S ) f (T ), ∈ ∪
∪ ⊆ ∪
so we deduce that f (S T ) f (S ) f (T ).
∈ ∪ ∈ ∈
Conversely, suppose that y f (S ) f (T ). This y f (S ) or y f (T ). We deduce that there exists x S ∈
with f (x) = y or there exists x T with f (x ) = y. Thus, there exists an x S T such that x = f (y)
∈ ∈ ∪
∪ ⊆ ∪
and we deduce that f (S ) f (T ) f (S T ).
∪
With these two set inclusions, we conclude that f (S T ) = f (S ) f (T ). ∪
∈ ∩ ∈ ∩
b) Let y f (S T ). By definition, there exists x S T such that y = f (x). Then x S and x T so ∈ ∈
∈ ∈ ∈ ∩
y = f (x) f (S ) and y = f (x) f (T ). Thus y f (S ) f (T ). We conclude that f (S T ) f (S ) f (T ). ∩ ⊆ ∩
c) Consider the function f : R R with f (x) = x2 . Setting S = [ 2, 1] and T = [1, 2], we find that
→ − −
∩
f (S T ) = f ( ) =∅ ∅
∩ ∩
f (S ) f (T ) = [1, 4] [1, 4] = [1, 4]
⇒ → ∀ ∈
(= ): Suppose f : S T is injective. Then s1 , s2 S such that f (s1 ) = f (s2 ) implies s1 = s 2 . Therefore,
∈ ∈ | | | | ∈
every s S maps to a unique t T . Since S = T , there does not exist t T such that t is not associated
with a unique s S . Thus f is surjective.
∈
(⇐=): Suppose f : S → T is surjective. This means that there are at least |T | elements in S that map to T .
Assume there exists f (s1 ) = f (s2 ) such that s 1 = s 2 . Then f implies that |S | elements are mapped to at
most |S | − 1 elements in T . Thus there exists at least one t1 ∈ T where there does not exist s ∈ S such
that f (s) = t 1 . This creates a contradiction because f is surjective. Therefore f is injective.
−
f ( 2) = 3
−
f ( 1) = 1
f (0) = 0
f (1) = 2
f (2) = 4
Noticing the negative integers point to odd natural numbers and the positive integers point to even natural
numbers, we can describe any integer n in terms of any natural number m by using the definition of even and
odd numbers
m
if m is even
n = 2 m+1
2 if m is odd.
−
Since every integer n is represented by a different natural number m we can quickly deduce that the association
is surjective by definition. Assume that there are two integers a and b such that a = b but f (a) = f (b). Then,
2a + 21 = 2b + 21 which implies that 2a + 21 = 2b + 21 a = b. This creates a contradiction, hence the
⇒
association is injective as well. Thus since there exists a bijection between Z and N . Therefore, Z is countable.
{
c) (a,a, 1), (a,a, 2), (a,a, 3), (a,a, 4), (a,b, 1), (a,b, 2), (a,b, 3), (a,b, 4), (b,a, 1), (b,a, 2), (b,a, 3), (b,a, 4),
(b,b, 1), (b,b, 2), (b,b, 3), (b,b, 4) }
Exercise: 4 Section 1.2
Question: Write in list form 1, 3 { } × { } × { }
2, 4 3, 5 .
Solution: (1, 2, 3), (1, 2, 5), (1, 4, 3), (1, 4, 5), (3, 2, 3), (3, 2, 5), (3, 4, 3), (3, 4, 5)
{ }
Exercise: 5 Section 1.2
Question: Write in list form 1 { } × {1, 2} × {1, 2, 3}.
Solution: The elements in 1 { } × {1, 2} × {1, 2, 3} are triples. The Cartesian product set is
{(1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 2), (1, 1, 3), (1, 2, 1), (1, 2, 2), (1, 2, 3)}.
n = 1 ⇒ (1, 1)
n = 2 ⇒ (1, 2), (2, 1)
n = 3 ⇒ (1, 3), (2, 2), (3, 1)
As the pattern continues, we quickly observe that as n increases, every element in N∗ N∗ is mapped to ×
once and only once. This establishes a bijection between N ∗ N∗ and N ∗ . ×
b) Suppose A and B are countable sets. Then both A and B have a bijection with N ∗ . It follows that there
exists a bijection between A B and N∗ N∗ . Since we have already established a bijection between
× ×
N∗ N∗ and N ∗ , there exists a bijection between A B and N ∗ . Therefore, A B is countable.
× × ×
Exercise: 8 Section 1.2
Question: The operation on vectors of R n defined by
∗ u v = proj
u ∗
v , i.e., projection of v onto u.
Solution:
Associative: Find any counter-example. Let a, b, and c be vectors in R 2 such that a =< 1, 1 >,
b =< 2, 1 >,
and c =< 3, 1 >. Then (a
b) c = 34 a and a (
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
b c) = 10 21
∗
a. Therefore, is not associative.
Commutative: Find any counter-example. Using the same vectors above, observe that a
b = 23 a and
b a = 53
∗ b. ∗
Since a
b =
∗ ∗ ∗
b a, is not commutative.
Identity: Note that in order for a e = a, proja e = a which is only possible when e = a since proja a = a. Thus
∗
it is impossible to have a unique identity.
∗
Inverse: Since does not have an identity, it cannot be closed under inverses.
14 CHAPTER 1. SET THEORY
∗
Idempotent: As shown earlier, proja a = a therefore, is idempotent.
∈
Associative: Let a, b, c [0, 1). Then
− a + b) c
(a b) c = (a + b
− a + b + c − a + b − a + b + c
= a + b
Furthermore
Idempotent: Consider the element 0.5. We have 0.5 0.5 = 0, so 0.5 gives one counter example to idempotence.
Associative: Let a = 1, b = 2, and c = 3. Observe a (b c) = ||c − b|− a| = 0 while (a b) c = |c −|b − a|| =
2. Therefore is not associative.
Associative: Let A = (a1 , a2 ), B = (b1 , b2 ), and C = (c1 , c2 ). A (B C ) = 2a1 +b41 +c1 and (A B) C =
a2 +b2 +2c2
4 . Thus, if A = C then A (B C ) = (A B) C . Hence, is not associative.
Commutative: The midpoint between A and B is the same as the midpoint between B and A, so is
commutative.
Identity: Note that A E = A if A = E . Since E is dependent on A, there does not exist an identity for .
Inverse: Because there is no identity for , there cannot be any inverses.
Inverse: Let b be the inverse of any a ∈ C. Then a+ ×b = 0 which implies a + b(1 + a) = 0. We can quickly
− a
deduce b = 1+a . From this observation we find that there exists an inverse for all values in C except −1.
Thus, × + is not closed under inverses.
Idempotent: Let a = 1. Then a+ ×a = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3 which is not equal to a. Hence, +× is not idempotent.
Associative:
S S
B B
A C A C
Note in the above diagrams, the darker shading represents the operation within the parenthesis. We observe
through the Venn diagrams that a (b c) = (a b) c. Thus, is associative.
Commutative:
16 CHAPTER 1. SET THEORY
S
A B
Commutative: For any two vectors in R 3 , a × b = − b × a. Hence the cross product is not commutative.
Identity: The cross product is perpendicular to the plane created by the two vectors being multiplied by
×
definition, therefore, there cannot exist a vector that satisfies a e = a. Thus the cross product does not
have an identity.
Inverse: Because the cross product does not have an identity, it cannot be closed under inverses.
Idempotent: Note,
b × b =< 0, 0, 0 > which does not equal b in every case therefore the cross product is not
idempotent.
Associative: Let f , g, and h be functions in F (A, A). Then (h ◦ g) ◦ f = h(g(f (a))) = h ◦ (g ◦ f ) where a ∈ A.
◦
Therefore, is associative.
Commutative: Consider the function j where j (a) = a 1 or in other words, every input gives the same output
a1 . Now let k be a function such that k (a1 ) = a 1 . Then j k(a) = a 1 , but k j(a) = a 1 . Therefore, is
◦ ◦ ◦
not commutative.
Identity: Consider the function e where e(a) = a. Let q be any function in F (A, A). ◦
Then q e = q and
◦
e q = q . Therefore, e is the identity.
Inverse: Let q be any function in (A, A). Then q q −1 = q (q −1 (a)) = a and q −1 q = q −1 (q (a)) = a where
F ◦ ◦
a A. However, not every function from A to A is bijective, for example, the function j as described
∈
◦
above. Therefore, is not closed under inverses.
Idempotent: Let l be a function such that l(a1 ) = a 2 and l(a2 ) = a 3 . Then l(l(a1 )) = a 3 which is not equal to
◦
l(a1 ). Thus, is not idempotent.
∩ ∪ ∈ ∈ ∪
Solution: Let x be in A (B C ) . Then, x A and x (B C ) by the definition of the intersection of
∈
sets. So, x A and x ∈
B, or x A and x ∈ ∈
C . By the definitions of the union and intersection of sets,
x (A B) (A C ). Therefore, A (B C ) = (A B) (A C ).
∈ ∩ ∪ ∩ ∩ ∪ ∩ ∪ ∩
Exercise: 18 Section 1.2
∗ ∗ ∗
Question: Let S be a set with a binary operation . Assume that (a b) a = b for all a, b ∈ S . Prove that
∗ ∗ ∈
a (b a) = b for all a, b S .
Solution: Assume (a b) a = b for all a, b S .
∗ ∗ ∈
(a ∗ b) ∗ a = b
(a b)
∗ ∗ a ∗ a = (b ∗ a)
∗ ∗ ∗ a ∗ a = a ∗ (b ∗ a)
a (a b)
(a ∗ b) ∗ a = a ∗ (b ∗ a)
b = a ∗ (b ∗ a)
∗ ∗
Therefore, a (b a) = b for all a, b S . ∈
Exercise: 19 Section 1.2
Question: Consider the operations a∧ b = a b and a b on N∗ . Prove that ∧ is right-distributive over
× × but
not left-distributive over . ×
Solution: Let a, b, c N∗ . For right-distributivity, we observe that
∈
(a × b)∧c = (ab)c = acbc = (a∧ c) × (b∧c),
so ∧ is right-distributive over ×. In contrast, as a counter example to left-distributivity
2∧ (3 × 4) = 212 while 2∧ 3 × 2∧ 4 = 23 · 24 = 2 7 .
× | | | | · | |
to. Therefore, every element in S S has S possible associations. Since there are S S elements, each with
S possibilities, then there are S |S |·|S | distinct functions possible from S S to S . By substitution, there are
|| | | ×
2
nn possible binary operators on S .
(1, 1, 1, 1), (1, 2, 2, 1), (2, 2, 2, 2), (2, 1, 1, 2), (1, 1, 1, 2), (1, 1, 2, 2), (1, 2, 1, 2), (1, 2, 2, 2)
A ×A A ×A A ×A
Each graph above represents the total number of symmetric elements for a set A of size n. By definition,
every pair in the form of (a, a) is a distinct symmetric element. These elements, contained in B as defined before,
are represented by the squares shown in the graphs above. Let T be the set of symmetric pairs in A 2 B such −
{{
that T = (a, b), (b, a) a, b A2 .These pairs are represented by the circles on the graph. To illustrate,
} | ∀ ∈ }
{ }
when n = 2, the only symmetric pair is (a1 , a2 ), (a2 , a1 ) represented by the single dot on the graph. Thus
when n = 2, T = 1 and B = 2. Let X = T B. X contains all the symmetric elements of A2 . Hence we
| | | | ∪
see when A = 2, that there are 3 symmetric elements. We observe that every time n increases, n symmetric
| |
n(n+1)
| |
elements are added to X . It follows that X = ni=1 i. By substitution, X = n(n+1)
2
| |
. Thus, the cardinality of
its power set results in 2 2 symmetric relations on A.
Reflexive: Choose any subset A. Then, A A implies A ∩ A = A = ∅ which is true for all cases except the
empty set. However, ∅ ∈
P (S ) so is not reflexive.
Reflexive: Any person is the same height as himself, therefore is reflexive.
Symmetric: Consider the case where an individual p 1 is taller than p 2 . Then p1 p 2 but p 2 p 1 . Hence,
is not symmetric.
Antisymmetric: Assume ( p1 p2 ) and ( p2 p1 ), but p 1 = p 2 . This implies that either p 1 is taller than p 2 or
vice versa. Without loss of generality, suppose p1 is taller than p2 . Then p 1 p 2 but p2 p 1 which is a
contradiction. Therefore, if p 1 p2 and p 2 p1 , then p 1 = p 2 . Thus is antisymmetric.
Transitive: Assume that p 1 p 3 , but p1 p 2 and p2 p 3 where p 2 = p 3 . This implies that p2 is taller than
p3 and p 1 is taller than or equal to p 2 . Hence, p 1 would have to be taller than p 3 which is a contradiction.
Therefore, if p 1 p2 and p 2 p3 , then p 1 p3 implying is transitive.
Symmetry: Consider the elements (1, 1) and (1, 2). Then 12 + 12 ≤ 12 + 22 so (1, 1) (1, 2). However
12 + 22 1 2 + 12 so (1, 2) (1, 1). Hence is not symmetric.
≤
Antisymmetry: Note that (1, 2) (2, 1) and (2, 1) (1, 2) but since (1, 2) = (2, 1), then is not antisymmetric.
Transitivity: Consider three points (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ), and (x3 , y3 ). Suppose that (x1 , y1 ) (x2 , y2 ) and (x2 , y2 )
(x3 , y3 ). Then
x21 + y12 x 22 + y22
≤ and x22 + y22 x 23 + y32 .
≤
Hence x 21 + y12 ≤ x22 + y22 so (x1, y1) (x3, y3). Hence is transitive.
Solution: Let S be a set and let R be a relation on S such that R is reflexive, symmetric, and antisymmetric.
∀ ∈
By definition, R contains all elements of the form ( s, s) s S . Since R is symmetric, if s R t then t R s where
∈ ∈
s, t S . Moreover, R is antisymmetric implying that if there is a symmetric pair ( s, t), (t, s) R, then s = t.
{
Hence, it is impossible for R to contain an element of the form (s, t) where s = t. Therefore, R = (s, s), s S ∀ ∈ }
which is the = relation.
{(x, y) ∈ R2 | x R y}.
a) Sketch the graph of the relation . ≤
| − |
b) Sketch the graph of the relation defined by x y if x y = 1.
c) Provide defining geometric characteristics of a subset of R2 for a relations on R that are i) reflexive; ii)
symmetric; iii) transitive; iv) antisymmetric.
Solution:
y
y = x
a)
22 CHAPTER 1. SET THEORY
y y = x + 1
y = x −1
b)
c) i) A reflexive relation must contain the line y = x.
ii) A symmetric relation must have a reflective mapping over the line y = x.
iii) An antisymmetric relation cannot have a reflective mapping over the line y = x and must include points
from the line y = x.
iv) In a transitive relation, for any points (x, y) and (y, z) there exists a right triangle that contains the
points (x, y), (y, z), and (x, z).
{ }
R = (a, a), (a, c), (a, d), (b, c), (b, e), (c, b), (c, d), (e, a), (e, b) .
×
Determine as a list in S S , the composite relation R R. ◦
◦ { }
Solution: R R = (a, a), (a, b), (a, c), (a, d), (b, a), (b, b), (b, d), (c, c), (c, e), (e, a), (e, c), (e, d), (e, e)
R
◦ ◦ · · · ◦
(n) def
= R R R.
Prove that the relation R is transitive if and only if R (n) R for all n = 1, 2, 3, . . ..
⊆
Solution: (= ): Suppose R is transitive. Assume that R (n) contains an element (x, y) such that (x, y) R.
⇒ ∈
Then there exists some z ∈
A such that (x, z) and (z, y). This creates a contradiction by the definition of a
transitive relation, thus (x, y) R(n) , (x, y) R. Therefore, R(n)
∀ ∈ ∈ R. ( =): Suppose R(n)
⊆ ⇐ R. Assume ⊆
that there exists a R b and b R c such that a is not related to c. By definition of relation composition, a R c exists
in R(n) . If a R c exists in R(n) , then it must also exist in R by definition of a subset causing a contradiction.
Hence, if a R b and b R c, then a R c. Therefore, R is transitive.
(a, b) R (c, d). Then, a + d = b + c which is equivalent to c + b = d + a. This implies (c, d) R (a, b) therefore R is
symmetric. Suppose (a, b) R (c, d) and (c, d) R (e, f ). Then a + d = b + c and c + f = d + e. Using subtraction and
− −
substitution we find that a b = e f . With some arranging we observe a + f = b + e implying (a, b) R (e, f ).
Hence, R is transitive. Therefore, since R is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive it is an equivalence relation.
Each distinct equivalence class describes the solutions to a function f : Z −→ Z where f (x) = x + c for c Z.∈
Exercise: 2 Section 1.3
Question: Let C be the set of people in your abstract algebra class. Describe a “natural” relation satisfying
each of the combination of properties listed below.
1. Reflexive and symmetric, but not transitive.
2. Reflexive and transitive, but not symmetric.
3. Symmetric and transitive, but not reflexive.
4. An equivalence relation.
r1 s2 = s 1 r2
r1 s2 t1 = s 1 r2 t1
r1 s1 t2 = s 1 r2 t1
r1 t2 = t 1 r2
Therefore, since R is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive, R is an equivalence relation.
Reflexivity: Let f be any function in C 0 (R). Setting a = b = 0 we have f (x) = f (x + a) + b for all x. Hence
R is reflexive.
Symmetry: Suppose that f R g. Then there exists some a, b R such that g(x) = f (x + a) + b. Then
∈
g(x) b = f (x + a) for all x R. Setting y = x + a, we have g(y a) b = f (y). This holds for all y R.
− ∈ − − ∈
Hence g R f . Thus, R is symmetric.
1.3. EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS 25
Transitivity: Let f , g , h C 0 (R) and suppose that f R g and g R h. There there exist a1 , a2 , b1 , b2
∈ ∈ R such
that
g(x) = f (x + a1 ) + b1 and h(x) = g(x + a2 ) + b2 for all x R. ∈
Then h(x) = f (x + a + 2 + a1 ) + b1 + b2 for all x ∈ R. Hence f R h. Thus R is transitive.
Exercise: 11 Section 1.3
Question: Let Pfin (R) be the set of finite subsets of R and define the relation on Pfin (R) by A B if the
∼ ∼
∼
sum of elements in A is equal to the sum of elements in B. Prove that is an equivalence relation.
Solution: It is not hard to see A A for all A R , so is reflexive. Similarly, if A B , then the sum of
∼ ∈ ∼ ∼
∼
elements in A is equal to the sum of elements in B . Thus, we observe that this implies that B A. Therefore,
∼ is symmetric. Moreover, given any A, B,C R where A B and B C , it quickly follows that the sum of
∈ ∼ ∼
∼
elements in A is equal to the sum of elements in C by substitution. Hence, is transitive and therefore is an
equivalence relation.
lim (bn
n
→∞
− an) = 0.
n
lim (an
→∞
− an) = nlim
→∞(0) = 0
Also, notice
lim (bn − an) = − nlim
n →∞ →∞(an − bn ) = 0
therefore R is symmetric. For transitivity, suppose that (an )R(bn ) and (bn )R(cn ). Then
n
lim (bn
→∞ − cn ) = 0 and
n
lim (an
→∞ − bn) = 0.
Thus
n
lim (an
→∞
− cn) = nlim − −
→∞((an bn ) + (bn cn )) = nlim
−
→∞(an bn ) + nlim
−
→∞(bn cn ) = 0 + 0 = 0,
where the second equality holds by virtue of the addition law of limits. Note that we can apply the addition rule
here because we know that each of the sequences involved in the sums converge (to 0).
Show that is an equivalence relation and describe (with a precise rule) a complete set of distinct representatives
∼
of .
∼
∼
Solution: First show that is an equivalence relation.
Hence
1
0 f (x) dx =
1
0 h(x) dx. Thus f ∼ h. Hence ∼ is an equivalence relation.
Every function f C 0 ([0, 1]) is in relation with the constant function g(x) = c, where c = 0 f (x) dx.
∈
1
However, constant functions that are not equal are not in relation with each other. Hence the constant
functions are a complete set of distinct representatives.
abdf = abec
afbd = beac
afbd = bebd
af = be
Consequently, (a, b) ∼ (e, f ). Thus ∼ is transitive and therefore an equivalence relation.
Exercise: 21 Section 1.3
Question: Let S = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 . For the partitions of S given below, write out the equivalence relation as
{ }
×
a subset of S S .
a) 1, 2 , 3, 4 , 5, 6
{{ } { } { }}
b) 1 , 2 , 3, 4, 5, 6
{{ } { } { }}
{{ } { } { } { }}
c) 1, 2 , 3 , 4, 5 , 6
Solution:
{
a) (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5), (6, 6), (1, 2), (2, 1), (3, 4), (4, 3), (5, 6), (6, 5) }
b)
{(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5), (6, 6), (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6), (4, 3), (4, 5), (4, 6), (5, 3),
}
(5, 4), (5, 6), (6, 3), (6, 4), (6, 5)
c) (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5), (6, 6), (1, 2), (2, 1), (4, 5), (5, 4)
{ }
Exercise: 22 Section 1.3
Question: Let S = a,b,c,d,e . For the partitions of S given below, write out the equivalence relation as a
{ }
subset of S S .
×
{{ } { }}
a) a,d,e , b, c
{{ } { } { } { } { }}
b) a , b , c , d , e
{{
c) a,b,d,e , c} { }}
Solution:
a) (a, a), (b, b), (c, c), (d, d), (e, e), (a, d), (a, e), (d, a), (d, e), (e, a), (e, d), (b, c), (c, b)
{ }
{
b) (a, a), (b, b), (c, c), (d, d), (e, e) }
28 CHAPTER 1. SET THEORY
c)
{(a, a), (b, b), (c, c), (d, d), (e, e), (a, b), (a, d), (a, e), (b, a), (b, d), (b, e), (d, a), (d, b),
(d, e), (e, a), (e, b), (e, d) }
Solution: Let M n×n (R) be the set of n n matrices with real coefficients and define the relation
× ∼ as similarity
between matrices.
∼
a) We prove that is an equivalence relation.
Reflexivity: For all matrices A ∈ M n×n(R), since I AI −1 = A then A ∼ A.
Symmetry: Let A, B ∈ M n×n (R) such that A ∼ B . Then there exists an invertible matrix S such that
B = SAS −1 . Hence A = S −1 BS . Thus B ∼ A so ∼ is symmetric.
Transitivity: Let A,B, C ∈ M n×n (R) such that A ∼ B and B ∼ C . Thus there exist invertible matrices
−1
A and T such that B = SAS −1
and C = T BT . Then
Therefore, the function det is well-defined on the set of -equivalence classes on M n×n (R).
∼
c) There is a property in the algebra of matrices that Tr(AB) = Tr(BA), even if the matrices do not commute.
Suppose that B A with B = SAS −1 for some invertible matrix S . Then
∼
Tr(B) = Tr(SAS −1 ) = Tr(ASS −1 ) = Tr(A).
y = x + q
y = x q −
Notice that the domain of these functions spans R . Therefore for any x ∈ R there exists y ∈ R such that
∼ | − |
y x and x y < . A graphical representation is shown below.
y
y = x +
y = x + q
y = x q −
y = x −
x
b) Since is reflexive, every value in R has its own equivalence class. Since R is uncountable, it follows that
∼
there are an uncountable amount of equivalence classes.
− −
equivalence class of [n]. Furthermore, for each of those choices, there are n 1 j elements remaining in
{ }
1, 2, . . . , n from which to create the remaining equivalence classes that make up the partition. Thus, for
1
each j , there are p(n 1 j) n−
− − j
−
partitions. Summing over j = 0 to n 1 gives the number of possible
{
partitions (equivalence classes) on 1, 2, . . . , n . }
b) Using this recursive formula, we get
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
p(n) 1 2 5 15 52 203 877
is a partition of S .
C
Solution: Call the collection of subsets of S
(Ai ∩ Bj ) ∩ (Ai ∩ Bj )
1 1 = ∅.
2 2
Then by associativity
(Ai1 ∩ Ai ) ∩ (Bj ∩ Bj ) = ∅.
2 1 2
However, Ai ∩ Ai
1 2= ∅ if and only if i1 = i2 and similarly Bj ∩ Bj
1 = ∅ if and only if j1 = j2 . Hence, we
2
have i 1 = i 2 and j 1 = j 2 . Thus sets in C are either equal or disjoint. Consequently, since C also covers S , C is a
partition of S .
where the intersection is over all equivalence relations Re that contain R. We can call this relation the equivalence
closure of R.
From an algorithmic perspective, one of the challenges of this exercise is to realize that if we begin with
the relation R as a subset of S S , and adjoin pairs to force symmetry and then adjoin more pairs to force
×
transitivity, we may need to go back and adjoin new pairs that are required for symmetry again and vice versa.
It is not clear when this process will terminate.
| | { } ×
Suppose that S = n and label the elements of S by S = s1 , s2 , . . . , sn . For an n n matrix M of
≥
nonnegative integers, we define M̃ as m̃ij = min(1, mij ). Hence, if mij 1, then m̃ij = 1 but if m ij = 0, then
m̃ij = 0.
Here is an algorithm for determining the equivalence closure of R.
• Let A = (aij ) be the n × n matrix defined by
1 if (si , sj ) R
∈
aij =
0 otherwise.
• Replace A with A + I .
• Replace A with Ã. [These first two steps ensure reflexivity.]
• While A = A2
+ (A2 ) , replace A with A2
+ (A2 ) .
• Return A.
The operation A2 will have a nonzero entry position (i, j), if there is some k such that aik and bkj are both
nonzero. This process will add a nonzero entry corresponding to a pair that is required by transitivity. The
operation A A + A adds a matrix to its transpose, which adds a nonzero entry to complete for symmetry
→
reasons. Now if A is a matrix of 0s and 1s, then A2
+ (A2 ) will again be a matrix of 0s and 1s with new entries
turned to 1 for transitivity or symmetry reasons.
1.4. PARTIAL ORDERS 33
The algorithm stops because if A = A2 + (A2 ) then no transitivity requirement or symmetry requirement
will add a new pair to the relation (nonzero entry to A). Hence, A will then correspond to an equivalence
relation. Furthermore, the algorithm will terminate because before the while loop, A contains at most n2 n −
entries that are 0 and at each stage of the while loop that changes A will change at least one 0 entry to a 1.
Hence, the while loop can repeat at most n 2 n times. −
∈
Reflexivity: For all (x, y) S , we do have xy ≤ xy so the relation is reflexive.
Antisymmetry: Consider the points (2, 1) and (1, 2). Then 1 × 2 ≤ 2 × 1 and 2 × 1 ≤ 1 × 2 so (1, 2) R (2, 1)
and (2, 1) R (1, 2) even through (1, 2)
= (2, 1) So the relation is not antisymmetric.
Transitivity: We have already shown that the relation is not a partial order since it fails antisymmetry. The
relation is transitive.
1
x +
2 1
< (x + x) = x.
2 x 2
are mutually disjoint, we conclude that j = j . Hence B j = A i . Since j was arbitrary, we conclude that
B
B A
= . Thus the relation of refinement is antisymmetric.
B A C { }
3. Finally, let be a refinement of and let = C k k∈K be a partition of S such that . Then for all C B
∈ ∈ ⊆ B A
k K , there exists j J such that C k B j . Since is a refinement of , then there exists i I such ∈
that Bj ⊆ ⊆
Ai . Hence, since is transitive, C k ⊆ C A
Ai . Thus . Hence, the relation of refinement is
transitive.
These three results show that refinement is a partial order on the set of partition of S .
{1} {2} {3 } { 4}
= (a, a), (b, b), (c, c), (d, d), (e, e), (f, f ), (g, g), (a, c),
{
(b, c), (d, g), (a, e), (b, e), (c, e), (d, h), (g, h) }
36 CHAPTER 1. SET THEORY
c g
a b d f
B =
{o+, o−, a+, a−, b+, b−, ab+, ab−}.
We define the donor relation → on B as follows. The relation t1 → t 2 holds if the letter portion of the blood
type donates according to the way described in the examples for this section and if someone with a + designation
can only give to someone else with +, while someone with − can give to anybody.
1. Draw the Hasse diagram for (B , →).
2. Show that the (B , →) poset does not have the lexicographic order on B × {+, −}.
Solution: We study the partial order of blood type B including the rhesus.
a) The Hasse diagram for the poset (B , ) is →
ab+
a+ ab − b+
−
a o+ −
b
o −
{ −}
b) Under the partial order on +, is described completely by + → +, − → −, and − → +. So for example,
in the lexicographic order on B , we have
(a, +)
→lex ( ab, −)
because the pairs already differ on the first entry and a → ab in B. However, we see that in the actual
donor relation on B , a+ cannot donate to ab−.
Hence the actual donor relation on B is not the lexicographic partial order on B × {+, −}.
Exercise: 12 Section 1.4
Question: Consider the set of triples of integers Z 3 . Define the relation on Z 3 by
a1 + a2 + a3 < b1 + b2 + b3 if a 1 + a2 + a3 = b 1 + b2 + b3 ;
(a1 , a2 , a3 ) (b1 , b2 , b3 ) ⇐⇒ a1 + a2 + a3 lex b 1 + b2 + b3 if a 1 + a2 + a3 = b 1 + b2 + b3 ,
where lex is the lexicographic order on Z 3 (with each copy of Z equipped with the partial order ≤). Prove that
is a partial order on Z 3 . Prove also that is a total order.
Solution: We first prove that is a partial order on Z 3 .
Reflexivity : Let (a1 , a2 , a3 ) Z 3 . Then since a 1 + a2 + a3 = a 1 + a2 + a3 , we use the lexicographic order to
∈
compare the entries but all entries are equal and this satisfies the lexicographic order. Hence (a1 , a2 , a3 )
(a1 , a2 , a3 ).
1.4. PARTIAL ORDERS 37
Antisymmetry : Suppose that (a1 , a2 , a3 ) (b1 , b2 , b3 ) and (b1 , b2 , b3 ) (a1 , a2 , a3 ). Assume that a1 +
a2 + a 3 = b1 + b 2 + b 3 , then a1 + a 2 + a 3 < b1 + b 2 + b 3 and b1 + b 2 + b 3 < a1 + a 2 + a 3 , which is
a contradiction. Hence we must have a1 + a 2 + a 3 = b1 + b 2 + b 3 . Thus, we compare the triples by
lexicographic order. However, the lexicographic order is a partial order, which is antisymmetric so we can
conclude that (a1 , a2 , a3 ) = (b1 , b2 , b3 ).
Transitivity : Suppose that (a1 , a2 , a3 ) (b1 , b2 , b3 ) and (b1 , b2 , b3 ) (c1 , c2 , c3 ). We can break the situation
into three cases. If a 1 + a2 + a3 = b 1 + b2 + b3 = c 1 + c2 + c3 , then we compare the triples by lexicographic
order, which is transitive so (a1 , a2 , a3 ) (c1 , c2 , c3 ). If a 1 + a2 + a3 = b 1 + b2 + b3 = c 1 + c2 + c3 (resp.
a1 + a 2 + a3 = b1 + b 2 + b3 = c 1 + c 2 + c3 ) then a1 + a2 + a 3 < c1 + c2 + c 3 so (a1 , a2 , a3 (c1 , c2 , c3 ).
Finally, if all thee of the sums are different, then we deduce that a 1 + a2 + a3 < b1 + b2 + b3 < c1 + c2 + c3
so we can conclude that (a1 , a2 , a3 (c1 , c2 , c3 ). We conclude that is transitive.
Finally, to show that is a total order, let (a1 , a2 , a3 ), (b1 , b2 , b3 ) Z3 be arbitrary, distinct elements. There
∈
are two cases. If a1 + a 2 + a 3 = b1 + b 2 + b 3 , then either a1 + a 2 + a 3 < b1 + b 2 + b 3 , which implies that
(a1 , a2 , a3 ) (b1 , b2 , b3 ), or the reverse is true. If a1 + a2 + a3 = b1 + b2 + b 3 , then we compare the triples by
the lexicographic order. In this case, let i be the least index for which a i = b i . Then (a1 , a2 , a3 ) (b1 , b2 , b3 ) if
ai < bi and (b1 , b2 , b3 ) (a1 , a2 , a3 ) if b i < ai . Hence, every pair of elements is comparable and the relation is a
total order.
ai + ci = b i + ci . Hence the first index for with a i + ci = b i + ci is j and then we have aj + cj < bj + cj . Thus
a + c b + c.
Since the above result was arbitrary, a b implies a +c
b+c and c d implies c + b d +
b. By transitivity
of , we deduce that
a + c
b + c b +
d.
j
h i
f g
e
c
d
a b
{ }
7. List all the upper bounds of f, d .
Solution: In the given Hasse diagram, we have the following named elements.
a) The minimal elements are a and b.
b) The maximal element is j .
c) The maximal elements in a,b,c,d,e,f,g are e, f , and g.
{ }
d) There are 3 chains of length 5. They are a,d,e,i,j , a,d,g,h,j , and a,c,f,h,j . There is no chain of
{ } { } { }
greater length.
e) The subposet a, b has only one upper bound, namely e, and this is the least upper bound.
{ }
{ }
f) The subposet b, c does not have a lower bound.
{ } { }
g) The set of upper bounds of f, d is h, j .
{
A = (x, y) ∈ R2 | x2 + y2 ≤ 1}.
a) Show that A has both a maximal and minimal element. Find all of them.
b) Find all the upper bounds and all the lower bounds of A.
Solution: The partial order on R2 is defined by (x1, y1) (x2, y2) if and only if 2x1 y1 < 2x2 y2 or − −
(x1, y1) = (x2, y2).
a) The solution to this problem is directly related to the calculus problem of optimizing 2x y for (x, y) A. − ∈
− −
The gradient of 2x y is never 0 so there are no optimal values to 2 x y on the interior of A. We can
∈
parametrize the boundary of A by (cos t, sin t) with t [0, 2π]. We can optimize 2x yon the boundary −
by optimizing 2 cos t sin t. This is optimized with tan t = 12 . With the result that sin t = 12 cos t, we
− − −
deduce that the optimum values occur at
√ − √
2
,
1
and
− √ √
2
,
1
5 5 5 5
with the former corresponding to a maximum and the latter being a minimum element with respect to .
− y > √ 55 = √ 5 as well as the point √ 25 , − √ 15
b) The upper bounds to A are any (x, y) with 2x
. The lower
√
bounds of A are all the points (x, y) with 2x − y < − 5 as well as the point − √ 2 √
, 15 .
5
1. Show that A has both a maximal and minimal element. Find all of them.
2. Find all the upper bounds and all the lower bounds of A.
3. Show that A has both a least upper bound and a greatest lower bound.
1.4. PARTIAL ORDERS 39
Solution: The lexicographic order on R 2 coming from the standard ( R, ) is a total order.
≤
a) A maximal element of A will have a greatest x value and if there are any ties on the x value, we break them
with the y value. The maximal element is the point (6 , 2). No point in A has a greater x-value. Similarly,
−
the point with the least x value is ( 4, 2) and there is no other point with the same x component. Hence
−
( 4, 2) is minimal.
b) The set of upper bounds to A is (x, y) R 2 x > 6
{ ∈ | }∪{ | ≥ }
(6, y) y 2 . The set of lower bounds of A is
{(x, y) R x < 4
∈ | 2
− }∪{ − | ≤ }
( 4, y) y 2 .
c) The single maximal element is the unique least upper bound to A and the single minimal element is the
unique greatest lower bound.