Definition of Human Physiology:

The science which deals with the functions of the human body under
different external and internal environmental conditions to maintain life

Organization of the human body:

- The basic living unit of the body is the cell.

- Cells of the same shape and function arranged side by side forming
a tissue.

- The organ is formed of more than one tissue performing a special

function; e.g. the stomach digests and the kidney excretes…etc.

- A system is formed of more than one organ having complementary

functions. The sum of these functions will determine the role of the
system in human life e.g. in the digestive system, teeth masticate,
salivary glands lubricate, tongue mixes, oesophagus swallows,
stomach digests, and intestine digests and absorbs with the aid of
the digestive glands as liver and pancreas, large intestine stores the
wastes and get rid of them by defecation. The functions integrates

1
 to digest, absorb food materials and excretes wastes which is the
role of the digestive system in human life.

- The human body is a group of systems, each plays a specific and

different role from the others, and the sum of these roles maintain
human life.

The different systems of human body include:

*The endocrine system *The digestive system

*The nervous system *The excretory systems

*The cardiovascular system *The reproductive system

*The respiratory system *The musculoskeletal system

Digestive system

2
 The body Fluids
The total body water and its distribution:

The total body water is normally about 60% of the body weight in young
adult males. Therefore, in a young adult male weighing 70 Kg, the total
body water is normally about 42 liters, and it is distributed as follows:

(1) Intracellular fluid (ICF): this constitutes about 2/3 of the total
body water i.e. about 40% of the body weight.
(2) Extracellular fluid (ECF): this constitutes about 1/3 of the total
body water i.e. about 20% of the body weight, and it includes the
following subdivisions:
(a) Intravascular fluid (i.e. the plasma): This is normally about
1/4 of the ECF volume.
(b) Extravascular fluid: This is normally about 3/4 of the ECF
volume. It includes the interstitial fluid + transcellular fluids.
 Interstitial fluid: the fluid in spaces between the tissue cells
 Transcellular fluids: fluid present in closed spaces
surrounded by epithelium as cerebrospinal fluid, intraocular
fluids, and the fluids in the pleura, joints, peritoneum, etc.

3
Functions of The body water:
1- It is the medium for the chemical and enzymatic reactions.
2- It is the medium for the physical processes e.g. diffusion and
filtration.
3- It is an ionizing medium (regulating pH and body fluid osmolarity).
4- It regulates the body temperature through heat absorption,
distribution and evaporation.
5- It is a lubricant in the joints and potential spaces (e.g. the pleura).
6- It is a refractive medium in the eye.
7- The cerebrospinal fluid is a mechanical buffer that protects the brain.
8- It is the medium for exchange of O2 and CO2 in the lungs and tissues.

Composition of the ECF and ICF:

ECF ICF
Main cation Na+ (142 mEq/L) & K (4 mEq/L) K+ (140mEq/L) & Mg2+
small amounts of Ca2+ and Mg2+ small amounts of Na+
very little Ca2+
Main anion Cl- HPO4 & protein.
small amounts of: HCO-3, Small amounts of Cl-,
proteins, and HPO4 HCO3 and SO4
pH About 7.4 About 7 due to low HCO-3
Osmolarity The same The same

4
 Water Balance

This is the balance between the daily amounts of water gain and water
loss. Under normal conditions, both are equal (about 2300 ml/day) so
that the body is in a normal water balance.

Water Gain:
It is derived from 2 sources:
1) Exogenous water (by oral route): This the main source of water
gain. It averages 2000 ml/day, and it includes the volumes of:
(a) Water and other fluids that are drunk (about 1400ml/day).
(b) Water present in the eaten food (about 600 ml/day).
2) Endogenous water: (which is formed inside the body as a result of
oxidation of H2 in the foodstuffs). It is normally about 300ml/day.

Water loss:
In the comfortable zone of atmospheric temperature (about 20o C),
young adult individuals normally lose about 2300 ml of water/day:
a) 1400 ml in the urine.
b) 100 ml in the feces.
c) 100 ml in the sweat.
d) 700 ml in insensible loss from evaporation from the skin and
respiration.

5
 Control of water balance
(A) Control of water gain:
The amount of water gain is controlled mainly by the thirst sensation.
Thirst is the desire for water that urges the individual to drink. It is
produced due to stimulation of a special thirst center located in the brain
(central mechanism of thirst). This occurs if:
(a) The ECF or plasma volumes are decreased (hypovolemia).
(b) The osmolarity of these fluids is increased (hypertonicity).

*In addition, the decreased salivary secretion that occurs in cases of

hypovolemia causes a sensation of dryness of the buccal cavity and
pharynx which also urges the individual to drink. This is sometimes
called the peripheral mechanism of thirst.

(B) Control of water loss:

The amount of water loss is controlled mainly by adjusting the urine
volume, and this is largely determined by the antidiuretic hormone
(ADH).
The release of ADH is stimulated in cases of hypovolemia and
hypertonicity (resulting in increased water retention in the body and
decreased water excretion in the urine). On the other hand, its release is
inhibited in cases of hypervolemia and hypotonicity (resulting in
decreased water retention in the body and increased water excretion in
the urine).

6
 Disorders of water balance

(A) Dehydration
This is a condition of negative water balance that occurs when the amount
of water loss exceeds that of water gain e.g. due to excessive sweating,
vomiting or diarrhea and in cases of prolonged water deprivation. It doesn't
take much to become dehydrated. Lose just 1.5% of the water in the body, can
cause mild dehydration.
Manifestations:
(1) Cold & pale "This occurs because the body starts to limit blood flow to the
skin", dry & wrinkled skin.
(2) Sunken eyes and depressed fontanelles of the skull (in infants).
(3) Loss of body weight and muscle weakness together with rapid fatigue "The
body will protect its vital organs, so it shifts fluid away from muscles and
anything that's not vital".
(4) Marked thirst and dry mouth.
(5) Rise of body temperature (due to decrease blood flow in the skin).
(6) Hypotension, weak pulse.
(7) Increased plasma proteins concentration and elevation of both the serum
Na+ level and hematocrite value (due to blood concentration).
(8) Oliguria or anuria.
(9) Irritability, sleepiness, confusion then coma and finally death.

N.B: Infants and children are more vulnerable to develop dehydration than adults
because in the young individuals (a) The ECF/ICF ratio is higher than adults (b)
The kidneys are less able to retain water.

Correction:

(1) Role of the body: As a result of hypovolemia, the release of ADH is increased
and the thirst center is stimulated → water retention and excessive ingestion of
water.
(2) Treatment: Giving the patient fluids either orally or i.v. (isotonic saline or
glucose solutions)

7
 (B) Over hydration (water intoxication)

This is a condition of positive water balance that occurs when the amount
of water gain exceeds that of water loss e.g. due to (1) excessive secretion
of ADH which lead to ↑ water retention in the body, and ↓ water
excretion in the urine and (2) when a person drinks excessive water without
salt more than the kidneys can remove in the urine.

Manifestations:
(1) Generalized oedema (tissue swelling).
(2) Increased blood pressure (from increased blood volume).
(3) Excessive salivation with nausea and vomiting.
(4) Decreased plasma osmolarity, hematocrit value and Na+ concentration
(dilution of body fluids).
(5) Convulsions, disorientation, confusion and finally coma and death (due
to draw in more amount of water and swelling of the brain from
decreased Na+ concentration).

Correction:

(1) Role of the body: As a result of hypervolemia and plasma

hypotonicity, the release of ADH is decreased and the thirst center is
not stimulated→ ↓ water retention in the body, ↑ water excretion in
the urine, and minimal ingestion of water.
(2) Treatment: Giving the patient (a) Hypertonic saline solutions i.v.
(to increase plasma osmolarity which decreases the brain oedema)
(b) Diuretic drugs (drugs which increase urine output). .