DIESEL AND STEAM TURBINE ENGINES

MET 06106

Prepared and lectured by: Ally Diwani

Marine Engineering Department
Introduction to Marine Diesel Engine
• Marine diesel engines are very similar to the self-ignition engines in heavy-duty
vehicles, but they are generally larger, more complex, and operate with higher
efficiency.
• About 75% of all marine diesel engines are four-stroke engines; however, 75% of
the installed power is produced by two-stroke engines.
• Four-stroke marine diesel engines are gaining importance not only in inland, but also
in marine shipping, primarily in smaller container and bulk carrier ships.
• Fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions of ship engines depend not only on
the principle of operation, but also on the type, the size, the power, the load, the
speed, etc.
• The reciprocating marine diesel engine first came into use in 1903 when the diesel
electric river tanker Vandal was put into service by Branobel. Diesel engines soon
offered greater efficiency than the steam turbine, but for many years had an inferior
power-to-space ratio. The advent of turbocharging however hastened their adoption,
by permitting greater power densities.
 Heat engine
• A heat engine is a device which transforms the chemical energy of a fuel into thermal
energy and uses this energy to produce mechanical work. It is classified into two
types-
a. External combustion engine
b. Internal combustion engine
• External combustion engine
• In this engine, the products of combustion of air and fuel transfer heat to a second
fluid which is the working fluid of the cycle.
• Examples
 In the steam engine or a steam turbine plant, the heat of combustion is employed to
generate steam which is used in a piston engine (reciprocating type engine) or a
turbine (rotary type engine) for useful work.
 In a closed cycle gas turbine, the heat of combustion in an external furnace is
transferred to gas, usually air which the working fluid of the cycle.
 Heat engine
• Internal combustion engine
• In this engine, the combustion of air and fuels take place inside the cylinder and are
used as the direct motive force. It can be classified into the following types:
 By the cycle of operation.
 Two stroke cycle
 Two four cycle
 By mode of actions.
 Single acting engines
 Double acting engines
 By fuel used
 Petrol engine
 Diesel engine
 Gas engine (CNG, LPG)
 Alcohol engine (ethanol, methanol etc)
 Heat engine
• Internal combustion engine cont.….
 By way of charging the cylinder with combustible mixture of fresh air
• Naturally aspirated engines
• Super charged engines
 By way of igniting the combustible mixture.
• Compression ignition engines
• Spark ignition engines
 By Design features
• Truck engines
• Cross head engines
 By the arrangement of cylinders
• Inline engines
• Multibank engines
 By application
• Main propulsion engines
• Auxiliary engine
 Heat engine
 By the mean piston speed
• Slow speed
• Medium speed
• High speed engine
 By way of changing direction of crankshaft
• Direct reversing engines
• Unidirectional engines
 By direction of crankshaft rotation
• Right hand engines
• Left hand engines
 Heat engine
Comparison between external combustion engines and internal combustion engines

External combustion engine Internal combustion engine

Combustion of air-fuel is outside the engine cylinder (in a boiler) Combustion of air-fuel is inside the engine cylinder (in a boiler)

The engines are running smoothly and silently due to outside
combustion
Higher ratio of weight and bulk to output due to presence of
auxiliary apparatus like boiler and condenser. Hence it is heavy
and cumbersome
Working pressure and temperature inside the engine cylinder is
low; hence ordinary alloys are used for the manufacture of
engine cylinder and its parts
It can use cheaper fuels including solid fuels
Very noisy operated engine
It is light and compact due to lower ratio of weight and bulk to
output
Working pressure and temperature inside the engine cylinder is
very much high; hence special alloys are used
High grade fuels are used with proper filtration

Lower efficiency about 15-20% Higher efficiency about 35-40%

Higher requirement of water for dissipation of energy through Lesser requirement of water
cooling system
High starting torque IC engines are not self-starting
 Principles of Marine Diesel Engines
• Diesel engines have become the common engines used in commercial and larger private vessels.
The advantages that diesel engines have over alternative power sources such as Petrol or LPG
engines are;
 Proven performance and reliability under working conditions
 Lower fuel consumption in relation to power output
 Greater torque for longer periods
 Diesel engines generally burns fuel more efficiently than petrol engines increasing power and
economy
 Diesel fuel is less flammable then petrol (although diesel fuel will still ignite and burn)
 Fumes from diesel engines exhausts are less toxic and polluting than those emitted from petrol
engines.
 To operate and maintain an engine, you will need to understand how it works. Diesel engines are
simple in principle and will prove very reliable if properly maintained.
 The diesel engine uses a piston to compress and heat air in the cylinder, which ignites fuel forced into
a combustion chamber in the cylinder head.
 As the fuel ignites, pressure within the cylinder increases, forcing the piston back down the cylinder,
completing a power stroke
 The basic principle driving diesel engines is the conversion of up and down motion to rotary motion.
This is achieved by the compression ignition cycle of the pistons which are converted to a rotary
movement through the crankshaft.
 There are two types of diesel engines, a two stroke and a four stroke.
 Cycle of operation of Marine Diesel Engine
• Four stroke
• Four stroke engine was first demonstrate by Nikolaus Otto in 1876,hence it is also
known as Otto cycle.
• It consist of 4 stroke ,one cycle operation is completed in 4 stroke of the piston, That
is one cycle is completed in every 2 revolutions of the crankshaft. Each stroke
consist of 180°,of crankshaft rotation and hence a cycle consist of 720°,of crankshaft
.
rotation The cyclic events in a four stroke diesel engine are in sequence;
i. Filling of the engine cylinder with fresh air.
ii. Compression of the air charge to raise its pressure and temperature to that
necessary to ignite and burn the fuel efficiently
iii. Combustion of the fuel and expansion of the hot gases
iv. Emptying the cylinder of the burned gases by exhausting them
• when these four events are completed, the cycle is repeated.
• The detailed description of these strokes are as follows;
Four stroke marine diesel engine
• 1. Intake (Suction) Stroke
• In suction stroke piston starts
at Top Dead Center (TDC) of
the cylinder and moves to the
Bottom Dead Center (BDC).
Outlet valve will be closed and
inlet valve will be open to
allowing the fresh charge of
mixed fuel & air into the
cylinder.
Four stroke marine diesel engine
• 2 . Compression stroke

• In compression stroke, Once

piston reaches BDC & moves
back TDC, inlet valve will be
closed. As the piston moves
towards TDC. It compress air
inside the cylinder &
compression takes place.
Hence it is called compression
stroke.
Four stroke marine diesel engine
• 3. Power Stroke
• In expansion stroke, Both the valves
are closed. When piston reaches top of
its stroke. the fuel is sprinkled by the
Fuel Injector and the fuel mixture is
ignited due to high temperature &
pressure generated inside the cylinder
& push down the piston to BDC. Hence
it is known as Power or expansion
stroke. The Power generated in this
stroke is stored in the flywheel for its
furthur utilisation in the other strokes.
Four stroke marine diesel engine

• 4. Exhaust stroke
• In this stroke exhaust valve is
opened when piston reaches to
BDC & moves to upward. Piston
pushes out the burnt gases to the
atmosphere through the exhaust
valve. Hence called exhaust
stroke & the engine is ready to
begin the cycle again.
 Two stroke marine diesel engine
• Like the four-stroke engine, the two-stroke engine must
go through the same four events: intake,
compression, power, and exhaust. But a two-stroke
engine requires only two strokes of the piston to
complete one full cycle.
• Therefore, it requires only one rotation of the
crankshaft to complete a cycle. This means several
events must occur during each stroke for all four
events to be completed in two strokes, as opposed to
the four-stroke engine where each stroke basically
contains one event.
• Two-stroke engines invariably have ports to admit air
when uncovered by the descending piston (or air
piston where the engine has two pistons per cylinder).
• The exhaust may be via ports adjacent to the air ports
and controlled by the same piston (loop scavenge) or
via piston-controlled exhaust ports or poppet exhaust
valves at the other end of the cylinder (uniflow
scavenge). The principles of the cycle apply in all
cases
• In a two-stroke engine the camshaft is geared so that it
rotates at the same speed as the crankshaft
 Two stroke marine diesel engine
• Two stroke with intake ports and exhaust valve.

• The crankshaft is revolving clockwise and the

piston is moving up the cylinder, compressing the
charge of air.
• Because energy is being transferred into the air, its
pressure and temperature increase.
• By the time the piston is approaching the top of the
cylinder (known as Top Dead Center or TDC) the
pressure is over 100 bar and the temperature over
500°C.
Two stroke marine diesel engine
• Two stroke with intake ports and exhaust valve.
• Just before TDC fuel is injected into the
cylinder by the fuel injector. The fuel is
"atomized" into tiny droplets.
• Because they are very small these
droplets heat up very quickly and start to
burn as the piston passes over TDC. The
expanding gas from the fuel burning in the
oxygen forces the piston down the
cylinder, turning the crankshaft.
• It is during this stroke that work energy is
being put into the engine; during the
upward stroke of the piston, the engine is
having to do the work.
Two stroke marine diesel engine
• Two stroke with intake ports and exhaust valve.
• As the piston moves down the cylinder,
the useful energy from the burning fuel is
expended.
• At about 110° after TDC the exhaust
valve opens and the hot exhaust gas
(consisting mostly of nitrogen, carbon
dioxide, water vapor and unused oxygen)
begin to leave the cylinder.
Two stroke marine diesel engine
• Two stroke with intake ports and exhaust valve.
• At about 140º after TDC the piston
uncovers a set of ports known as
scavenge ports.
• Pressurized air enters the cylinder via
these ports and pushes the remaining
exhaust gas from the cylinder in a
process known as "scavenging".
• The piston now goes past Bottom Dead
Centre and starts moving up the
cylinder, closing off the scavenge ports.
The exhaust valve then closes and
compression begins.
Two stroke marine diesel engine
• Timing Diagram
 Two stroke marine diesel engine
• Scavenging
• Scavenging is a type of gas exchange process in which combustion product of fuel removed
by blowing fresh air into the cylinder.
• The scavenging takes place during overlapping of valves or ports (when both inlet valve and
exhaust valve or both transfer port and exhaust port open at the same time).
• This process is necessary for smooth running of the both four-stroke and two-stroke engine.
However, it is harder to achieve complete scavenging of the two-stroke engine.
• There are mainly three types of scavenging methods used in IC engine. In each, the fresh air
enters at cylinder during downward movement of the piston, near BDC, and continues till
exhaust valve is closed during upward movement of the piston.
• An efficient scavenging is important to ensure sufficient air supply to the combustion. The
more effective scavenging system, the better fuel combustion and output
• There are mainly three types of scavenging method on the base of the flow of air
a) Cross flow scavenging
b) Reverse or Loop scavenging
c) Uniflow scavenging
Two stroke marine diesel engine
• Scavenging
• Loop scavenging
• Some 2 stroke engines do not have exhaust valves; As well as
scavenge ports in the cylinder liner, they are fitted with exhaust
ports located just above the scavenge ports.
• As the piston uncovers the exhaust ports on the power stroke,
the exhaust gas starts to leave the cylinder. When the
scavenge ports are uncovered, scavenge air loops around the
cylinder and pushes the remaining exhaust gas out of the
cylinder.
• This type of engine is known as a loop scavenged engine.
Note that the piston skirt is much longer than that for a uniflow
scavenged engine. This is because the skirt has to seal the
scavenge and exhaust ports when the piston is at TDC.
• Although simpler in construction with less moving parts, these
engines are not as efficient or as powerful as uniflow
scavenged engines. The scavenging of the cylinder is not
100%, and thus less fuel can be burnt per stroke.
• All modern large 2 stroke crosshead engines now being built
are of the uniflow scavenged type.
Two stroke marine diesel engine
• Scavenging
• Loop scavenging

 Advantages
 Simplicity, Reliability and cylinder cover is simplified.
 Disadvantages
 Temperature gradient exhaust to scavenge ports is high
 Exhaust back pressure higher with deposits
 Possibility of intermixing air and gases
 Piston and liner distortion and uneven piston ring wear due to ports
 Scavenge efficiency is lower than uniflow scavenge efficiency at all
scavenge ratios
Two stroke marine diesel engine
• Scavenging Advantages Disadvantages

• Cross flow scavenging 3. Unaffected by 3. Complex liner

• Cross Flow Scavenging is the Load in Engine Design
gas exchange process in
4. Simple cooling 4. High Lube oil
which the charge air passes is Arrangement Demand
directed upwards, passing
under the cylinder cover and 5. No need Of 5. Inefficient
down the opposite side, exhaust Valve Scavenge Method
expelling exhaust gas through
exhaust ports on that side. 6. High Risk of
6. Robust and Need
• This system is obsolete now. Exhaust Gas mixing
less maintenance
with Fresh Air
Two stroke marine diesel engine
• Scavenging
• Uniflow Scavenging
• Uniflow scavenging is the gas exchange process in which
the charge air passes straight up through the length of the
cylinder, forcing the exhaust gas through exhaust valve at
the top of the cylinder.
 Advantages
 Highest scavenge efficiency at all scavenge ratios
 Drop in scavenge efficiency lowest with high scavenge
pressure
 Most suitable for pressure charging
 Greater area for air and gas flow
 Possibility of short circuiting and mixing less
 Disadvantages
 Complicated cylinder head and increased maintenance
 Difference Between Two Stroke and Four Stroke Engines
FOUR STROKE ENGINE TWO STROKE ENGINE
For one power stroke, it takes 2 revolutions of the crankshaft. For one power stroke, it takes one revolution of the crankshaft.

Complicated design due to intake and exhaust valve mechanism. Comparatively easier and simpler design.

It requires heavy and bigger flywheel due to uneven forces on the crankshaft. It requires Small and light flywheel due to even forces on the crankshaft.

High Power to weight ratio. Produce High torque and power.

Exhaust and inlet valves are mounted along with the fuel injectors on the Exhaust valves may or may not be mounted along with the fuel injectors on
cylinder head. the cylinder head.

Low initial cost. High Initial Cost

High Maintenance and fuel cost. Low maintenance and Fuel cost.

Lub-Oil Consumption is high. Lub-oil consumption is low.

It requires less Space These engines require more space.

Are generally medium and high-speed engines. Are generally Slow-speed engines.

Low stroke to bore ratio ( 1.5 – 2.5:1 ) High stroke to bore ratio ( 4.2:1 )

Difficulty burning lower quality fuels. Compatible with cheap/low-quality fuels.

Require Gear assembly. Are generally direct Drive.

It contains unique Parts such as Rocker arm, Inlet valve, Gudgeon pin, and It contains unique parts such as piston rod, scavenges space, scavenges
complex lubrication and cooling assembly. ports with simple cooling, and lubrication assembly.
Reasons Why 2-Stroke marine diesel engine is Prefered Over
4-Stroke On Ships
• There are many circumstances where using a 2 stroke engine proved to be more
advantageous than using a 4 stroke counterpart. Although a four stroke engine offers some
clear advantages such as more speed, less space, better fuel efficiency and less pollution by
design; there are some vital advantages of using a 2 stroke counterpart.
 Fuel Selection: One of the reasons why we see large two-stroke engines on most ships. On
a large ship, we use heavy fuel oil to reduce operational costs. But since only a two-stroke
drive can burn low-grade heavy fuel oil but a four-stroke marine engine can not; we see less 4
strokes in ships than in automobiles.
 Large & Powerful: Using a two-stroke design allows for large cylinders and thus more power
is produced per stroke. This can be seen in the form of high power to weight ratio ( for the
same weight it produces more power ) and better thermal/mechanical efficiency.
 Vibration & Noise: Four-stroke drives are compact by design with more number of moving
parts at fast speed. This leads to a good amount of vibration and heavy noise during its
operation. Both 2 and 4 stroke engines are noisy but one is more compared to the other.
 Less Maintenance: Due to slow speed and less vibration 2 strokes design have an edge over
4 stroke when it comes to ease of maintenance. Further two-stroke engines require
maintenance and the cost of doing it is also very low.
 Direct Control: A four-stroke drive has a very large operating speed. Thus reduction gears
are used to connect them to the propeller shaft. But with 2 stroke design, we need not need
either separate gears ( coupled directly to the propeller shaft ) and proved to be easier to start
and reverse.
 Trunk type engines and Crosshead type engines

• Trunk type engines

 In these four-stroke engines, the
connecting rod is hinged on the
piston by a gudgeon pin.
 The engine is low in comparison
to crosshead engines.
 The pistons have to absorb the
lateral forces and transfer them
to the cylinder liner and engine
frame.
 Trunk type engines and Crosshead type engines

• Advantages of trunk
type engines
• Trunk-piston engines have the
advantage of requiring less head
room than crosshead engines.
• Trunk-piston engines have fewer
working parts than crosshead type
engines.
• Trunk-pistons engines are much less
costly to produce because their
design lends itself to mass
production method.
 Trunk type engines and Crosshead type engines

• Crosshead engines
 In these engines, the piston rod is bolted to
the piston.
 The crosshead is situated below the piston
rod with which it is hinged to the shaft.
 The lateral forces of the crankshaft
mechanism are transferred to guide shoes,
which are fixed, rigidly to the engine frame
via crosshead guides
 Trunk type engines and Crosshead type engines

• Advantages of Crosshead engines

 The Cross head type engine are able to develop higher power at lower rotational
speed of the engine than trunk type engines. It is because the space available for
the crosshead bearing is greater than the space within the piston for gudgeon
bearing assembly.
 The combustion product contamination of crankcase lube oil is less than the trunk
type engine.
 Total costs of lubricants of crosshead engine is less than the trunk type engine
having same power.
Differences between Trunk type engines and Crosshead type engines
Trunk piston
Only connecting rod is present in Trunk Piston
(not to be confused with piston rod I.e Trunk
type engine has no piston rod )
No Diaphragm
In trunk type ,the upper part of the connecting
rod is connected directly with piston via
Gudgeon Bearing assembly.
In trunk type engine, Same lube oil is used in
cylinder as well as crankcase.
In trunk type, the transverse thrust take by the
piston skirt.
No cross head assembly. Piston or gudgeon pin
is required to connect connecting rod to Piston .
This engine develop high power at medium or
higher speed .
Space required less head room with Trunk
Piston .
The skirt of a trunk-type Piston receives the side
trust created by the movement of crank and
connecting rod.
Lower engine manufacturing cost
Less height for same power and Speed
Crosshead
Crosshead has connecting rod and Piston rod
Crosshead engine has a Diaphragm which
separate the cylinder spaces from Crankcase.
In a crosshead type ,the upper part of the
connecting rod is a connected to the Crosshead
assembly Which consist of crosshead Block, pins
and Slippers. This Cross head assembly in turn
connected to the lower part of the piston rod.
In crosshead type, different cylinder lubrication
system with different oil than crankcase.
In crosshead type, the transverse force due to
oscillations of con. Rod is by cross head and it’s
guide.
Crosshead assembly is connecting part between
piston rod and connecting rod . Piston is rigidly
fixed to Piston rod .
These are able to develop higher torque at lowest
speed.
height of space required is high
The transverse thrust is transmitted to the engine
structure through cross head guides.
higher engine manufacturing cost
More height for same power and Speed
 ENGINE CONSTRUCTION
Engine Structure
• A Marine diesel engine consists of many working parts. Even different components
make few modification in its design but their function remains the same. Each
component has a definite function and location in its working.
• The engine structure must be sufficiently rigid to ensure the crankshaft does not
bend excessively when it is subject to cylinder peak pressures during ignition.
• In addition the guide’s forces must be accommodated without distortion and the
frames must adequately support the cylinder block, air box and turbocharger
 ENGINE CONSTRUCTION
Engine Structure
• Bedplate
 A Bedplate is a structure which make the base of an engine upon which the bearings and frame are mounted.
“The bedplate consists of high, welded longitudinal girders and cross girders with cast steel bearing supports.”
 This is the part subjected to variable engine thrust. Generally bedplate are constructed by welding cast steel
transverse girders in between fabricated longitudinal girders along with bearings and tie bolt holes. But for
small engines they are also made as a simple cast of cast iron.
• Function
 It works as a foundation block for the two stroke marine diesel engine. They are right at the same time strong
and flexible to support weight and handle fluctuating forces produced by the engine.
• Bedplate rigid seating for the crankshaft, which is absolutely essential
for satisfactory engine operation. engine Bed plate takes up the static
load from the running gear and the other constructional components.
It also takes up the dynamic load coming down the piston and
connecting rod during operation.
Engine Structure
• Crankshaft
 A crankshaft is a shaft driven by a crank mechanism, consisting of a series of cranks and crankpins to
which the connecting rods of an engine is attached.
 A crankshaft is a key component of an engine transmitting cylinder power to the propeller shaft. Basically
what it does is to convert the oscillating motion of connecting rod / reciprocating motion of the piston to
rotatory motion of the shaft.
 A crankshaft is an engine component subjected to high torsion and fluctuating bending & shear stress.
Material such as silicon ( 0.3% ), Carbon ( 0.2% ), Sulphur ( 0.02% ), Manganese ( 0.6% ) and
Phosphorous ( 0.02% ) is used to build crankshaft. A crankshaft must have good bearing surface, resist
wear and tear of journals and crank-pin, Good strength and unlikely for fatigue failure.
 They can be constructed in either of these way:
 Forged shafts
 Fully Built shafts
 Semi built shafts
 Welded Shafts
 Forged Shafts
• Due to its nature of operation, there
are several types of forces which
come to act upon the crankshaft of
engines used in marine propulsion.
• These forces are due to a variety of
factors including but not limited to the
weight of the pistons, combustion
loads, the axial load from the propeller
which is immersed in the sea,
compressive loads of webs on
journals and so forth.
• Most of these forces have alternating
patterns which gives rise to fatigue
and the materials used for
construction need to have substantial
Ultimate Tensile Strength. Apart from
that the other properties required in
the material of a crankshaft are wear
resistance, tensile strength, and
ductility.

Crankshaft on a Bedplate
 ENGINE CONSTRUCTION
Engine Structure
• A – Frame
• In large crosshead engine these frames are used to
support the cylinder block from the bed plate. These
are fitted at each transverse girders.
• The frames serve to support the cylinder block,
providing mounting points for the guide bars and so
take the side thrust due to the reaction of the
angularity of the connecting rod, act as part of the
main structural longitudinal girder and enclose the
crankcase
• Tie-bolts pass through these A-frames. In some
design, a number of frames with the crankcase
casing are fabricated together to form a box before
attachment to the engine .
• A-frames are elected on the bed plate to the correct
alignment.
 ENGINE CONSTRUCTION
Engine Structure
• A – Frame
• The trend nowadays is to build the frame box as a
separate fabricated construction and then, after
stress relieving and machining the mating surfaces,
to mount it on the bedplate. This has the advantage
of saving weight.
When the frames are aligned on the bed plate
they are secured together by drilling and
reaming and using fitted bolts.

Cracking in A frames can occur leading to

misalignment and excessive wear of the
running gear. Cracks can start from welds,
sharp changes in section and where
strengthening stringers are terminated
sharply. Repairs can involve cutting the crack
out, grinding and re-welding. The danger is
that after repair there may still be
misalignment.
 ENGINE CONSTRUCTION
Engine Structure
• Cylinder block
 The entablature is the name given to the cylinder
block which incorporates the scavenge air space
and the cooling water spaces.
 It forms the housing to take the cylinder liner and is
made of cast iron. The castings are either for
individual cylinders which after machining on the
mating surfaces are bolted together to form the
cylinder beam, or they may be cast in multi -
cylinder units, which are then bolted together.
 The underside of the cylinder beam is machined and
then it is aligned on the A frames and fastened in
position using fitted bolts.
 It is important to remember that the fitted bolts used
to bolt the entablature, A frames and Bedplate
together are for alignment and location purposes
only. They are not designed to resist the firing forces
which will tend to separate the three components.
This is the job of the tie bolts.
 ENGINE CONSTRUCTION
Engine Structure
• Tie bolts
• To understand the importance of the role played by the tie bolts, it is necessary to appreciate what is happening inside the
cylinder of the engine.
• When the piston is just after top dead centre the pressure inside the cylinder can rise as high as 140 bar (14000kN/m2). This
acts downwards through the piston rod and con-rod, pushing the crankshaft down into the bearing pockets. At the same time,
the pressure acts upwards, trying to lift the cylinder cover. The cylinder head studs screwed into the entablature prevent this
happening and so this upward acting force tries to lift the entablature from the frames and the frames from the bedplate,
putting the fitted location bolts into tension.
• As the piston moves down the cylinder the pressure in the cylinder falls, and then rises again as the piston changes direction
and moves upwards on the compression stroke. This means that the fitted bolts are under are cyclic stress. Because they are
not designed to withstand such stresses they would soon fail with disastrous consequences.
• To hold the bedplate, frames and entablature firmly together in compression, and to transmit the firing forces back to the
bedplate, long tie bolts are fitted through these three components and then tightened hydraulically. To prevent excessive
bending moments in the transverse girders, the tie bolts are positioned as close to the centre of the crankshaft as possible.
Because the tie bolts are so close to the crankshaft, some engines employ jack bolts to hold the crankshaft main bearing cap
in position instead of conventional studs and nuts
• Operating the engine with loose tie bolts will cause the fitted bolts holding the bedplate, frame and entablature in alignment to
stretch and break. The machined mating surfaces will rub together and wear away ( this is known as fretting). Once this has
happened the alignment of the engine running gear will be destroyed. Loose tie bolts will also cause the transverse girders to
bend which could lead to cracking, and main bearing misalignment. Once fretting between the mating surfaces has occurred,
then tightening of the tie bolts will pull the engine out of alignment. The crosshead guides, the cylinder liner, and the stuffing
box will no longer be in line and excessive wear will occur. Because the tie bolts will no longer be pulled down squarely they
will be subject to forces which may lead to them breaking. If fretting has occurred, then the only solution is to remove the
entablature or/and frame and machine the fretted mating surfaces (a very costly exercise).
•
 ENGINE CONSTRUCTION
Engine Structure

• Tie bolts
• Tie bolts can break in service. To reduce the risk of this happening
they must be checked for tightness; not over-tightened; and the engine
not overloaded. If a breakage does occur, this is not disastrous, as the
engine can be operated with care for a limited period (the load on the
engine may have to be reduced).
• The position of the fracture will dictate how the broken pieces are
removed. However in the worst possible scenario where the bolt is
broken at mid length, then the solution is to lift out the top half, remove
the bottom nut, and then feed a loop of braided wire cable (about 7mm
diameter) down the tie bolt tube, down the side of the broken tie bolt
and once it emerges at the bottom a supporting piece can be fitted to
the wire enabling the broken tie bolt to be withdrawn.
 ENGINE CONSTRUCTION
Engine Structure
• The cylinder head
• The cylinder head is the cover of cylinder line and block, which cover the cylinder and form the combustion chamber.
It sustains dynamic thermal and mechanical loads caused by the combustion pressure and temperature.
• Cylinder head mountings of two stroke engines differs from four stroke engine. In two stroke engines cylinder head,
the following mounting may be found;
• Exhaust valve, fuel injectors, relief valve, Air starting valve, indicator cock, cooling water connections and fuel
connections
• In four stroke cylinder head, the following mounting may be found;
• Exhaust valves, inlet valves, fuel injectors, air starting valve, rocker arm, indicator cock, cooling water connections,
fuel connections, exhaust port and inlet port
• Cylinder heads are exposed to maximum gas pressures and temperatures. They must therefore have adequate
strength and cooling. This results in complex structures of strengthening ribs and cooling water passages. The design
of heads is further complicated by the need to house various valves, fuel, air start, relief etc.
• Where exhaust valves are situated in the head the structure design has to take into account the relatively high local
temperatures around the valve which can cause thermal stressing. The combustion chamber may be formed by either
shaping the cylinder cover or the piston crown. A flat piston crown is usually used with a shaped cover further
complicating design and construction.
• As the head runs at a fairly high temperature the cooling water must also be at a reasonably high temperature. This
further thermal stressing. It is therefore usual to have the cooling water for the head in series with the jacket. The
covers are attached to the cylinder block by means of large diameter bolts. The gas loads acting on the head are thus
transferred to the cylinder block from which the tie bolts transfer it to the bedplate and then to the hull of the ship.
 ENGINE CONSTRUCTION
Cylinder Head Mountings
• Exhaust Valve
 It is the hottest part of the cylinder cover. It is fitted in the
central bore of the cylinder cover/head. By using four studs
and nuts, it is attached to the cylinder cover and forms a
gas-tight seal.
 The exhaust in the cylinder is expelled through the exhaust
valve to the exhaust manifold. The valve seat is fitted to the
bottom of the valve housing. The valve spindle passes
through the spindle guide fitted in the bore of the valve
housing. The valve spindle is of the nimonic type.
 A vane wheel is fitted to the valve spindle at the bottom part
which rotates the spindle while the engine is running. The
air piston and the hydraulic piston are mounted at the top of
the spindle. The air piston is locked to the spindle by a two-
piece conical ring. It keeps the valve closed and acts as a
spring. The hydraulic piston opens the exhaust valve when
the oil under pressure acts on top of the piston.
 The hydraulic cylinder on top of the exhaust valve and the
actuator mounted on top of the camshaft are connected by
a high-pressure pipe. Oil is supplied to the hydraulic
actuator through a non-return valve. The timing of the
exhaust valve is controlled by the exhaust valve cam
mounted in the camshaft. The exhaust valve is water-
cooled. The cooling water flows from the bottom through
bores in the valve housing and discharged from the top of
the valve housing.
 ENGINE CONSTRUCTION
Cylinder Head Mountings
• Relief Valve
 It is fitted in each cylinder cover.
 When the pressure inside the cylinder increases above the maximum allowed peak pressure the relief
valve lifts and releases the excess pressure..
 ENGINE CONSTRUCTION
Cylinder Head Mountings
• Fuel Valve
 The fuel valves which are also known as fuel injectors are
fitted on cylinder cover by two holding down bolts. The fuel
valves atomize the high-pressure fuel supplied by the fuel
pump and inject it into the cylinder. In this fuel valve, fuel oil
is circulated when the engine is in standby.
 When the engine has started, the circulation of oil will stop
and the pressurized oil is supplied to the cylinder. The fuel
valve consists of a valve body, valve head, and union nut.
The non-return valve, thrust spindle with thrust spring and
spindle guide are assembled inside the valve body.
 The spindle guide consists of a spindle guide, nozzle, thrust
piece, and cut-off shaft. The spindle guide is assembled with
the press fit. The cut-off shaft is pressed against the tapered
valve seat of the spindle guide by the action of the thrust
spring.
 The spring pressure is transmitted through the slotted thrust
foot. The thrust spring determines the opening pressure of
the valve. The non-return valve consist of housing, thrust
piece, slide, and spring. The non-return valve is assembled
with press fit. The slide of the non-return valve is pressed by
the spring against the tapered valve seat inside the non-
return valve. In this position, the head of the slide uncovers a
small-bore arranged for circulation purposes in the thrust
piece.
 ENGINE CONSTRUCTION
Cylinder Head Mountings
• Indicator Cock
 Indicator valves are fitted in each cylinder. It is a
double-seated valve with a spring-loaded closing
face.
 The combustion chamber of the cylinder is
connected to the valve through a bore. It is used for
taking indicator cards.
 The indicator valves are kept open while turning the
engine or blowing through the engine with air.
 Any accumulation of oil or water in the cylinder will
be expelled through the indicator valve when blown
through with the air.
 This will indicate the cylinders which are having
problems. The engine should not be turned with
turning gear motor without opening the indicator
valves.
 An engine indicator is used to calculate
the indicated power of the engine, and this is
connected to the indicator cock and the cock
opened. The engine indicator is operated as the
engine fires when running normally, the cock being
shut before disconnecting the engine indicator.
 ENGINE CONSTRUCTION
Cylinder Head Mountings
• Air Starting Valve
 The starting valve is fitted on the cylinder
cover. It is controlled by control air from the
starting air distributor. It is kept in the closed
position by a spring.
 When the main starting valve is open, the
starting air pipe up to the starting valve is
pressurized.
 The control air from the air distributor acts on
the piston of the starting valve. The starting
valve opens and the air flows from the
starting air pipe to the cylinder.
 After starting the space above the air piston
is vented through the vent pipe of the air
distributor.
 ENGINE
Cylinder Head Mountings
CONSTRUCTION
• Rocker Arm
 A rocker arm is an oscillating lever that conveys
radial movement from the cam lobe into linear
movement at the poppet valve to open it. One end
is raised and lowered by a rotating lobe of the
camshaft (either directly or via a tappet (lifter)
and pushrod) while the other end acts on the valve
stem.
 A valve rocker is an oscillating lever that conveys
radial movement from the cam lobe into linear
movement at the poppet to open it.
 One end is raised and lowered by a rotating lobe of
the camshaft while the opposite end acts on the
valve stem.
 When the camshaft lobe raises the surface of the
arm, the within presses down on the valve stem,
opening the valve.
 When the surface of the arm is permitted to return
(thanks to camshaft rotation), the inside rises, along
the valve spring to shut the valve. Because of the
rocker arms, excessive mass especially at the lever
ends limits the engine’s ability to reaches high
operating speeds.
 ENGINE CONSTRUCTION
Engine Structure
• Cylinder Liner
• The cylinder liner forms the cylindrical space in which the piston reciprocates. The reasons for
manufacturing the liner separately from the cylinder block (jacket) in which it is located are as follows;
 The liner can be manufactured using a superior material to the cylinder block. While the cylinder block is
made from a grey cast iron, the liner is manufactured from a cast iron alloyed with chromium, vanadium and
molybdenum. (cast iron contains graphite, a lubricant. The alloying elements help resist corrosion and
improve the wear resistance at high temperatures.)
 The cylinder liner will wear with use, and therefore may have to be replaced. The cylinder jacket lasts the
life of the engine.
 At working temperature, the liner is a lot hotter than the jacket. The liner will expand more and is free to
expand diametrically and lengthwise. If they were cast as one piece, then unacceptable thermal stresses
would be set up, causing fracture of the material.
 Less risk of defects. The more complex the casting, the more difficult to produce a homogenous casting with
low residual stresses.
 The Liner will get tend to get very hot during engine operation as the heat energy from the burning fuel is
transferred to the cylinder wall. So that the temperature can be kept within acceptable limits, the liner has to
be cooled.
 ENGINE CONSTRUCTION
Engine Structure
• Cylinder Liner cont….
• To increase the power of the engine for a given number of
cylinders, either the efficiency of the engine must be increased
or more fuel must be burnt per cycle.
• To burn more fuel, the volume of the combustion space must
be increased, and the mass of air for combustion must be
increased. Because of the resulting higher pressures in the
cylinder from the combustion of this greater mass of fuel, and
the larger diameters, the liner must be made thicker at the top
to accommodate the higher hoop stresses, and prevent
cracking of the material.
• If the thickness of the material is increased, then it stands to
reason that the working surface of the liner is going to
increase in temperature because the cooling water is now
further away. Increased surface temperature means that the
material strength is reduced, and the oil film burnt away,
resulting in excessive wear and increased thermal stressing.
• The solution is to bring the cooling water closer to the liner
wall, and one method of doing this without compromising the
strength of the liner is to use tangential bore cooling. Holes are
bored from the underside of the flange formed by the increase
in liner diameter.
• The holes are bored upwards and at an angle so that
they approach the internal surface of the liner at a tangent.
Holes are then bored radially around the top of the liner so that
they join with the tangentially bored holes.
 ENGINE CONSTRUCTION
Engine Structure
• Cylinder Liner cont….
• On some large bore, long stroke engines it was
found that the undercooling further down the
liner was taking place. Why is this a problem?
Well, the hydrogen in the fuel combines with
the oxygen and burns to form water.
• Normally this is in the form of steam, but if it is
cooled it will condense on the liner surface and
wash away the lube oil film. Fuels also contain
sulphur.
• This burns in the oxygen and the products
combine with the water to form sulphuric acid.
If this condenses on the liner surface (below
140ºc) then corrosion can take place. Once the
oil film has been destroyed then wear will take
place at an alarming rate.
• One solution was to insulate the outside of the
liner so that there was a reduction in the
cooling effect. On The latest engines the liner
is only cooled at the very top..
Cylinder Liner inspection
 ENGINE CONSTRUCTION
Engine Structure
• Cylinder Liner cont….
• Cylinder lubrication
• Because the cylinder is separate from the crankcase there is no splash lubrication as on a trunk piston
engine.
• Oil is supplied through drillings in the liner. Grooves machined in the liner from the injection points spread the
oil circumferentially around the liner and the piston rings assist in spreading the oil up and down the length of
the liner.
• The oil is of a high alkalinity which combats the acid attack from the sulphur in the fuel. The latest engines
time the injection of oil using a computer which has inputs from the crankshaft position, engine load and
engine speed. The correct quantity of oil can be injected by opening valves from a pressurized system, just
as the piston ring pack is passing the injection point.
• Cylinder liner wear
• All types of ship machines and parts get worn out due to continuous usage and working. Proper maintenance
and routine checks are necessary to ensure that the machines work for a longer time
• The wear in the cylinder liner is mainly because of following reasons:-
 Due to friction.
 Due to corrosion.
 Abrasion
 Scuffing or Adhesion
 ENGINE CONSTRUCTION
Engine Structure
• Cylinder Liner cont….
• Cylinder liner wear
• Frictional Wear
 Whenever two surfaces slide over each other, friction is produced which leads to wearing down of both the
surfaces. In liner wear, the surfaces are piston rings sliding over the cylinder liner. The frictional wear
depends upon various factors like speed of movement between the surfaces, material involved, temperature,
the load on engine, pressure, maintenance, lubrication, and combustion efficiency.
• Corrosion
• The cylinder liner wear due to corrosion is caused due to these reasons
 Burning of heavy fuel oil in the combustion space
 This happens because heavy fuel oil contains high sulfur content. During combustion, acids are formed inside
the space which should be neutralized by cylinder oil which is alkaline in nature. The production of acids will
be more if sulfur content is more, leading to the formation of sulphuric acid. Sulphuric acid is formed due to
absorption of the condensate or moisture present inside the combustion space.
 Lower combustion chamber temperature because of reduced service load:
 As the low load operation of the marine engine is gaining popularity, it also leads to low temperature in the
combustion chamber. If the cylinder oil quantity is not matched properly with the load, it may lead to corrosion
of liner.
 Sulphuric acid corrosion is found more in the lower part of the liner as the temperature of jacket water is very
low. Corrosion due to sulfur will be high due to the presence of water in fuel and condensate in the air. This
wear is generally seen between the quills. The wear near the quills enlarges and gives a characteristic of the
clover leaf shape to the wear pattern. This phenomenon is called clover leafing.
 ENGINE CONSTRUCTION
Engine Structure
• Cylinder Liner cont….
• Cylinder liner wear
 Abrasion
 This type of cylinder liner wear is due to the hard particles present and formed during combustion. Catalytic
fines in the fuel, the ash formed during the combustion, metal swarf, dust and accumulated wear particles in
the lube oil cause abrasive wear.
 The abrasion wear rate is higher at TDC and BDC of the liner. Once the abrasive wear hits the surface, due
to exposure of metal without protection, it is highly susceptible to corrosion wear too.
 Adhesion or Scuffing
 This is a form of local welding between the particles of piston rings and the liner surface. As the piston is
moving inside the liner, the welding which has occurred breaks and leads to the formation of abrasive
material. The abrasive material will increase the rate of wear of the liner.
 This is generally caused by insufficient lubrication due to which a large amount of heat is produced and
microscopic welding of rings and liner surface takes place. Due to this type of wear the liner loses its
properties to adhere cylinder oil to the surface. One more reason or this phenomenon is polishing of the
surface caused by scuffing, giving liners a mirror finish.
 ENGINE CONSTRUCTION
Engine Structure
• Cylinder Liner cont….
• Cylinder liner wear
 How Can Cylinder Liner Wear be Minimised?
• Cylinder wear can be minimised by carrying out the following steps:
 By avoiding any ingress of water inside the liner by properly treating the fuel oil.
 By maintaining the correct grade of cylinder oil.
 By supplying correct feed rate with load change dependent lubrication system
 By avoiding ingress of moisture from the charge air.
 By maintaining proper jacket water temperature.
 By supplying good quality purified fuel oil inside the combustion chamber
 By properly maintaining the fuel injector and fuel system for correct atomization and injection of fuel inside the
chamber
 By doing regular scavenge port inspection for early detection of piston ring wear and liner surface wear
 By doing proper running in of new liner as prescribed by the engine maker
 By honing the wear liner surface to retain oil in the small pocket avoiding scuffing and other problems
 ENGINE CONSTRUCTION
Engine Structure
• Piston