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European Management Journal

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/emj

Strategy implementation: A review and an introductory framework

Alex Tawse a, 1, Pooya Tabesh b, *, 1
a
J. Mack Robinson College of Business, Georgia State University, 35 Broad St NW, Atlanta, GA, 30303, USA
b
College of Business and Economics, California State University, Los Angeles, 5154 State University Dr, Los Angeles, CA, 90032, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Effective strategy implementation is a critical component of organizational success and a potential source
Received 21 March 2019 of competitive advantage. However, despite many calls for increased attention, research on the subject
Received in revised form remains a disparate constellation of recommendations, case studies, and empirical work that provides
24 August 2020
insight but lacks a cohesive framework. As a result, strategy research most often treats implementation
Accepted 4 September 2020
Available online xxx
as a black box and overlooks sources of performance heterogeneity derived from differences in strategy
implementation effectiveness. To improve our understanding of the strategy implementation process,
and to promote its inclusion in strategy research, the authors systematically review and synthesize
Keywords:
Strategy implementation
findings in the extant strategy implementation literature to abductively derive an integrative framework
Strategy implementation effectiveness comprised of three components: (1) actions through which managers influence the implementation
Strategy implementation process process, (2) conditions necessary for strategy implementation effectiveness, and (3) the underlying dy-
Literature review namic managerial capabilities to create the best possible combination of conditions by enacting the most
Dynamic managerial capability appropriate managerial actions. By explaining the relationships among these three components, we
Strategy execution provide an introductory foundational framework on which to build future knowledge about this
important field of inquiry.
© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

“Without successful implementation, a strategy is but a fantasy”
(Hambrick & Cannella, 1989, p. 278).
1. Introduction
Along with effective strategy formulation, effective strategy
implementation (SI) is a critical component of why some firms
outperform others as even a well-formulated strategy cannot
guarantee success until it is effectively implemented (e.g., Hitt et al.,
2017; Raes, Heijltjes, Glunk, & Roe, 2011; Sull, Homkes, & Sull,
2015). A fitting analogy is the preparation of a great meal, which
requires more than just a fabulous recipe (i.e., a strategic plan). It
takes high quality ingredients, the right equipment, and a capable
team of chefs, sous-chefs, and servers working well together; all
critical elements involved in the preparation and service (i.e.,
execution) of the meal. In addition, effective strategy imple-
mentation is a requirement for effective evaluation of strategy
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ptabesh@calstatela.edu (P. Tabesh).
1
Both authors contributed equally to this paper and are listed in reverse
alphabetical order.
(Bonoma, 1984; Lee & Puranam, 2016). In other words, if the recipe
is not executed in the exact way it was intended, it is impossible to
accurately evaluate the recipe’s merits. Finally, and importantly, the
process of strategy implementation is more complicated than
formulation (Andrews, Boyne, Law, & Walker, 2011), and many
managers and organizations struggle with effective implementa-
tion of business strategies (Hrebiniak, 2006). As a result, strategy
implementation effectiveness is a significant source of performance
heterogeneity between firms (e.g., Greer, Lusch, & Hitt, 2017),
reinforcing the need for a clear understanding of the strategy
implementation process.
Unfortunately, despite its essentialness to organizational suc-
cess and broad agreement about its importance in strategy research
(Elbanna, 2006; Papadakis, Thanos, & Barwise, 2010), conceptual
understanding of the SI process remains underdeveloped (e.g., de
Oliveira, Carneiro, & Esteves, 2019; Elbanna, Andrews, & Pollanen,
2016; Greer et al., 2017; Yang, Sun, & Eppler, 2010), and there is
no commonly agreed upon framework on which to base new
theoretical knowledge. In other words, SI has not received the same
level of attention as strategic decision making and planning and, as
a consequence, the process through which strategies are translated
into organizational outcomes has largely remained a black box
(Hutzschenreuter & Kleindienst, 2006). Similarly, strategy

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emj.2020.09.005
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Please cite this article as: A. Tawse and P. Tabesh, Strategy implementation: A review and an introductory framework, European Management
Journal, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emj.2020.09.005
A. Tawse and P. Tabesh
textbooks show a strong bias in favor of the strategy formulation
process and underemphasize the way strategy is effectively
implemented within an organization (Hitt et al., 2017). As a result,
practitioners continue to rank SI as the most challenging task that
they face and researchers have an incomplete picture of why some
firms implement strategy better than others (Greer et al., 2017;
Neilson, Martin, & Powers, 2008).
Existing SI research has predominantly focused on a wide va-
riety of managerial actions that influence SI effectiveness (SIE).
These actions were categorized into structural and interpersonal
process views of SI by Noble (1999), who summarized the eclectic
roots of SI research in order to capture and organize the broad range
of perspectives on the subject. The Noble (1999) study, like others,
contributes valuable insight regarding the antecedents of effective
strategy implementation but falls short of providing a compre-
hensive view about the relationships between constructs. Similarly,
because strategy implementation “lends itself to a multitude of
theoretical perspectives” (Yang et al., 2010, p. 167), there exists no
consolidated explanation of the processes that link the broad range
of managerial actions to SI effectiveness. The most widely applied
theoretical lens is contingency theory, or the concept of “fit,” which
suggests that SI effectiveness is determined by the congruence
between a firm’s strategy and different dimensions of the organi-
zation and its environment (Chandler, 1962; Galbraith &
Nathanson, 1978; Govindarajan, 1988; Miles & Snow, 1978). How-
ever, because the concept of fit can be applied in a variety of ways
(Drazin & Van de Ven, 1985; Venkatraman, 1989), “fit” or “match”
or “alignment” are often used in a ubiquitous and generic manner
and the rationale applied to fit is often inductive in nature or relies
on logic based on practical experience.
In the past few years, however, the landscape regarding SI
research has changed. Many scholars have called for increased
attention to the topic (de Oliveira et al., 2019; Greer et al., 2017) and
these calls have garnered enough momentum for SI to be listed as
one of the top emergent topics in strategic management and or-
ganization theory literature (Kastanakis et al., 2019). It is within this
environment that we undertook the task of building upon Noble’s
(1999) work to deepen our understanding of the SI process to
identify additional mechanisms through which strategic intentions
are effectively translated into reality. To do this, we systematically
reviewed and synthesized SI research published since Noble’s
(1999) paper.
The proposed framework that emerged from our synthesis in-
cludes the two types of managerial actions that influence SI effec-
tiveness (structural and interpersonal) outlined by Noble (1999),
three conditions through which managerial actions influence SI
effectiveness (competence, commitment, and coordination), and the
dynamic managerial capabilities (managerial cognition, managerial
social capital and managerial human capital) to create the best
possible combination of conditions by enacting the most appro-
priate managerial actions. Put differently, managerial actions cap-
ture the ways through which managers can influence the SI
process. Conditions capture key requirements of effective SI and
explain how managerial actions impact SIE. Finally, dynamic
managerial capabilities, as the micro-foundation of SI success or
failure, explain why some firms can implement strategy better than
others.
In the following sections, we first define strategy implementa-
tion and strategy implementation effectiveness before we describe
the methodology used to systematically review the literature and
synthesize the research findings into a framework. Then we present
the emergent framework and provide a detailed description of its
components. Finally, we conclude by discussing the theoretical and
practical implications of our research, addressing its limitations,
and proposing avenues for future research.
2
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2. Definitions
Strategy implementation has been defined in many different
ways (e.g., Amoo, Hiddlestone-Mumford, Ruzibuka, & Akwei, 2019).
In our work, strategy implementation is defined as a “dynamic,
iterative, and complex process” that is comprised of various “ac-
tivities by managers and employees to turn strategic plans into
reality in order to achieve strategic objectives” (Yang et al., 2010, p.
165). Accordingly, we define strategy implementation effectiveness
as the extent to which an organization’s implemented strategies
correspond to its strategic intentions (Lee & Puranam, 2016). These
definitions are in line with the notion of “rational implementation”
that assumes the separation of formulation and implementation
processes (Andrews et al., 2011) and allows focused attention on
the SI process independent of processes related to strategic plan-
ning and decision making. Importantly, these definitions stop short
of conceptualizing SI success in terms of firm performance, which
would blur theory building and introduce the possibility of tauto-
logical arguments (Lee & Puranam, 2016). Indeed, we acknowledge
that positive firm-level outcomes, such as firm performance,
require effective strategy formulation and implementation, but for
the purpose of this work, we maintain focus on the implementation
process. This way, we assume that the implementation of strategy
follows strategy formulation and its effectiveness depends on how
closely outcomes match what was intended in the strategic plan
(e.g., Hutzschenreuter & Kleindienst, 2006; Lee & Puranam, 2016).
This approach was taken in order to sharpen our focus on the
process of strategy implementation and not to disregard emergent
or adaptive views of strategy that emphasize the way strategy gets
enacted in practice (Jarzabkowski, 2004; Whittington, 1996).
3. Methodology
Our goal was to engage in a comprehensive review of the SI
literature to conceptually consolidate the existing work (e.g.,
Crossan & Apaydin, 2010) into a meaningful introductory frame-
work of SI effectiveness. Considering the breadth of published work
on the subject, we accomplished this goal by adhering to a sys-
tematic process of planning, execution, and reporting the synthe-
sized findings (Tranfield, Denyer, & Smart, 2003).
In the planning stage, we set the scope for the study. Strategy
implementation literature offers a diverse set of approaches drawn
from a number of different disciplines such as strategic manage-
ment (e.g., Herrmann & Nadkarni, 2014), marketing (e.g.,
Cadwallader, Jarvis, Bitner, & Ostrom, 2010), and operations (e.g.,
Beer, 2003) among others. Therefore, we considered a full range of
academic and practitioner studies across a variety of business dis-
ciplines beyond strategic management. In line with the purpose of
our study, we also decided to maintain focus on those studies that
address organizational tools, actions, processes and constructs,
hereafter collectively referred to as ‘factors,’ that impact strategy
implementation effectiveness. It is also important to reiterate that
based on our definitions of SI and SIE, our work is focused on the SI
process, and does not include research on strategy formulation,
strategic planning and decision-making, or the relationship be-
tween SI effectiveness and firm performance. Finally, we focused
the scope of our search on papers published in 1997 or later to
capture research findings since Noble’s (1999) review of the SI
literature. Noble’s work included research published through 1996.
However, in order to anchor our stream of work in a research
tradition, we also include some older references (Borgatti & Foster,
2003).
The execution stage included three phases that are described
below (Gioia, Thomas, Clark, & Chittipeddi, 1994; Hlady-Rispal &
Servantie, 2018).
A. Tawse and P. Tabesh
3.1. Phase 1: paper selection
We searched for relevant texts using the databases ABI/INFORM
Collection and EBSCOhost (including Business Source Complete and
PsychINFO) to retrieve peer-reviewed journal articles that included
the phrases “strategy implementation” or “strategy execution” in
their titles, abstracts, subjects, or keywords. We then compared our
resulting sample of articles with those identified in previous re-
views of the strategy implementation literature (e.g., Noble, 1999;
Yang et al., 2010) to identify authors with at least two articles on the
subject and searched all the works by each of these authors to find
any relevant additional articles. Our initial pool of studies was
comprised of 1108 articles. The two authors independently
reviewed the articles by reading their abstracts. In line with the
review plan, the goal was to identify articles that study organiza-
tional factors that impact strategy implementation effectiveness.
With this boundary condition in mind, we retained 333 of the 1108
articles in which elements of strategy implementation effectiveness
were directly or indirectly used as a focal construct. Of these 333
articles, 37 were excluded because: (a) their conceptualization of
strategy was too narrow, with the focus on the implementation or
adoption of a specific management tool or system, rather than an
overarching organizational strategy (e.g., Finnegan & Currie, 2010),
or (b) the paper was outside our scope because it primarily focused
on elements of strategy formulation rather than implementation
(e.g., Elbanna et al., 2016). Finally, in order to ensure the quality of
our final work, we limited our review to research published in peer
reviewed outlets that are ranked as A*, A, or B on the Australian
Business Deans Council (ABDC) 2019 journal quality list2 (e.g., Ott &
Michailova, 2018). This process resulted in a final pool of 105
papers.
3.2. Phase 2: descriptive codification and analysis
The purpose of the codification phase was to explore the current
status of the field and to identify and summarize the current
research findings related to factors that contribute to SI effective-
ness. In this step, the two authors independently reviewed the
content of the studies in the final pool and coded each of them
based on research type, methodology, and research findings. For
each paper, the key findings were identified and briefly summa-
rized based on a comprehensive reading of the articles with specific
attention to the abstract, discussion, and conclusion sections where
the main findings are reported. An additional outcome of this phase
was a long list of factors that, in one way or another, have been
found to impact SI effectiveness. The authors then compared their
coded findings and reconciled the inconsistencies. Summaries of
conceptual and empirical papers included in our review are pre-
sented in Supplementary Tables S1 and S2.
3.3. Phase 3: classification of findings and presentation of
relationships
Phase 3 involved an iterative and abductive process through
which we concurrently (A) compared and contrasted the study
findings identified in phase two (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) in order to
organize the identified factors into a number of meaningful
2
We thank the anonymous reviewer for this suggestion that helped us improve
the quality of papers included in the review. Future work that follows our meth-
odology can apply this quality check on the initial pool of papers.
3
By using the term “high-order relationship”, we want to emphasize the re-
lationships among the ‘categories of factors’ rather than relationships among the
individual factors.
3
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categories and dimensions and (B) identified the high-order re-
lationships3 among the categories of factors (Corley & Gioia, 2004;
Gioia et al., 1994; Hlady-Rispal & Jouison-Laffitte, 2014).
Step A. The first step of Phase 3 involved an iterative process of
“constant comparison” (Strauss & Corbin, 1990), in which we
repeatedly compared and contrasted the factors identified in phase
2 to place them into appropriate categories which were then
grouped together into abstract aggregate dimensions4 (Langley &
Abdallah, 2011). This process, that entailed iterative grouping and
regrouping of factors into meaningful categories, continued until all
factors that contribute to SIE were organized into distinct cate-
gories. As illustrated in Fig. 1, this process resulted in the catego-
rization of initial factors identified in phase 2 (i.e., first-order factors)
into eight categories (i.e., second-order categories), which were then
organized again into three aggregate dimensions.
As a result, the first-order factors were eventually organized into
the three aggregate dimensions of managerial actions, conditions,
and dynamic managerial capabilities (see Table 1 for definitions).
The eight second-order categories that provide the main elements
of our framework include two categories of managerial actions that
aligned with Noble’s (1999) framework (structural and interper-
sonal), three types of conditions required for SI effectiveness
(competence, commitment, and coordination), and three di-
mensions of dynamic managerial capability (managerial cognition,
social capital, and human capital). These eight elements serve as
second-order categories that provide clarity and bridge the gap
between the broad range of general factors that comprise SI
research and the three aggregated dimensions we identified as part
of our review and synthesis.
Step B. In conjunction with organizing the factors that contribute
to SI effectiveness (Step A), we undertook an abductive process in
order to provide a meaningful theoretical explanation for the high-
order relationships among the second-order categories (e.g., Hlady-
Rispal & Servantie, 2018). In other words, we used abduction to
theorize the relationships between the various categories of dy-
namic managerial capabilities, managerial actions, and conditions
that emerged in our process. As we explain in the following section,
we drew upon various organizational theories to explain these
relationships. “As a foundation for inquiry, abduction begins with
an unmet expectation and works backward to invent a plausible
world or a theory” (Van Maanen, Sørensen, & Mitchell, 2007, p.
1149) and allows researchers to develop new explanations for the
complex patterns (Van de Ven, 2007). Thus, the iterative and
abductive process we followed in steps A and B facilitated evalua-
tion, combination, and recombination of findings of the SI literature
in order to present them within a conceptual framework that
outlines the theoretical relationship between aggregate di-
mensions and their associated second-order categories using boxes
and arrows (e.g., Hlady-Rispal & Jouison-Laffitte, 2014; Hlady-
Rispal & Servantie, 2018). The emergent framework, as summa-
rized in Fig. 2, provides an organized panoptic outline of the diverse
body of work that encompasses the field of SI.
4
In qualitative studies of management and strategy, this method is used to
“search informants’ (i.e., interviewee’s) understanding of organizational events”
(Langley & Abdallah, 2011, p. 109). We apply the same approach to evaluate and
analyze the reported findings in the literature (i.e., first-order factors). This way, the
authors’ account of their findings is analogous to the informants’ understanding of
organizational events which, as we explain, were grouped into second-order cate-
gories and aggregate dimensions.
A. Tawse and P. Tabesh European Management Journal xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 1. An illustrative example of how second-order categories and aggregate dimensions emerged.

Table 1
Definitions for the aggregate dimensions.

Aggregate dimensions Definitions

Managerial Actions Actions through which managers influence the implementation process. These actions are used by managers to communicate, adopt, and
enact a strategy or a strategic initiative.
Conditions Conditions represent dimensions of the emergent state that result from managerial actions and define three critical components required for
SI effectiveness. These conditions explain how managerial actions ultimately impact SI effectiveness.
Dynamic Managerial The underlying managerial capability to create the best possible combination of conditions by enacting the most appropriate managerial
Capabilities actions.

Fig. 2. An introductory framework of strategy implementation effectiveness.

4
A. Tawse and P. Tabesh
4. Synthesis of findings
In the reporting stage of our systematic review, the associated
second-order categories within each of the aggregate dimensions
presented in Fig. 2 are explained and the theoretical relationships
between them are discussed.
4.1. Managerial actions in support of strategy implementation
The focus of prior work has been the identification of a broad
range of factors through which managers at different levels of the
organization contribute to the successful implementation of busi-
ness strategies. We capture these factors as the first dimension of
our framework and define them as ‘managerial actions’ used to
communicate, adopt, and enact a strategy or a strategic initiative
(Greer et al., 2017; Noble, 1999; Radaelli & Sitton-Kent, 2016; Smith,
2011). In the extant literature, managerial actions are often referred
to as “levers” (e.g., Hambrick & Cannella, 1989) or “tools” (e.g., Guth
& MacMillan, 1986) that involve activities such as the arrangement
of organizational structure, the application of policies, controls, and
reward systems, and various forms of communication and inter-
personal interaction within and across various levels of an orga-
nization. Based on our synthesis of previous work, managerial
actions can be organized into two broad categories: structural and
interpersonal (Noble, 1999).
4.1.1. Structural managerial actions
Research that takes a structural perspective investigates “the
effects of the formal organizational structure and control mecha-
nisms on implementation processes and outcomes” (Noble, 1999, p.
120). In its narrowest sense, structure represents the formal lines of
authority, responsibility, and communication (Chandler, 1962) or
the formal allocation and segmentation of work roles to control and
integrate work activity (Child, 1972; Galbraith & Nathanson, 1978).
The elements of structure in these terms tend to fall into degrees of
centralization and the format of reporting relationships that serve
as the foundation of contingency theory or “fit” between structure
and strategy (Galbraith & Nathanson, 1978). In a broader sense,
factors such as policies, procedures, controls, systems, and pro-
grams, are also included as structural forms of managerial action
that influence the SI process (e.g., Crittenden & Crittenden, 2008;
Hambrick & Cannella, 1989).
Prominent components of the structural view are the use of
goals (e.g., Sull, Turconi, Sull, & Yoder, 2018), visualization tools
(Eppler & Platts, 2009), and the Balanced Scorecard (e.g., Epstein &
Manzoni, 1998) that can help define responsibilities, plan and
monitor SI related activities, and causally link individual and group
activities to strategic objectives. In addition, our synthesis high-
lighted the importance of reward systems and policies as mana-
gerial actions that can have a significant impact on SI effectiveness.
Reward systems can be used to encourage SI supporting behavior
and recognize SI achievement (Hambrick & Cannella, 1989;
Mankins & Steele, 2005). Similarly, policies can “envelop a collec-
tive pattern of day-to-day decisions and actions” in order to guide
strategy supporting behavior and provide a level of consistency and
common understanding about strategic objectives (Crittenden &
Crittenden, 2008, p. 306). Some other impactful studies that
highlight the influence of structural managerial actions on SI
effectiveness include Brenes, Mena, and Molina (2007) and Beer,
Voelpel, Leibold, & Tekei (2005).
4.1.2. Interpersonal managerial actions
In addition to a supportive structure, SI effectiveness requires a
personal touch (Sull et al., 2015), and that can be provided through
interpersonal managerial actions. Unlike structural actions,
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interpersonal managerial actions are formal or informal human
interactions (Skivington & Daft, 1991) that influence the feelings
and actions of others. Within this category, we include activities
such as “facilitating,” “championing,” “influencing,” “selling,” “dis-
cussing,” “coaching,” “team building,” and “supporting.” The core
interpersonal managerial action involved in all these activities is
communication, which, when ineffective, has been identified as the
number one barrier to SI (Heide, Grønhaug, & Johannessen, 2002)
and one of the six “silent killers” of effective SI (Beer & Eisenstat,
2000). Top down communication of strategic goals and priorities
improves organizational understanding of strategy, which in turn
positively impacts commitment to strategy and strategy imple-
mentation (Schaap, 2012) as well as the effective coordination of SI
supporting activities (Miller, 1997). In addition, effective top-down
communication is critical to SI when large-scale structural changes
are being made as part of the implementation process (Peng &
Litteljohn, 2001).
The importance of good communication to SI success is not only
top down, but also bottom up and across organizations. Raes et al.
(2011) present a model of the top management e middle man-
agement interface that relies on the participative leadership of top
managers and the active engagement of middle managers to
effectively exchange important information about strategic objec-
tives and processes in order to achieve high implementation
quality. Managerial actions that promote effective communication
between functions also help clarify objectives and measures, which
improves the coordination of SI supporting tasks and enhances
information feedback loops that improve organizational learning
(Chesley & Wenger, 1999). Similarly, organizational learning, which
can positively impact SI effectiveness in a number of ways, can be
improved through interpersonal managerial actions that promote a
safe environment for employees to share errors and mistakes
(Argyris, 1989). As a final example, effective managerial commu-
nication can help develop consensus, or common understanding of
strategic goals (Noble, 1999; Rasoolimanesh, Jaafar, Badarulzaman,
& Ramayah, 2015). Top management teams that work to achieve a
common understanding about strategic goals are more likely to
gain the commitment of followers to achieve SI effectiveness
(Dooley, Fryxell, & Judge, 2000; Lane & Clewes, 2000) and SI
effectiveness is also improved when managers at different levels of
the organization perceive strategic goals in the same way (Ho, Wu,
& Wu, 2014; O’Reilly, Caldwell, Chatman, Lapiz, & Self, 2010). A
paper by Hambrick and Cannella (1989) captures the overall
importance of intraorganizational communication with a model of
effective SI that is focused on “selling” the strategy to everyone who
matters: “upward, downward, across, and outward” (Hambrick &
Cannella, 1989, p. 278). This supports the perspective that the
“implementation of strategic decisions is a complex and
demanding process that requires an open and lateral communica-
tion of free-flowing information to champion and make sense of a
firm’s intended changes” (Lampaki & Papadakis, 2018, p. 627).
4.2. Conditions of effective strategy implementation
In addition to the categorization of managerial actions, the
process of comparing and contrasting the factors related to SIE
allowed three conditions of SI effectiveness to emerge: competence,
commitment, and coordination. The conditions do not represent
actions taken by managers. Instead, they represent dimensions of
the emergent state that result from managerial actions and reflect
three critical components required for SIE. For example, managerial
structural actions, such as adjustment of a compensation system,
can impact SI effectiveness by improving the coordination of SI
tasks (by clarifying roles and responsibilities) and by increasing
commitment to carrying out those tasks.
A. Tawse and P. Tabesh
In this section, we discuss each of the three categories of con-
ditions and elaborate on their relationships with managerial ac-
tions by applying organizational theories and providing relevant
examples from the extant literature.
4.2.1. Competence
As it pertains to our framework, and drawing from competence-
based theories of the firm (e.g., Hamel, 1990; Sanchez & Heene,
1997), the condition of competence refers to the knowledge, skills,
and abilities required to execute tasks that support strategic ob-
jectives. These competencies are akin to “operational capabilities”
described by Helfat and Winter (2011) in that they are not dynamic
in nature. Instead, these competencies lie in the actions of organi-
zational members as they engage in the implementation of stra-
tegies. Operational competencies enable “repeated and reliable
performance of an activity” (Helfat & Winter 2011, p. 1244) and
determine the quality of SI task outcomes. This is also consistent
with assertions of the resource-based view, which theorizes that
the acquisition and configuration of tangible and intangible re-
sources create competencies that can generate competitive
advantage (e.g., Barney, 2001; Wernerfelt, 1984). For example, the
competency to negotiate contracts and conduct business in a
foreign language are critical to the effective implementation of a
global sourcing strategy (Petersen, Prayer, & Scannell, 2000) and
the competency to network is a basic requirement for the imple-
mentation of shared value strategies (Mühlbacher & Bo € bel, 2019).
As such, the competency to carry out tasks – often referred to using
terms such as expertise, capability, and proficiency – required by a
strategy, is a basic condition of effective implementation.
Operational competency is a prominent theme within the SI
literature. For example, Othman (2007) emphasizes the importance
of using the right people, with the right skills, in the right place,
through structural actions such as use of the balanced scorecard in
conjunction with formal scenario planning, which allows an orga-
nization to better predict the capabilities required to deal with
future competitive contingencies. Organizational learning is also
highlighted as a means of improving SI competency (e.g., Beer,
2003; Lee & Puranam, 2016; Okumus, 2001). Organizational
learning can be impacted through structural actions such as the
formalization of communication channels and the application of
control systems and performance measurement tools (Douglas &
Judge, 2001; Kale & Singh, 2009). In addition, competency is the
key to implementation success that results from the managerial
development and interpersonal support for a non-blaming culture,
which helps create an “honest organization-wide conversation”
that improves information flow and feedback (Beer, 2003; Beer &
Eisenstat, 2004). Other studies that reinforce the importance of
competency to successful SI include Greer et al. (2017), who explore
SI from the perspective of human capital resources, and Moingeon,
Ramanantsoa, Me tais, and Orton (1998), who apply the resource
based view to highlight a framework that integrates the concepts of
organizational competencies, capabilities, structure, and learning.
4.2.2. Commitment
A second condition of effective SI identified in our synthesis is
the commitment to implement strategy. In the context of SI,
commitment describes the extent to which organizational mem-
bers are determined to execute their implementation re-
sponsibilities and support strategic goals (Noble & Mokwa, 1999).
This is consistent with workplace commitment theory and the
conceptualization of commitment as “a force that binds an indi-
vidual to a course of action of relevance to a target” (Meyer &
Herscovitch, 2001, p. 299). In the case of SI, strategic goals serve
as the target and commitment serves as the motivational force
behind actions to support strategic goals. The importance of
6
European Management Journal xxx (xxxx) xxx
commitment to SI success is highlighted throughout the literature
and is important to the process because, “implementation occurs
within a context of imperfect control where discretionary behav-
iors are critical” (Greer et al., 2017, p. 8). Commitment is often
analyzed as an explanatory variable (e.g., Devlin, 1989; Naidoo &
Wu, 2011; Noble & Mokwa, 1999; Thorpe & Morgan, 2007b), but
it has also been studied as a dependent variable (Barton &
Ambrosini, 2013; Ramaseshan, Ishak, & Rabbanee, 2013)
impacted by a variety of managerial actions.
Several studies have focused on the relationship between
interpersonal actions and the commitment to implement strategy.
For example, commitment can be improved through the facilitation
of broad-based input into the SI planning process (Barton &
Ambrosini, 2013; Wooldridge & Floyd, 1990) and participation of
middle managers in this process has been found to provide em-
ployees with a sense of importance and value, and demonstrates
procedural justice; all of which were found to foster a mindset of
commitment to implement strategy (Nutt, 1998). Structural actions
have also been found to improve commitment to SI. For example,
structures that include greater autonomy for employees have been
found to produce higher levels of commitment to SI than those that
with less autonomy (Cadwallader et al., 2010). Additionally,
changes to organizational structure can be used to clarify re-
sponsibilities, which improves the commitment of employees to
fulfill their SI roles (Noble & Mokwa, 1999).
4.2.3. Coordination
A third condition of effective implementation we identified is
coordination, which is defined as the “process of interaction that
integrates a collective set of interdependent tasks” (Okhuysen &
Bechky, 2009, p. 463). As a central purpose in organizations, coor-
dination is at the core of organizational design theory and is a key
source of organizational productivity and efficiency (Andres &
Zmud, 2002; Sirmon, Hitt, & Ireland, 2007). While commitment
addresses the problem of motivational alignment to reach common
strategic goals (an agency problem), coordination is focused on the
alignment of actions (Heath & Staudenmayer, 2000). Coordination
theory is critical to the effective design of SI processes and the
management of dependencies, tasks, and resources involved in the
process (Crowston, 1997).
Within the SI literature, coordination is addressed through a
wide variety of terminology such as, “interdependence,” or “col-
lective action,” as well as “accountability,” “predictability,” and
“common understanding,” the three integrative elements of coor-
dination identified by Okhuysen and Bechky (2009). Accountability
clarifies responsibility for carrying out specific tasks, predictability
determines the ease of anticipating subsequent tasks, and common
understanding represents the shared conception of tasks
(Okhuysen & Bechky, 2009).
In addition to the direct analysis of coordination, all three
integrative elements of effective coordination are widely applied
within the literature to explain why certain managerial actions
improve SI effectiveness. For example, structural managerial ac-
tions, such as the arrangement of reporting structure and the
assignment of roles and responsibilities, can improve the coordi-
nation of tasks by providing accountability and transparency to the
SI process (Hrebiniak, 2006; Pryor, Anderson, Toombs, &
Humphreys, 2007). At the same time, the clarification of roles
and responsibilities also helps SI effectiveness by improving the
predictability of actions that will be taken in the future (Grant,
1996). Also, performance control systems, such as the Balanced
Scorecard, impact successful SI by clarifying accountability and
creating common understanding of responsibilities throughout the
organization (Atkinson, 2006). Similarly, transparent goal-setting
policies can be used to improve SI effectiveness by highlighting
A. Tawse and P. Tabesh
redundancy, improving common understanding, and providing
visible criteria for making decisions; all of which support improved
coordination (Sull et al., 2018).
Interpersonal managerial actions, such as the communication of
information, can improve SI effectiveness by positively impacting
the coordination of work within and across levels (Greer et al.,
2017). Examples include vertical communication, through which
strategic goals and implementation plans are clarified and shared
(e.g., Miller, 1997; Rapert, Velliquette, & Garretson, 2002) or hori-
zontal communication, which helps coordinate interdependent
tasks between departments (Chimhanzi & Morgan, 2005). In
addition, a consistent message coming from the top management
team not only reinforces commitment but also helps develop
common understanding so that work across the organization will
be better aligned to support strategy (Roth, Schweiger, & Morrison,
1991). As a final example, a study performed by Thorpe and Morgan
(2007a) found that both top-down structure and bottom-up
interpersonal actions impacted SI effectiveness by coordinating
the efforts of middle managers.
To summarize, we used theories such as competence theories of
the firm, the resource-based view, workplace commitment theory,
and coordination theory to introduce the conditions of SIE, which
provide a theoretical backbone to the SI process by explaining how
managerial actions impact SI effectiveness. Logic in support of the
three conditions of effective SI can also be drawn from the meta-
phor of a football team. The three conditions describe the skills of
the players (i.e. competencies), their drive to execute the system or
game plan (i.e., commitment), and their level of teamwork (i.e., co-
ordination). All three conditions are required in sufficient measure
to effectively execute the strategy, as a shortfall in any one of them
will result in some form of execution failure.
4.3. Dynamic managerial capabilities
So far, our framework includes two dimensions of managerial
actions and three conditions through which managerial actions
determine SI effectiveness. However, our synthesis uncovered one
additional dimension of the SI process: the underlying managerial
capabilities to create the best possible combination of conditions by
enacting the most appropriate managerial actions. In order to
better organize and understand the evidence that emerged in our
synthesis regarding managerial capability, we integrated the theory
of dynamic managerial capability (Helfat & Martin, 2015; Helfat &
Peteraf, 2015).
In general, dynamic capability theory is relevant to the SI pro-
cess because it addresses a firm’s ability to reconfigure its compe-
tencies (Teece, Pisano, & Shuen, 1997), and “fills the gap between
intention and outcome, … in such a way that the outcome bears a
resemblance to what was intended” (Dosi, Nelson, & Winter 2000,
p. 2). This aligns well with the definition of SI effectiveness, which is
“the extent to which an organization’s actions correspond to its
strategic intentions” (Lee & Puranam, 2016, p. 1529). Dynamic
managerial capability (DMC) is an offshoot of dynamic capability
theory and “helps to explain the relationship between the quality of
managerial decisions, strategic change, and organizational perfor-
mance” (Helfat & Martin, 2015, p. 1281). DMC theory is germane to
SI because it addresses the process of organizational reconfigura-
tion and helps explain why some firms develop the conditions of SI
more effectively than others. DMC theory places the focus of dy-
namic capability on managers at different levels of the organization
who have control over the managerial actions of SI and are
responsible for the success or failure of implementation efforts
(e.g., Greer et al., 2017; Hambrick & Cannella, 1989; Hrebiniak,
2006; Nutt, 1986). Thus, DMC theory is a critical element of the SI
process because it helps explain capability differences between
7
European Management Journal xxx (xxxx) xxx
firms that impact the effective selection and execution of the most
appropriate managerial actions. DMC is broken down into three
categories: managerial cognition, managerial social capital, and
managerial human capital (Adner & Helfat, 2003; Helfat & Martin,
2015; Helfat & Peteraf, 2015). Our review shows that the level of
managerial cognition, social capital, and human capital, enacted
through managerial actions, determine the level of competence,
commitment, and coordination achieved.
4.3.1. Managerial cognition
Managerial cognition consists of “knowledge structures” that
determine how managers understand the implications of different
choices (Garbuio, King, & Lovallo, 2011). Therefore, managerial
cognition determines how well managers anticipate and under-
stand the process through which available actions will impact SI
effectiveness. Within the extant literature, we found that mana-
gerial cognition is highlighted as a critical component of SI in a
number of ways. Singh (1998) finds a need for managers to have
“cognitive control,” which is required for effective implementation
monitoring, resource deployment, and adjustment of managerial
actions. In addition, managerial cognition represents a manager’s
understanding of how to effectively implement strategy and in-
cludes an awareness of the relationship between the managerial
actions of SI and the achievement of strategic goals (Grant, 1996;
Nutt, 1986). Sull (2007) describes this as a manager’s ability to make
sense of a situation, which is a critical component of the SI process.
It is also important for managers to have the ability to adjust their
decision-making type depending on the implementation feedback
they receive. For example, managers must know which actions will
most effectively overcome culture-related barriers or try to mold
culture to better fit with strategy implementation goals (Bates,
Amundson, Schroeder, & Morris, 1995; Lane & Clewes, 2000).
4.3.2. Managerial social capital
In addition to understanding how managerial choices impact the
SI process, evidence suggests that managers must have the neces-
sary social capital to influence others. Managerial social capital
“consists of goodwill derived from relationships, both formal and
informal, that managers have with others and can use to obtain
resources and information” (Helfat & Martin, 2015, p. 1286). Social
capital involves power and goodwill derived from relationships and
enables managers to take advantage of their cognitive ability (Blyler
& Coff, 2003). Effective and coordinated manipulation of organi-
zational resources comes from managers with the legitimacy and
credibility to initiate change. For example, Brenes et al. (2007)
found that companies that are successful at SI are more likely to
have a CEO who shows strong implementation leadership, is
personally present during the SI process, and actively facilitates the
process. Strong social capital not only allows managers to effec-
tively communicate strategy, but also enables them to relate to and
connect with the perspectives of key implementation personnel. If
such a connection is absent from managerial leadership, the socio-
emotional identities of other individuals and groups within an or-
ganization can take over and undermine the SI effort (Huy, 2011).
4.3.3. Managerial human capital
The third dimension of DMC is managerial human capital, which
focuses on the knowledge, education, experience, and skills of
managers (Helfat & Martin, 2015; Hitt & Ireland, 2002; Wright,
Coff, & Moliterno, 2014). The level of human capital has been
found to moderate the relationship between strategy and perfor-
mance (Hitt, Biermant, Shimizu, & Kochhar, 2001) and evidence
about the impact of human capital on the SI process was found
within several studies that investigated the relationship between
various types of managerial experience and SI success (e.g., Bryson
A. Tawse and P. Tabesh
& Bromiley, 1993; Govindarajan, 1989; Rasoolimanesh et al., 2015).
For example, Govindarajan (1989) showed that general manager
research and development experience positively influenced the
implementation of a differentiation strategy but negatively
impacted the implementation of a cost leadership strategy. In
addition, general manager manufacturing experience was benefi-
cial to the implementation of a low-cost strategy but had a negative
effect on the implementation of a differentiation strategy. Finally,
managerial planning expertise and process management skills
(Bryson & Bromiley, 1993) as well as financial management profi-
ciency (Rasoolimanesh et al., 2015), have been found to signifi-
cantly impact SI effectiveness.
Combined, the three components of DMC determine how well
managers can gather information, understand problems, and
effectively select and manipulate managerial actions to positively
influence the conditions of effective SI. Supported by DMC theory,
the dynamic managerial capability to implement strategy provides
a microfoundation as to why some firms can implement strategy
more effectively than others. The cognition, social capital, and hu-
man capital of managers, individually and collectively, at all levels
of management, differ between firms. These differences provide
variance between organizations in terms of their understanding of
how managerial actions impact the conditions of effective SI, the
types of actions chosen, and the achievable level of impact that
managerial actions can have on the conditions of effective SI. Or-
ganizations with superior DMC will be better able to predict the
impact of managerial actions and will be able to select and apply
managerial actions more efficiently and effectively.
5. Discussion
Strategy implementation effectiveness is a critical element of
organizational performance and a necessary antecedent to the
evaluation of the quality of formulated strategies (Bonoma, 1984;
Lee & Puranam, 2016). However, like the proverb of the blind men
and the elephant, SI research has been limited to the investigation
of individual parts of the overall animal that researchers are trying
to understand. The result is a field characterized by broad scope but
shallow depth that provides “little clarity as to what comprises this
necessary cornerstone of a capable organization” (Crittenden &
Crittenden, 2008, p. 301).
To address these shortcomings, we performed a detailed syn-
thesis of the strategy implementation literature and undertook an
iterative and abductive process to compare and contrast extant
findings, organize findings into meaningful categories, and identify
relationships between categories. The outcome of our work was the
emergence of an introductory framework comprised of the re-
lationships among three integrated dimensions. Our framework
builds upon previous work focused on a variety of structural and
interpersonal managerial actions (Noble, 1999) to identify three
conditions of SI effectiveness and three components of the dynamic
managerial capability to effectively select and carry out managerial
actions that create the necessary conditions of SI effectiveness.
5.1. Theoretical implications
Our primary contribution is the introduction of a strategy
implementation process framework that reveals the outline of the
proverbial “elephant” that represents the field of strategy imple-
mentation research. By organizing the valuable but fragmented
extant research into three aggregate dimensions and proposing
how the dimensions relate to each other, we gain a more nuanced
understanding of the process through which managerial actions are
selected and the way they influence strategy implementation
effectiveness. Thus, our framework serves as a foundation on which
8
European Management Journal xxx (xxxx) xxx
to build a more structured, organized, and detailed examination of
the relationships between constructs that impact SI effectiveness.
The proposed framework advances the strategy implementation
process research in two important ways.
First, the identification of three conditions of SI effectiveness
provides clarity to conceptualization of the construct and serves as
a theoretical bridge between managerial actions and the effective
implementation of strategy. The implication is that, given the same
strategy and resources, a firm will improve its competitive advan-
tage over competitors by reaching higher levels of competence,
commitment, and coordination within its strategy implementation
process. In addition, by outlining the three conditions of SIE, our
work paves the way for better measurement of this important
construct. These conditions allow researchers to remove SIE from
the black box within which it has been constrained and evaluate it
independently of strategy formulation and firm performance. As
noted earlier, the lack of independency among elements of strategy
formulation, strategy implementation, and firm performance, has
plagued theoretical rigor in previous studies (Miller, Washburn, &
Glick, 2013) and introduced issues of tautology (Lee & Puranam,
2016). Moving away from tautological views, the three proposed
conditions emerged from our work may provide a possible proxy
for the measurement of SI effectiveness as an independent
construct.
Second, our work improves the theoretical understanding of
strategy implementation process by identifying and positioning
dynamic managerial capability as the microfoundation of effective
SI. This supports the view that managers at different levels of the
organization control the managerial actions of SI and are ultimately
responsible for the success or failure of implementation efforts
(e.g., Greer et al., 2017; Hambrick & Cannella, 1989; Hrebiniak,
2006; Nutt, 1986). Thus, while the conditions determine the level
of SI effectiveness, the combined level of managerial cognition,
social capital, and human capital, enacted through managerial ac-
tions, determine the level of commitment, capability and coordi-
nation achieved. By extension, we have introduced a theoretical
foundation and explanation for SI effectiveness heterogeneity be-
tween firms. In addition, by differentiating between two different
forms of capabilities (DMCs vs. competences) our work sheds light
on two important forms of SI-related capability. First, SI effective-
ness requires “competence” as a condition to execute tasks that
support the execution of strategy. For instance, in order to effec-
tively implement a cost leadership strategy, a firm must have the
expertise to operate more efficiently than competitors. Second, a
firm must also have the dynamic managerial capability to develop
and maintain that competence, as well as the commitment and
coordination of tasks that support a low-cost strategy. Thus, orga-
nizational capability lives at the heart of SI effectiveness, both in
terms of operational competence to execute strategy and the dy-
namic capability of managers to effectively select and execute the
managerial actions that influence the conditions of SIE.
5.2. Implications for managers
Because of the shortfall in implementation effectiveness,
“companies typically realize only about 60% of their strategy’s po-
tential value” (Mankins & Steele, 2005, p. 123). Our framework of SI
effectiveness can help managers improve this rate of return in a
number of ways. First, the identification of three necessary condi-
tions of SI effectiveness helps clarify the goals of an effective
implementation process. Since companies typically struggle with
finding specific ways to achieve SI effectiveness (Hitt et al., 2017;
Okumus, 2003), the clarification of conditions provides additional
guidance that enables managers to better identify implementation
deficiencies and devise proper interventions. For example, if a
A. Tawse and P. Tabesh
company is experiencing implementation failure, managers can
focus their efforts on identifying the problem in terms of a shortfall
in competence, commitment and coordination. This will help them
to identify the most appropriate managerial actions and speed up
the process of improving SIE.
Second, the identification of DMC as the foundation for SI suc-
cess reinforces the responsibility of strategic leaders and managers
to understand that they must not only know how to implement
strategy effectively (have the cognitive skill to select an effective
managerial action), but they must also have the necessary social
capital to effectively influence others and the requisite human
capital to deal with firm-specific contingencies associated with the
implementation process. This has significant implications for
managerial training and hiring practices. If improved SI effective-
ness is the goal, more emphasis should be put on hiring or devel-
oping a team of managers that have the requisite cognitive skills,
social capital, and human capital to identify and execute effective
managerial actions in pursuit of organizational competence,
commitment and coordination. In addition, similar to the advan-
tage of knowing the conditions of effective SI, managers will benefit
from their awareness about the three underlying dynamic capa-
bilities that contribute to SI process and use that knowledge to
identify managerial shortcomings more efficiently and effectively.
5.3. Recommendations for future research
As part of our review and synthesis of SI research and reflection
upon the framework that emerged, we identified four areas of
future research that would further enhance our understanding of
the factors that contribute to SI effectiveness:
5.3.1. Empirical evaluation of the framework
Given the introductory nature of our work, the relationships
between elements within the framework need to be tested. In
particular, the independence of the three conditions of SI effec-
tiveness needs to be scrutinized. This is because there is evidence to
suggest that a change in one condition impacts another. For
example, SI competence has been found to improve the coordina-
tion of work (Bryson & Bromiley, 1993; Rasoolimanesh et al., 2015)
and an increase in top management team commitment has been
found to be positively related to increased organizational compe-
tence to implement strategy (Petersen et al., 2000). These types of
relationships imply that there are significant spillover effects be-
tween conditions. A more thorough understanding of these effects
would be highly valuable to researchers and practitioners and allow
for more detailed models to emerge.
5.3.2. Adoption of a more fine-grained approach towards the level
of analysis
Strategy implementation research would greatly benefit from a
better understanding of levels of analysis. Our synthesis uncovered
three dimensions of SI conditions, however, the existing findings
have not produced enough evidence regarding the organizational
level in which these conditions must be present in order to achieve
SI effectiveness. The existing evidence suggests that commitment
to strategic goals is critical within the ranks of top managers (e.g.,
Dooley et al., 2000; Lane & Clewes, 2000) and middle managers
(e.g., Barton & Ambrosini, 2013; Wooldridge & Floyd, 1990), but
does not directly speak to whether or not it is also a requirement
among operational level employees. The same applies to our un-
derstanding of SI competence and the coordination, which would
benefit from a fine-grained analysis of how these constructs apply
within and between levels of the organization.
Similarly, the field would benefit from a greater understanding
of how the variance of DMC within the top management team and
9
European Management Journal xxx (xxxx) xxx
middle manager ranks impacts SI effectiveness. Although success-
ful SI involves the engagement of managers at all levels of an or-
ganization (Greer et al., 2017; Lampaki & Papadakis, 2018), top and
mid-level managers have different responsibilities regarding the SI
process and varying levels of control in terms of the actions they
can undertake. Because of these differences, successful top man-
agers most likely require a different set of cognitive skills than
middle managers, who bridge the gap between strategy formula-
tion and implementation (Floyd & Wooldridge, 1992; Guth &
MacMillan, 1986). In this sense, middle managers serve sense-
making and sensegiving roles as “interpreters and sellers of stra-
tegic change” (Rouleau, 2005, p. 1413). These differences in
cognitive capability requirements, in addition to possible differ-
ences in social and human capital requirements, need to be fleshed
out and better understood. In addition, since top-level and mid-
level managers influence each other, the interface between levels
of management needs to be further explored. A starting point for
this work could be the theoretical model proposed by Raes et al.
(2011), which outlines how various elements of the top manager
e middle manager interface work together to influence SI
effectiveness.
5.3.3. Integration of strategic paradigms
We encourage more work on the integration of strategic the-
ories and paradigms related to SI. Our work was mainly centered on
the specific field of strategy implementation, but as Noble (1999:
p.131) stated, “strategy implementation is a multifaceted and
complex organizational process,” and there are several other
managerial paradigms that overlap with this field in content and
focus. For example, there is a rich literature on organizational
control structures (e.g., Eisenhardt, 1985; Ouchi, 1980) that could
provide greater detail on the way structural managerial actions can
improve the conditions of effective SI. Another example is the
investigation of possible overlaps between the literature on stra-
tegic human capital and SI. The development and deployment of
human capital vis-a -vis SI effectiveness is the focus of research by
Lorange (1998) and Greer et al. (2017), in which the authors make
the case that firms must “retain high quality human capital in order
to implement the firm’s strategies” (Greer et al., 2017, p. 14). This
approach highlights the importance of the human capital dimen-
sion of DMC and has implications for more detailed understanding
of the condition of competency that was introduced in our work.
Additional strategic paradigms that overlap with the SI process
include temporal aspects of the strategy implementation process,
organizational development and change, and organizational design
theory. For example, strategy process research investigates the
development of strategy over time with an emphasis on chains of
causality (Langley, 2007; Pettigrew, 1992). Thus, methods deployed
within strategy process research may provide additional value to
the framework in terms of how SI effectiveness temporally unfolds
and further improve our understanding about the temporal chain
of causality between DMC, managerial actions, and the conditions
of effective SI. Organizational development and change analyzes
the nature of change as well as the impact of environmental ele-
ments such as organizational culture and learning (e.g., March,
1981; Müller & Kunisch, 2018; Weick & Quinn, 1999). As dis-
cussed in the limitations section, there are strong indications that
contingency factors (e.g. organizational culture or the competitive
environment) play an important role in the SI process and more
research on these types of relationships is required. In addition,
organizational politics are shown to significantly influence the
process of strategy implementation (Kapoutsis & Thanos, 2019). For
example, it has been reported that political behavior reduces
comprehensiveness of implementation efforts (Elbanna & Fadol,
2016) and limits SI success (Lampaki & Papadakis, 2018). Finally,
A. Tawse and P. Tabesh
research on organizational design theory (e.g., Galbraith, 1977;
Thompson, 1967), which some believe has naively fallen out of
favor (Heath & Staudenmayer, 2000), could provide further insights
regarding structural managerial actions and their impact on orga-
nizational coordination.
5.3.4. Focused attention on strategy implementation processes
Finally, our work has important implications for strategy pro-
cess research. Research in this area investigates the processes
through which business strategies are formulated and imple-
mented (Elbanna, 2006), however, the implementation processes
have traditionally received far less attention (Hutzschenreuter &
Kleindienst, 2006). Because the quality of implementation pro-
cesses contributes to the effectiveness of implementation and firm-
level outcomes (Elbanna, Thanos, & Colak, 2015), a better under-
standing of the many factors that contribute to implementation
process should be at the center of attention in future strategy
process research.
5.4. Limitations
The primary limitation of our work is that it involved the anal-
ysis of a collection of studies that, while valuable, is fragmented and
generally lacks theoretical underpinnings. For that reason, we
deem the framework that emerged to be introductory in nature, in
that the accuracy and strength of the relationships we identify
require further scrutiny and examination. In addition, findings
within existing SI research did not allow us to make an informed
conclusion about the role of contingency factors that influence the
relationship between the dimensions of our proposed framework.
However, it is important to recognize that the SI process does not
happen in a vacuum, and environmental factors, both within and
outside of organizations, have been found to influence the SI pro-
cess. For example, internal environmental contingencies, such as
organizational politics (Kapoutsis & Thanos, 2019; Lampaki &
Papadakis, 2018) and individual and group identities (e.g., Huy,
2011; Smith, 2011), as well as external contingencies, such as in-
dustry dynamism (e.g., Eisenhardt & Sull, 2012; Sull, 2007), have
been found to impact the relationship between managerial actions
and SI effectiveness. In addition, factors such as organizational slack
(Bourgeois & Brodwin, 1984), past performance (Elbanna et al.,
2015), stakeholder uncertainty (Elbanna et al., 2016), front-line
employee’s perceived external reputation (Schaarschmidt, 2016),
and organizational size (Sashittal & Wilemon, 1996) have also been
found to influence the SI process. Finally, strategy type has also
been found to influence various factors within the SI process (e.g.,
Andrews et al., 2011; Olson, Slater, Hult, & Olson, 2018).
The limitations of our review and the breadth of options for
future research on the strategy implementation process highlight
the many opportunities that exist within this vitally important but
not well-understood area of research. The complex and interdis-
ciplinary nature of SI provides an opportunity for collaboration
between scholars from different disciplines that can lead to the
discovery of new insights into why some firms implement strate-
gies more effectively than others. We hope that our framework
paves the way for future research to empirically explore how the
constellation of constructs works together to impact the effective
implementation of business strategies.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emj.2020.09.005.
10
European Management Journal xxx (xxxx) xxx
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Supplementary Table S1. Summary of Conceptual Strategy Implementation-related Literature 
ABDC Framework
Authors(s) Year Overview Contribution
ranking Theme*

Epstein and 1997 B The similarities of Balanced Score Card and Tableaux S Describes the impact of the Balanced Scorecard and
Manzoni de Bord are introduced and discussed vis-à-vis SI Tableaux de Bord as important tools for SIE.

Mentzas 1997 A A theoretical model for the implementation of an S, I, CRD Emphasizes the importance of structure and
information systems strategy. interpersonal mechanisms in order to gain the
common understanding and coordination required for
effective implementation.

Lorange 1998 A A human resource approach to SI with a focus on team- S, I, CPT, MC, Applies a new knowledge-based approach to long-
based, internally-generated growth. MSC, MHC range planning that focusses on the roles for key
executive actors in the SI process.

Piercy 1998 A* Marketing focus: discusses paradigm shifts and S, CPT Marketing strategy formulation and implementation
weakening of the marketing function in organizations. should be linked to organizational processes and
capabilities.
Noble 1999(b) A A review of the SI literature structured to summarize S, I Summarizes the "eclectic roots" of SI and organizes
general perspectives on the topic. Research separated previous work into a framework of managerial actions
into Structural Views and Interpersonal Views. The that impact SI effectiveness. Actions are characterized
paper includes summary tables of conceptual and as structural (e.g. reporting structure and controls) or
empirical work. interpersonal (e.g. communication and leadership) in
nature. Makes the case for additional research on the
impact of organizational culture, management style,
commitment, validated measures, and the need for
comprehensive conceptual models.
Zagotta and 2002 B Discusses several key success factors for SI. S, I Highlights the importance of effective communication
Robinson and effective measurement of progress in the SI
process.

Meehan and 2002 B Highlights the importance of communication and S, I Emphasizes the importance of the employee-customer
Baschera control in SI. link in implementing strategy in service industries.

*
This column was added after phase 3. “S” and “I” denote structural and interpersonal managerial actions respectively; “CPT” denotes competency to
implement; “COM” denotes commitment; “CRD” denotes coordination; “MC”, “MSC”, and “MHC” denote managerial cognition, social capital, and human
capital respectively. “SI” denotes strategy implementation and “SIE” refers to SI effectiveness. ABDC 2019.
 
 
 ABDC Framework
Authors(s) Year Overview Contribution
ranking Theme*

Beer 2003 A* Develops four propositions regarding the capacity of I, CRD, COM, The quality of management is critical to the
senior leadership teams to implement a TQM CPT, MC, MSC, implementation of a TQM strategy. Quality is defined
transformation strategy. MHC as the capacity of the senior team to develop
commitment, improve cross-functional skills and
team culture, and create a culture of open dialogue
about progress that enables learning.

Okumus 2003 B Proposes a framework of SI that categorizes S, I, CRD, CPT, Reviews prior SI frameworks and proposes a new one
elements/factors into different groups depending on MC, MSC, MHC designed to capture the complexities of the process.
their role and importance. The framework is comprised of four categories:
Strategic Content, Strategic Context, Operational
Processes, and Outcomes. Operational processes
include 5 elements: Planning, Resources,
Communication, People, and Control.

Beer and Eisenstat 2004 A Provides a summary of key lessons learned about the I, CPT, MC, MSC, Emphasizes the importance of honest conversations
importance of "honest conversations" to effective SI. MHC that include data gathering, data driven decision
making, safe sharing of information and
professionally facilitated meetings.
Allio 2005 B A short, practical guide to implementing strategy from a S, R, CRD, COM, Provides a list of common stumbling blocks to SI, an
practitioner perspective. MC outline of the process, and ten practical guidelines to
effective SI.

Beer et al. 2005 A Contributes in four areas: 1) Provides an explanation of
several barriers to SI through 4 different theoretical
lenses, (2) Reiterates the six "silent killers" of effective
SI (see Beer & Eisenstat, 2000), (3) Proposes a model
of "organizational fitness," and (4) proposes a five step
process to develop organizational fitness.
S, I, CRD, COM, The model of organizational fitness includes 4
CPT, MC, MSC, dimensions: (1) Organizational levers that include
MHC organizational principles and culture as well as
management processes, (2) Capabilities that include
coordination, communication, and commitment, (3)
Goals, which include objectives, and strategic tasks,
and (4) Learning loops that allow for the dynamic
adjustment of the entire system in order to achieve fit
between capabilities, environment, and strategic
objectives.

*
This column was added after phase 3. “S” and “I” denote structural and interpersonal managerial actions respectively; “CPT” denotes competency to
implement; “COM” denotes commitment; “CRD” denotes coordination; “MC”, “MSC”, and “MHC” denote managerial cognition, social capital, and human
capital respectively. “SI” denotes strategy implementation and “SIE” refers to SI effectiveness. ABDC 2019.
 
 
 ABDC Framework
Authors(s) Year Overview Contribution
ranking Theme*

Mankins and 2005 A Describes 7 rules for successful SI based on experience S, I, CRD, COM, The 7 Rules include: Keep goals simple and easy to
Steele working with consulting clients. CPT, MC, MSC, communicate; challenge assumptions; speak the same
MHC language; discuss resource deployments early;
identify priorities; continuously monitor performance;
and develop execution ability.
Atkinson 2006 B A review of the SI literature with a focus on the role of S, I, CRD, COM, It is argued that the balanced scorecard helps improve
the balanced scorecard to solve key problems associated CPT communication, clarifies the role of middle managers,
with the SI process. and supports the integration of existing control
systems.
Sheehan 2006 B Provides an outline of 4 strategy execution levers that S, I, CRD, COM, The four levers are: Diagnostic Controls (key
work in concert to align strategy with actions. CPT performance indicators), Boundary Controls
(behaviors that are not allowed), Belief Controls
(vision and mission linked to emotional commitment
to SI), and Interactive Controls (feedback
mechanisms to maintain flexibility).
Sull 2007 A Introduction of a "strategy loop" that outlines how I, COM, MC, The strategy loop is an interactive process that
managers in highly dynamic, fast-paced industries MSC consists of 4 major steps: Make Sense, Make Choices,
should think about SI. Make Things Happen, Make Revisions.

Othman 2007 B Argues that use of the balanced scorecard is enhanced S, COM, CPT Scenario planning enhances the use of the balanced
when combined with scenario planning. scorecard and SI by making it more reflective of
changes that may appear in the future.

Khadem 2008 B Highlights effective control mechanisms and the S, CRD Alignment and follow-up are identified as two
alignment between strategy and actions. important factors that contribute to successful SI.

Crittenden and 2008 B Identifies 4 structural levers and 4 skill-related levers S, I, CRD, COM, The 4 structural levers are: Actions, Programs,
Crittenden that form a toolkit for SI. CPT, MC, MSC, Systems, and Policies. The 4 skill-related levers are:
MHC Interacting, Allocating, Monitoring, and Organizing.

Eppler and Platts 2009 A Promotes the use of visualization tools to enhance a S, I, CRD, COM Takes an integrated approach to planning and
systematic process of strategic planning and implementation that includes the importance of
implementation. structural controls and interpersonal communication
to improve coordination and commitment.

*
This column was added after phase 3. “S” and “I” denote structural and interpersonal managerial actions respectively; “CPT” denotes competency to
implement; “COM” denotes commitment; “CRD” denotes coordination; “MC”, “MSC”, and “MHC” denote managerial cognition, social capital, and human
capital respectively. “SI” denotes strategy implementation and “SIE” refers to SI effectiveness. ABDC 2019.
 
 
 ABDC Framework
Authors(s) Year Overview Contribution
ranking Theme*

Kale and Singh 2009 A Investigates the drivers of successful alliance strategy S, I, CRD, CPT Has implications for SI in terms of post-formation
implementation. alliance management and capability that includes
controls and guidelines as well as interpersonal
mechanisms to engender trust and coordination.
Smith 2009 A Emphasizes the importance of commitment in the S, COM Applies goal-setting and expectancy theory to
implementation of marketing strategies. highlight the role of commitment and motivation as
mostly-forgotten factors in successful SI.
Smith 2011 A Develops six propositions relating to the SI issue of I, CRD, COM, Proposes that intra-organizational conflict is a major
intra-organizational conflict. MC, MSC roadblock to effective SI and the level of conflict is
influenced by the degree of departmental identity
within the organizational culture.

Raes et al. 2011 A* A theoretical process model of the interface between I, MC, MSC Proposes that implementation quality is a function of
top management and middle management and how that a process of information exchange and mutual
impacts SI effectiveness. influencing between top managers and middle
managers. That process is impacted by cognitive
flexibility, integrative bargaining as well as the role
behaviors of the actors involved.
Yaprak et al. 2011 A Offers a contingency framework of global strategy S, CRD, CPT Provides a comprehensive perspective for evaluating
implementation effectiveness. Discusses the several firm and market-level characteristics that
requirements for successful global business strategy impact SI and strategy performance.
implementation.
Smith 2014 A Provides a multi-level perspective of marketing SI. S, I, COM Focuses on interdepartmental and individual
components of SI by highlighting the importance of
commitment and motivation and combining them
with structural factors.
Sull et al. 2015 A The paper focuses on 5 common "myths" of effective I, CRD, COM, Five myths are: 1) Execution equals alignment (2)
SI. MC, MSC, MHC Execution means sticking to the plan (3)
Communication equals understanding (4) A
performance culture drives execution (5) Execution
should be driven from the top.

*
This column was added after phase 3. “S” and “I” denote structural and interpersonal managerial actions respectively; “CPT” denotes competency to
implement; “COM” denotes commitment; “CRD” denotes coordination; “MC”, “MSC”, and “MHC” denote managerial cognition, social capital, and human
capital respectively. “SI” denotes strategy implementation and “SIE” refers to SI effectiveness. ABDC 2019.
 
 
 ABDC Framework
Authors(s) Year Overview Contribution
ranking Theme*

Lee and Puranam 2015 A* Proposes a theoretical model emphasizing the CPT, MC, MHC Relentless pursuit of perfect SI is beneficial even if
importance of effective execution even when strategy strategy is imperfect because it allows for more
itself is flawed. effective learning about the value of current
strategies. Imprecise SI makes it difficult to evaluate
strategy because it masks the source of imperfection.
Pretorius 2016 B Primarily focused on the importance of clear vision and I, MC, MSC, Strategy can only be realized when the audience is
clear communication of vision throughout the MHC engaged.
organization. All employees should understand the
message.
Thanyawatpornkul 2016 B Focuses on employee perceptions of the SI process. S, I, CPT, MC, Highlights the importance of interpersonal
et al. MSC communication and effective reward systems for
successful execution of strategies.
Greer et al. 2017 A Combines service dominant logic (SDL) view from S, I, CPT, COM, Bundling human capital and relational capital
marketing and human resource management (HRM) CRD, MHC resources can contribute to the development of
concepts from management to address effective SI. strategic capabilities that positively impact SI.

Rey and Bastons 2018 A Outlines the relationship between the mission of a S, I, CPT, COM, Provides a holistic conceptualization about a
company and its members’ motivation to implement CRD managerial tool, the company mission, and identifies
strategy. three forms of consistency that improve motivation;
authenticity, coherence, and integrity.

Sull et al. 2018 A Discusses 3 important steps that help align strategy with CRD, MC Effective strategy guidelines that help improve SI are
SI. a link to the corporate vision, the identification of
critical vulnerabilities, and a focus on clarifying
priorities.

Mühlbacher and 2019 B Introduces the conditions for effective implementation S, CPT, CRD Synthesizes the findings to highlight shared value-
Böbel of shared value strategies. oriented entrepreneurial vision, strategic alignment,
shared value-oriented innovation, networking
capabilities, and impact monitoring as important
conditions for successful SI.

Rani 2019 B A conceptual overview of the SI process S, I, CPT, MC A practical summary of key factors within the SI
process. A focus on the right people, resources,
culture, systems, and structure.

*
This column was added after phase 3. “S” and “I” denote structural and interpersonal managerial actions respectively; “CPT” denotes competency to
implement; “COM” denotes commitment; “CRD” denotes coordination; “MC”, “MSC”, and “MHC” denote managerial cognition, social capital, and human
capital respectively. “SI” denotes strategy implementation and “SIE” refers to SI effectiveness. ABDC 2019.
 
 
 ABDC Framework
Authors(s) Year Overview Contribution
ranking Theme*

Tabesh et al 2019 B Highlights the necessary actions for effective S, I, CPT, COM Elaborates on the managerial responsibilities for
implementation of big data strategies successful adoption of advanced analytics systems
based on big data.

Tawse et al. 2019 B Highlights the differences in mindset between strategy I, COM, MC Investigates psychological barriers to SI effectiveness
formulation and strategy implementation and proposes and provides various managerial "nudges" to improve
a series of "nudges" to improve SI effectiveness commitment to strategy implementation.

   

*
This column was added after phase 3. “S” and “I” denote structural and interpersonal managerial actions respectively; “CPT” denotes competency to
implement; “COM” denotes commitment; “CRD” denotes coordination; “MC”, “MSC”, and “MHC” denote managerial cognition, social capital, and human
capital respectively. “SI” denotes strategy implementation and “SIE” refers to SI effectiveness. ABDC 2019.
 
 
References for Supplementary Table S11
Allio, M. K. (2005). A short, practical guide to implementing strategy. Journal of Business Strategy,
26(4): 12-21.
Khadem, R. (2008). Alignment and follow-up: steps to strategy execution. Journal of Business Strategy,
29(6): 29-35.
Meehan, S., & Baschera, P. (2002). Lessons from Hilti: How customer and employee contact improves
strategy implementation. Business Strategy Review, 13(2): 31-39.
Mentzas, G. (1997). Implementing an IS strategy—a team approach. Long Range Planning, 30(1): 84-95.
Piercy, N. F. (1998). Marketing implementation: the implications of marketing paradigm weakness for the
strategy execution process. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 26(3): 222-236.
Pretorius, M., & Pretorius, M. (2016). Crooked strategy implementation: covert tactics fill the gaps.
Journal of Business Strategy, 37(4): 24-31.
Rey, C., & Bastons, M. (2018). Three dimensions of effective mission implementation. Long Range
Planning, 51(4): 580-585.
Sheehan, N. T. (2006). Want to improve strategic execution? Simons says levers. Journal of Business
Strategy, 27(6): 56-64.
Smith, B. D. (2009). Maybe I will, maybe I won't: what the connected perspectives of motivation theory
and organisational commitment may contribute to our understanding of strategy implementation.
Journal of Strategic Marketing, 17(6): 473-485.
Smith, B. D. (2014). Capturing an elusive phenomenon: developing and testing a multiple perspective
model of marketing strategy implementation. Journal of Strategic Marketing, 22(1): 16-40.
Tabesh, P., Mousavidin, E., & Hasani, S. (2019). Implementing big data strategies: A managerial
perspective. Business Horizons, 62(3): 347-358.
Tawse, A., Patrick, V. M., & Vera, D. (2019). Crossing the chasm: Leadership nudges to help transition
from strategy formulation to strategy implementation. Business Horizons, 62(2): 249-257.
Thanyawatpornkul, R., Thanyawatpornkul, R., Siengthai, S., Siengthai, S., Johri, L. M., & Johri, L. M.
(2016). Employee’s perspective towards strategy execution in facility management in Thailand.
Facilities, 34(11/12): 682-702.
Yaprak, A., Xu, S., & Cavusgil, E. (2011). Effective global strategy implementation. Management
International Review, 51(2): 179.
Zagotta, R., & Robinson, D. (2002). Keys to successful strategy execution: The most brilliant strategy
ever devised won’t get you anywhere if you can’t execute it. Journal Business Strategy, 23(1): 1-6.

 
1
 Studies that are referenced in the main document are not included in this list
 

 
 
Supplementary Table S2. Summary of Empirical Implementation-Related Literature
ABDC Explanatory Framework
Author(s) Year Sample DV Analysis Key Findings
Ranking Variables Themes*

Miller 1997 A* 6 case studies that Backing, Successful SI Ranking of S, I, CRD, 4 factors are critical for SI
included public, Accessibility, in terms of factors based COM success: backing, clear aims and
private, Specificity, Cultural completion, on interviews common understanding of goals,
manufacturing and Receptivity, achievement, planning, and a conducive
service businesses Propitiousness, & acceptability climate. Experience, setting
Familiarity, Priority, priorities, resources, structure,
Resource and flexibility matter less.
Availability,
Structural
Facilitation,
Flexibility

Moingeon et al. 1998 B A case study of Organizational SIE in terms of Case study S, CPT, MC Integrating the concepts related
Salomon, a French learning, how competitive to competencies,
manufacturer of resources are advantage organizational capabilities,
outdoor sports acquired and organizational
equipment managed structure, and learning is
important for explaining
effective implementation.

Nutt 1998 A* Database of 376 Implementation Success of Qualitative S, I, COM, "Intervention" is the most
cases relating to approach, level of adoption, analysis based MC, MSC successful approach no matter
the implementation resistance, and level value, and on interviews what the situation. This
of strategic of implementing efficiency with key actors approach includes presenting a
decisions manager's leverage in each need for action, networking,
organization leveraging data, waiting for
agreement to act before building
options, and showing success.

*
This column was added after phase 3. “S” and “I” denote structural and interpersonal actions respectively; “CPT” denotes competency to implement; “COM”
denotes commitment; “CRD” denotes coordination; “MC”, “MSC”, and “MHC” denote managerial cognition, social capital, and human capital respectively.
“SI” denotes strategy implementation and “SIE” refers to SI effectiveness.
 ABDC Explanatory Framework
Author(s) Year Sample DV Analysis Key Findings
Ranking Variables Themes*

Singh 1998 A* 144 MBA/BBA Computerized SI ANOVA MC Computerized cognitive aids

Students memory support, effectiveness support the decision makers’
computerized and efficiency strategy execution process and
strategy support, have a significant positive
strategy complexity impact on both decision-making
efficiency and SI effectiveness.

Chesley and 1999 A Case study of the Use of the Balanced Improved Qualitative S, I, CRD, Premise is that strategic
Wenger National Scorecard (BSC) strategy longitudinal COM, CPT conversations are critical to SI
Reconnaissance conversations case study and the BSC is a model that can
Office and based on be effectively used and "tuned"
organizational interviews to the organization to enhance
learning the strategy conversation and
help an organization learn to
learn.
Noble 1999(a) B Based on a large- 5 key managerial Effective SI at Exploratory, S, I, CRD, A model of SI is presented that
scale survey of a levers identified: 4 different qualitative COM, CAP, includes 5 key managerial levers
variety of goals, organizational stages analysis based MC, MSC, and use of these levers at 4
organizations structure, leadership, on interviews MHC different stages of SI.
communication, and with senior and
incentives. mid-level
managers

*
This column was added after phase 3. “S” and “I” denote structural and interpersonal actions respectively; “CPT” denotes competency to implement; “COM”
denotes commitment; “CRD” denotes coordination; “MC”, “MSC”, and “MHC” denote managerial cognition, social capital, and human capital respectively.
“SI” denotes strategy implementation and “SIE” refers to SI effectiveness.
 ABDC Explanatory Framework
Author(s) Year Sample DV Analysis Key Findings
Ranking Variables Themes*

Noble and 1999 A* Survey study of Fit with vision, Role Literature S, I, CRD, Role performance and “buy-in”
Mokwa two organizations: importance, scope, performance as review and COM, CPT significantly effect SI success,
A large multistate, championing, Sr. a mediator to grounded which have a direct effect on SI
financial services management support, SI success theory building success and commitment.
organization and a and buy-in; Three process for Strategy and role commitment
market share types of commitment model of found to significantly impact
leader in the (organizational, effective SI. role performance. Fit with vision
packaged goods strategy, and role); Tested via and importance found to
industry role factors of survey and significantly impact strategy
involvement, analyzed using commitment and role
autonomy, and the CALIS significance found to
significance path analysis significantly impact role
commitment.
Nilsson and 1999 B Case study of Management control SIE of a A survey and S, CRD, A decentralized, flexible control
Rapp Sandvik Bahco system differentiation qualitative CPT system is beneficial for the
tool makers and strategy study implementation of a
their acquisition of differentiation strategy by
Bahco Verktyg improving coordination between
levels and the capability to
execute major improvements to
a variety of operational
measures.
Parsa 1999 A Mailed Survey to Economic (coercive SIE in terms of ANOVA S, I, MSC, Interaction of power sources and
141 franchises and legitimate) and business MHC SI could impact a firm’s
non-economic performance & performance and satisfaction.
(referent and satisfaction
information) power

*
This column was added after phase 3. “S” and “I” denote structural and interpersonal actions respectively; “CPT” denotes competency to implement; “COM”
denotes commitment; “CRD” denotes coordination; “MC”, “MSC”, and “MHC” denote managerial cognition, social capital, and human capital respectively.
“SI” denotes strategy implementation and “SIE” refers to SI effectiveness.
 ABDC Explanatory Framework
Author(s) Year Sample DV Analysis Key Findings
Ranking Variables Themes*

Beer and 2000 A 10 business units An inductive study SI Qualitative S, I, CRD, Six "silent killers" of SI are: top-
Eisenstat and 2 corporate that identified six effectiveness observation of COM, CPT, down or laissez-faire senior
entities "silent killers" of a process of MC, MSC, management style, unclear
effective SI Organizational MHC strategy and conflicting
Fitness priorities, ineffective senior
Profiling management team, poor vertical
communication, poor
coordination across functions,
and inadequate down-the-line
leadership skills and
development.
Lane and 2000 A Case study at 3M A process model that Successful Inductive case S, I, COM, Gaining commitment to a
Clewes (UK) Abrasives includes factors such implementation study analysis; MC, MSC strategic marketing plan is more
as culture, senior of a strategic 5 years using problematic than developing the
management marketing plan observation, strategy itself. Segment action
commitment, archival teams and cross-functional
feedback records, focus groups proved pivotal to SI
communication groups, open- success. This facilitated
loops, and various ended involvement, teamwork,
tactics interviews, ownership, a strong customer
questionnaire focus, and concentration of
activity.

Petersen et al. 2000 A 73 companies Top management Global Structural S, COM, Supportive structure, top
implementing a commitment, global sourcing equation CPT management commitment,
global sourcing sourcing structures strategy modeling business capabilities, and
strategy and processes, effectiveness (SEM) language capabilities are
international significant factors for successful
language capabilities, SI of a global sourcing strategy.
and global sourcing
business capabilities

*
This column was added after phase 3. “S” and “I” denote structural and interpersonal actions respectively; “CPT” denotes competency to implement; “COM”
denotes commitment; “CRD” denotes coordination; “MC”, “MSC”, and “MHC” denote managerial cognition, social capital, and human capital respectively.
“SI” denotes strategy implementation and “SIE” refers to SI effectiveness.
 ABDC Explanatory Framework
Author(s) Year Sample DV Analysis Key Findings
Ranking Variables Themes*

Dooley et al. 2000 A* 68 strategic Decision consensus SI success and Longitudinal I, COM Management team consensus
decision-making with decision implementation data from improves organizational
teams in commitment as a speed questionnaire commitment, which improves SI
Southeastern U.S. mediator subjected to success but slows
hospitals CFA and OLS implementation speed.
regression

Okumus 2001 A Two international Environmental Effective Inductive S, I, CPT, A framework of SI is developed.
hotel groups uncertainty and implementation qualitative MC, MSC, Three variables in addition to
internal context of strategic study using in- MHC those found in the literature
influence the decisions depth, semi- review are identified: the impact
strategic context, structured of multiple project
which impacts the interviews, implementation, the level of
strategic process, observations, organizational learning, and the
which determines and impact of working with external
tangible documentation companies to build competency.
characteristics of SI analysis
outcomes.
Douglas and 2001 A* 193 hospitals Structural "control" Subjective Hierarchical S, CPT Two measures of organizational
Judge (clear procedures, Organizational regression structure - control and
systems, and job Performance analysis exploration - are found to
descriptions) and influence the financial
"exploration" (free performance of firms
flow of information implementing a TQM strategy.
and freedom to A balance between the two is
depart from past found to be most effective.
practices).

Peng and 2001 A Three UK based Organizational SI Qualitative S, I Suggests that effective
Littlejohn hotel chains communication effectiveness study based on communication is a primary
3 case studies requirement of SI but not a
guarantee. It is even more
important when SI involves a
structural change.

*
This column was added after phase 3. “S” and “I” denote structural and interpersonal actions respectively; “CPT” denotes competency to implement; “COM”
denotes commitment; “CRD” denotes coordination; “MC”, “MSC”, and “MHC” denote managerial cognition, social capital, and human capital respectively.
“SI” denotes strategy implementation and “SIE” refers to SI effectiveness.
 ABDC Explanatory Framework
Author(s) Year Sample DV Analysis Key Findings
Ranking Variables Themes*

Rapert et al. 2002 A 322 hospitals Vertical SIE in terms of Survey data I, CRD When vertical communication is
communication as IV performance from CEOs frequent, strategic consensus is
and Strategic measured by subjected to enhanced and organizational
consensus as profit, gross CFA and SEM performance improves.
mediator revenue, and Marketing performance found to
net revenue be a significant mediator.
growth

Love et al. 2002 A* 95 U.S. Explicit articulated SIE in terms of Moderated I, CRD, Very high and very low
manufacturing strategy and degree subjective hierarchical COM explicitness are associated with
firms of organizational measures of regression higher performance, while
centralization firm moderate explicitness is
performance associated with lower
performance. Data also supports
a contingency view whereby
explicit articulation of strategy
has stronger positive effects for
decentralized firms.
Heide et al. 2002 B A Norwegian Various types of Successful Inductive S, I, MSC Most frequently mentioned
ferry-cruise communication implementation qualitative case barrier is communication
company problems possibly of formulated study to find followed by organizational
influenced by strategy barriers to structure barriers and learning
organizational successful SI barriers.
structure

*
This column was added after phase 3. “S” and “I” denote structural and interpersonal actions respectively; “CPT” denotes competency to implement; “COM”
denotes commitment; “CRD” denotes coordination; “MC”, “MSC”, and “MHC” denote managerial cognition, social capital, and human capital respectively.
“SI” denotes strategy implementation and “SIE” refers to SI effectiveness.
 ABDC Explanatory Framework
Author(s) Year Sample DV Analysis Key Findings
Ranking Variables Themes*

Hickson et al. 2003 A* 55 cases of Explores 2 Subjective Confirmatory I, CRD, Two broad approaches are
decision approaches: The measures of Factor COM, CPT, identified for successful SI. The
implementation experience-based implementation Analysis MC, MSC, experience-based approach
approach achievement (CFA) MHC leverages experience and
(accessibility, capability, while the readiness-
specificity, and based approach leverages
resourcing) and the commitment. Both can be used
readiness-based together for maximum positive
approach (structural impact on performance.
facilitation and
priority)
Chimhanzi 2004 A* Structured mail Inter-functional Effective Standardized S, I, CRD, SI is affected negatively by
survey from 230 conflict, communication regression COM conflict and positively by
UK service connectedness, between analysis interpersonal communication,
organizations written marketing and which improves inter-functional
communication, HR functions a connectedness. These dynamics
interpersonal mediator for SI are affected by senior
communication, effectiveness management support, joint
senior management reward systems, and informal
support, joint reward integration.
systems, and
informal integration
Homburg et al. 2004 A Managers of Strategy type. SIE in terms of SEM S, I Market orientation plays a key
marketing SBUs in Mediators: organizational role for the successful
the US and intelligence performance implementation of a premium
Germany generation, product differentiation (PPD)
intelligence strategy.
dissemination,
responsiveness

*
This column was added after phase 3. “S” and “I” denote structural and interpersonal actions respectively; “CPT” denotes competency to implement; “COM”
denotes commitment; “CRD” denotes coordination; “MC”, “MSC”, and “MHC” denote managerial cognition, social capital, and human capital respectively.
“SI” denotes strategy implementation and “SIE” refers to SI effectiveness.
 ABDC Explanatory Framework
Author(s) Year Sample DV Analysis Key Findings
Ranking Variables Themes*

Chimhanzi and 2005 A 230 medium and 6 process-based Marketing SI Regression S, I, CRD, A strong relationship is found
Morgan large European dimensions that look effectiveness COM between both relationship
service-based at the marketing/HR mediated by effectiveness and inter-
firms dyad: joint rewards, relationship functional conflict and SI
informal integration, effectiveness success. Joint rewards and
connectedness, and inter- written communication along
senior management functional with connectedness are
support, written conflict negatively related to inter-
communication, and functional conflict.
interpersonal Connectedness is found to be
communication most strongly associated with
relationship effectiveness.
Qi 2005 A 169 survey Middle manager The level of T-tests I, COM, The majority of middle
responses from demographic support MSC managers (MM) surveyed are
middle marketing characteristics received by found to be unhappy with the
managers in UK middle level of support received for SI.
private companies managers Male top managers are found to
provide more support than
female top managers, younger
MM reported more support than
older MM, and MM with longer
tenure reported less support than
shorter tenure MM.
Minarro- 2005 A 106 manufacturing 106 item validated Effective Inductive study S, I, CRD, A ranked list of 36 items are
Viseras et al. organizations from questionnaire based implementation to identify the COM, CPT, found to be critical to SIE. Items
a variety of on items identified of strategic key success MC, MSC, include: communication skills of
countries from the literature on manufacturing factors for the MHC the project manager, top
change management initiatives implementation management commitment,
and project of strategic sufficient evaluation measures,
management manufacturing top manager ability to motivate,
initiatives commitment of the project
manager, and motivated teams.

*
This column was added after phase 3. “S” and “I” denote structural and interpersonal actions respectively; “CPT” denotes competency to implement; “COM”
denotes commitment; “CRD” denotes coordination; “MC”, “MSC”, and “MHC” denote managerial cognition, social capital, and human capital respectively.
“SI” denotes strategy implementation and “SIE” refers to SI effectiveness.
 ABDC Explanatory Framework
Author(s) Year Sample DV Analysis Key Findings
Ranking Variables Themes*

Olson et al. 2005 B Data is based on a Fit between Miles SIE in terms of Inductive study S, I For prospectors, a customer-
study of over 200 and Snow's strategy firm to identify centric innovator design is
businesses and types, organizational performance archetypes preferable. For low-cost
business units. structure, and found to defenders, a competitor centric
behavioral norms facilitate cost controller design is just as
successful SI preferable. For analyzers and
for various differentiated defenders, it
types of appears that either a competitor-
strategies centric cost controller or a
customer-centric innovator
design will help to generate high
performance.

Hrebiniak 2006 A 443 managers from Issues that impact SI Effective SI A combination S, I, CRD, The top 6 obstacles identified
the "Gartner E- are: (1) Managerial of obstacles MC, MHC are: (1) Inability to manage
Panel database and training (2) identified change and overcome resistance
Wharton Executive Perceptions about SI through review to change, (2) Poor or vague
Education Survey responsibility (3) and obstacles strategy, (3) No model or
who are involved Perceptions about inductively guidelines to guide SI efforts,
in strategy planning and derived (4) Inadequate information
execution implementation through survey sharing, (5) conflicting
independencies (4) data. priorities, and (6) Unclear
Allowing enough responsibility or accountability
time for SI (5) for SI decisions or actions.
Allocating enough
people for effective
SI.

Harrington and 2006 B 424 members of Degree of Level of SI Hierarchical I, CRD, Increased involvement in the SI
Kendall the Louisiana environmental success regression COM process is found to improve SI
Restaurant complexity, firm analysis success and the level of
Association size, and level of involvement in the SI process
involvement in the SI mediates the relationship
process between environmental
complexity and SI success.

*
This column was added after phase 3. “S” and “I” denote structural and interpersonal actions respectively; “CPT” denotes competency to implement; “COM”
denotes commitment; “CRD” denotes coordination; “MC”, “MSC”, and “MHC” denote managerial cognition, social capital, and human capital respectively.
“SI” denotes strategy implementation and “SIE” refers to SI effectiveness.
 ABDC Explanatory Framework
Author(s) Year Sample DV Analysis Key Findings
Ranking Variables Themes*

Brenes et al. 2007 A Survey of 300 Inductive study to Subjective Comparison of S, I, CRD, More successful companies have
Latin American identify key success evaluation of results between COM, CPT, higher ratings on the following 5
executive factors of SI focused successful SI highly MC, MSC, dimensions: (1) Strategy
managers on clarity, alignment, successful and MHC formulation process, (2)
leadership, less successful Systematic execution, (3)
motivation, and firms Strategy control and follow-up,
control. (4) CEO leadership & suitable,
motivated employees, and (5)
Corporate governance leading
change.
Thorpe and 2007(a) A* 115 European Three "types" of SI Subjective Multivariate S, I, COM, Top-down structural actions are
Morgan service-based (Change, measure of analysis of CRD as important as bottom-up
SBUs in the Collaborative, and strategic variance relational actions for engaging
telecom, transport, Cultural) combined performance (MANOVA) middle managers to coordinate
and financial with five contextual their efforts and achieve
industries and process marketing SI effectiveness.
characteristics of
marketing SI

Thorpe and 2007(b) A B2B service-based External Locus of Product market Regression, S, I, COM In firms with a highly effective
Morgan strategic business control (role clarity, strategy survey product-market strategy, the
units based in role significance) and execution mid-level marketing manager's
Europe internal locus of effectiveness role performance is explained by
control (role an external locus-of-control
commitment, role (role clarity and role
self-determination) significance).

Naranjo-Gil 2007 B 218 CEOs of CEO backgrounds, Effective Test of mean S, I, CPT, The results indicate that CEOs
and Hartmann public hospitals in MIS style implementation difference (t- MHC with a clinical background focus
Spain of cost test) on non-financial information
reduction which contributes to flexible
strategy and a strategies. CEOs with a
quality predominantly administrative
enhancement background are effective in cost-
strategy reduction strategies.

*
This column was added after phase 3. “S” and “I” denote structural and interpersonal actions respectively; “CPT” denotes competency to implement; “COM”
denotes commitment; “CRD” denotes coordination; “MC”, “MSC”, and “MHC” denote managerial cognition, social capital, and human capital respectively.
“SI” denotes strategy implementation and “SIE” refers to SI effectiveness.
 ABDC Explanatory Framework
Author(s) Year Sample DV Analysis Key Findings
Ranking Variables Themes*

Bhimani 2007 A Most senior Emphasis on Structure and Questionnaire S Strategy development and
accounting officers financial or non- formality of SI responses and implementation activities tend to
within large UK financial information interviews be structured and formal, and
firms while greater emphasis is placed
on financial information in
strategy implementation, in
strategy development both
financial and non-financial
information are used.

Parnel 2008 B Mexican and Strategic diffusion SI Correlation I, COM Strategic diffusion is related to
peruvian managers (defined in terms of commitment, analysis performance satisfaction among
enrolled in post- implementation) satisfaction all managers. Overall, Mexican
graduate business with managers produced higher
programs performance scores on the strategic diffusion
scale than did their Peruvian
counterparts. The link between
strategic diffusion and
organizational commitment
among middle and lower-level
managers remains unclear.
Den Hertog et 2010 B 10 European steel The context of SIE in terms of Case study S, I Human research management
al. companies change, the SI strategic supports effective
process of change, change implementation through
and communication structure, communication, and
strategies used by trust building
management to
create trust
towards change.

*
This column was added after phase 3. “S” and “I” denote structural and interpersonal actions respectively; “CPT” denotes competency to implement; “COM”
denotes commitment; “CRD” denotes coordination; “MC”, “MSC”, and “MHC” denote managerial cognition, social capital, and human capital respectively.
“SI” denotes strategy implementation and “SIE” refers to SI effectiveness.
 ABDC Explanatory Framework
Author(s) Year Sample DV Analysis Key Findings
Ranking Variables Themes*

O'Reilly et al. 2010 A* 313 physicians Strategic leadership SI in terms of Hierarchical I, COM No separate independent
from six medical behavior across three patient ratings linear performance effects of
centers and eight levels of performance modeling leadership effectiveness are
specialty reported. There are significant
departments effects of leadership on
performance in aggregate
(across levels).

Cadwallader et 2010 A* An automobile Role Clarity, Situational CFA, SEM S, I, COM Motivation at different levels
al. manufacturer and employee feelings motivation, has significant direct and
its dealership about service participation in indirect effects on frontline
network innovation implementation employees' SI behaviors.

Andrews et al. 2011 B Various Type of “approach” SI in terms of Regression - S, I, CRD, No single style of SI is
departments within to SI (rational, service Survey independently likely to lead to
the Welsh local incremental, none), improvement service improvement. There are
authority (e.g. moderated by positive associations between a
education, strategy type rational approach and a defender
housing, social (defender, strategy as well as an
services) prospector, reactor) incremental style and a
prospector strategy.

Micheli 2011 A 44 subsidiaries of Use of PMS SI A mix of S Use of IT systems and specific
Cisma group (performance qualitative and governance actions alone enable
(Italian measurement quantitative the implementation of strategy
corporation) systems), methods across the group only to a
use of IT systems (interviews + limited extent. Also, the lack of
survey) a comprehensive PMS have a
negative effects on both strategy
formulation and implementation.

*
This column was added after phase 3. “S” and “I” denote structural and interpersonal actions respectively; “CPT” denotes competency to implement; “COM”
denotes commitment; “CRD” denotes coordination; “MC”, “MSC”, and “MHC” denote managerial cognition, social capital, and human capital respectively.
“SI” denotes strategy implementation and “SIE” refers to SI effectiveness.
 ABDC Explanatory Framework
Author(s) Year Sample DV Analysis Key Findings
Ranking Variables Themes*

Huy 2011 A* Canco: large Middle manager SI Qualitative S, I, MC, This study links senior
Canadian social identity and effectiveness interviews: MSC, MHC executives’ actions and middle
information group focus emotions Three years managers’ social identities,
technology service real-time field group-focus emotions to SI
company research outcomes. Study shows how top
executives who favor an affect
neutral task approach (e.g.,
structural change) can
inadvertently activate middle
managers’ organization-related
social identities.
Ogbeide and 2011 A Sample of Firm size, Management Regression, t- I The SI process in organizations
Harrington members in a state organizational involvement, test, Survey with a larger structure requires a
restaurant structure, implementation greater level of involvement of
association in the participative success middle and lower
Southern USA management style management.

Naidoo and 2011 A Universities from Role commitment, Marketing SI SEM I, COM Four constructs are found to
Wu UK, Australia and buy-in, vision fit, effectiveness impact marketing strategy
United States, New role significance implementation: implementation
Zealand related outcome variables and
dimensions of commitment,
strategy, and role factors.
Kohtamaki et 2012 B 160 small & IV: participative SIE in terms of Survey I, COM Participative strategic planning
al medium-sized strategic planning. company is found to positively impact
Finish IT Mediator: personnel Performance personnel commitment to SI and
companies commitment to SI increases company performance.
and organizational Organizational learning has a
learning positive impact on company
performance.

*
This column was added after phase 3. “S” and “I” denote structural and interpersonal actions respectively; “CPT” denotes competency to implement; “COM”
denotes commitment; “CRD” denotes coordination; “MC”, “MSC”, and “MHC” denote managerial cognition, social capital, and human capital respectively.
“SI” denotes strategy implementation and “SIE” refers to SI effectiveness.
 ABDC Explanatory Framework
Author(s) Year Sample DV Analysis Key Findings
Ranking Variables Themes*

Schaap 2012 B 120 senior-level Leadership SIE in terms of Correlation S, I, COM, Frequent communication
leaders in Casinos behaviors, common organizational analysis CRD up and down the organization
in Nevada understanding, performance structure enhances strategic
understanding of consensus by
strategy planning and fostering shared attitudes and
the implementation values.
process

Morgan et al. 2012 A* Exporting IV: Different types of SIE in terms Regression CPT Results indicate that effective
manufacturing marketing of market & implementation of a planned
units in UK capabilities. Financial export marketing strategy
Mediator: marketing Performance contributes to financial
SI effectiveness performance and that marketing
capabilities play an important
role in enabling effective
marketing strategy
implementation in export
venture operations.

Barton & 2013 A Sample of 128 Procedural justice, Commitment Regression I, COM, Senior management support for
Ambrosini 'high tech’ senior management to SI in terms CRD the organization’s strategy and
organizations in support, of participation in decision-making
the UK participation, organizational found to be significantly and
information change positively related to strategy
availability cynicism commitment.

Colman & 2013 B A Multi-national Role of managers, SIE in terms of Case S, I, CRD, Emphasizes the importance of
Grodad organization power struggles organizational MC, MSC recognizing the role of target
integration managers and key personnel
during post acquisition. Efforts
to facilitate sociocultural
integration should be
implemented carefully in targets
with distinct identities different
from the acquirer.

*
This column was added after phase 3. “S” and “I” denote structural and interpersonal actions respectively; “CPT” denotes competency to implement; “COM”
denotes commitment; “CRD” denotes coordination; “MC”, “MSC”, and “MHC” denote managerial cognition, social capital, and human capital respectively.
“SI” denotes strategy implementation and “SIE” refers to SI effectiveness.
 ABDC Explanatory Framework
Author(s) Year Sample DV Analysis Key Findings
Ranking Variables Themes*

Klingebiel & 2013 A* 121 decision- Focuses on the SI processes Qualitative - MC, MHC A framework proposing that
De Meyer making episodes process of decision- interviews decision-level differences in
we observed making during SI awareness and uncertainty can
at a company decision awareness explain the observed variation in
and decision strategic decision-making
uncertainty processes during an
implementation initiative.

Ramaseshan et 2013 A Sample of Innovative culture (DV/mediator): SEM I, S, COM The study reveals that marketing
al. marketing TMT support SIE in terms of mangers’ commitment towards
managers job autonomy performance/ SI has a significant and positive
Commitment impact on organizational
to SI performance.
Innovative culture, top
management support and job
autonomy are found to have a
significant positive impact on
commitment.
Kets De Viris 2014 A Executives of a Group coaching SI Case study I Group coaching can help
global energy effectiveness organizational decision makers
company to understand how their job fits
with the ‘‘big picture’’ and why
this is critical to SIE.
Ahearne et al. 2014 A* 285 Middle Reputational social SIE in terms of Hierarchical I, MC, MSC Reputational social capital
managers and 43 capital and business unit linear enhances the performance
senior managers in informational social performance modeling impact of middle managers’
a large business capital upward influence while
unit of a Fortune informational social capital
500 company elevates the performance impact
of their downward influence.
The size of a business unit or
region has differential
moderating effects.

*
This column was added after phase 3. “S” and “I” denote structural and interpersonal actions respectively; “CPT” denotes competency to implement; “COM”
denotes commitment; “CRD” denotes coordination; “MC”, “MSC”, and “MHC” denote managerial cognition, social capital, and human capital respectively.
“SI” denotes strategy implementation and “SIE” refers to SI effectiveness.
 ABDC Explanatory Framework
Author(s) Year Sample DV Analysis Key Findings
Ranking Variables Themes*

Herrmann & 2014 A* 120 SMEs in Big five personality Initiation and Hierarchical I, MC, MHC Extraversion and openness
Nadkarni Ecuador characteristics of implementation regression influence strategy initiation
CEOs of strategic only. Emotional stability and
change agreeableness influence
initiation and SI performance.
Conscientiousness had opposing
effects on initiation and
effective implementation.
Kiss & Barr 2014 A* 104 Firms Environmental SI duration, Regression MC Longer new product
competing in four turbulence, TMT SIE in terms of development (NPD) durations
high-tech mental model new venture improve performance in stable,
industries and centralization performance low-growth industry
meeting new environments or when firms are
venture criteria run by TMTs who exhibit high
mental model centralization.
Shorter NPD durations are better
in turbulent, high-growth
industry environments or when
firms are run by TMTs who
exhibit low levels of mental
model centralization.

Kleinbaum & 2014 A* A large Network centrality Degree of Regression - MSC Improves our understanding of
Stuart information centrality, email analysis how network effects play an
technology structural important role in the SI process.
company constraint,
and a
“matchmaker
index” measure

*
This column was added after phase 3. “S” and “I” denote structural and interpersonal actions respectively; “CPT” denotes competency to implement; “COM”
denotes commitment; “CRD” denotes coordination; “MC”, “MSC”, and “MHC” denote managerial cognition, social capital, and human capital respectively.
“SI” denotes strategy implementation and “SIE” refers to SI effectiveness.
 ABDC Explanatory Framework
Author(s) Year Sample DV Analysis Key Findings
Ranking Variables Themes*

Elbanna et al. 2015 B 116 Turkish Trust, participation, Quality of Path analysis I, CDR, The quality of decision
Industrial Firms past performance, decision COM, MC implementation is positively
speed of decision implementation related to trust as well as
implementation, participation and past
implementation performance. Decision quality is
uncertainty negatively related to
implementation speed and
uncertainty.

Rasoolimanesh 2015 A Qazvin City (Iran) Consensus building, City PLS-SEM - S, I, CPT, Stakeholders, financial
et al. participation of development Case study MC, MSC, management skills,
stakeholders, finance, SI survey MHC institutionalization, capacity
leadership, capacity building, and leadership have
building, significant and positive effects
institutionalization on city development SI.

Srivastava & 2015 B Respondents from Leadership, Strategy Mediation S, I, MC The findings of the study
Sushil 12 different communication, execution Analysis suggest that focusing on
industries in India reflection, adaptive success execution leadership and
culture communication significantly
improves strategy execution
when supported by the
incorporation of reflection and
development of an adaptive
culture.

Thomas & 2015 A Self-administered Top management SI Mediated S, I Comprehensiveness, output, and
Ambrosini postal survey from team championship, implementation regression professional controls positively
a stratified random strategy performance analysis influence MMs’ implementation
sample of middle comprehensiveness, performance, and together,
managers (MMs) information antecedents reinforce each other
from UK availability, control in terms of SIE.
high tech
organizations

*
This column was added after phase 3. “S” and “I” denote structural and interpersonal actions respectively; “CPT” denotes competency to implement; “COM”
denotes commitment; “CRD” denotes coordination; “MC”, “MSC”, and “MHC” denote managerial cognition, social capital, and human capital respectively.
“SI” denotes strategy implementation and “SIE” refers to SI effectiveness.
 ABDC Explanatory Framework
Author(s) Year Sample DV Analysis Key Findings
Ranking Variables Themes*

Espinosa et al. 2015 A* E- case Use of an operations SI success Case study S Provides insights about the
research tool in SI promise and constraints of soft
operations research
methodology to collectively
structure complex decisions that
support organizational redesign
and SI.
Krush et al. 2016 A* U.S. business-to- Use of a marketing Marketing SI Survey, SEM S The use of marketing
business firms tool (dashboard). speed and dashboards is significantly
Moderator: information related to marketing SI speed
centralization, management and market information
formalization capability management capability.

Gębczyńska 2016 B 30 Polish Structural barriers to Successful SI Reporting S, I Barriers to the SI process are
enterprises successful descriptive discussed. Several structural and
implementation, use relational factors are listed.
of specific tools

Schaarschmidt 2016 B 350 German & Perceived external Effectivness of Interviews and COM The link between perceived
American frontline reputation, expected innovation SI. surveys external reputation and service
employees positive outcomes innovation implementation
behavior is mediated by
expected reputation gains and
expected positive performance
outcomes.

Albrecht 2017 A Organizations that Stakeholder Tourism SI Qualitative I, CRD, MC, Highlights the challenges related
are directly or involvement, goal semi-structured MSC to tourism SI in New Zealand.
indirectly related specificity, interviews Dilemmas related to the type
to tourism industry collaboration and number of stakeholders
in New Zealand involved in SI, the strategy goals
themselves, and systemic issues
inherent in public–private sector
collaboration are discussed.

*
This column was added after phase 3. “S” and “I” denote structural and interpersonal actions respectively; “CPT” denotes competency to implement; “COM”
denotes commitment; “CRD” denotes coordination; “MC”, “MSC”, and “MHC” denote managerial cognition, social capital, and human capital respectively.
“SI” denotes strategy implementation and “SIE” refers to SI effectiveness.
 ABDC Explanatory Framework
Author(s) Year Sample DV Analysis Key Findings
Ranking Variables Themes*

Hayati et al. 2018 A* 398 salespeople Sales manager’s SIE in terms of Regression I, COM Formal leadership effects and
transactional and sales group informal peer effects can
transformational performance influence strategy role
leadership, central commitment in the process of
salesperson’s strategy implementation
strategy role
commitment

Lampaki & 2018 B 228 middle Middle manager’s SI success Hierarchical I, MSC There is a negative relationship
Papadakis managers from 114 perceptions of Regression between organizational politics
Greek firms organizational and implementation success.
politics, middle When trust in the top
managers’ trust in management team is high, the
TMT negative impact is reduced.

Olson et al. 2018 A* 179 senior A contingency model SIE in terms of ANOVA S, I, CPT Firms whose business and
marketing of fit between HR policies marketing strategies align (fit)
managers generic business (selection, demonstrated significantly
strategy type (e.g. training, higher average scores for HR
Prospector) and appraisal, and items and stronger overall firm
marketing strategy compensation) performance scores than those
type (e.g. Mass as well as firm whose business and marketing
Marketer) performance strategies do not align.

ul Musawir 2020 A Meta-analysis of Multiple Multiple Meta-analysis S, I, CPT, A broad summary of papers.
271 Publications of project COM, CRD, Theories identified to explain
governance the benefit of project
and its role in governance to SIE include
enabling agency, stewardship,
strategy institutional, and network.
implementation Conclusion highlights the need
for improved understanding of
how governance mechanisms
influence SI outcomes.

*
This column was added after phase 3. “S” and “I” denote structural and interpersonal actions respectively; “CPT” denotes competency to implement; “COM”
denotes commitment; “CRD” denotes coordination; “MC”, “MSC”, and “MHC” denote managerial cognition, social capital, and human capital respectively.
“SI” denotes strategy implementation and “SIE” refers to SI effectiveness.
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