POCKET FIELD GUIDE

Cathodic
Protection
for Steel Water
Storage Tanks

David H. Kroon
 Cathodic Protection for
Steel Water Storage Tanks
Pocket Field Guide
 Cathodic Protection for
Steel Water Storage Tanks
Pocket Field Guide
David H. Kroon, P.E.
Copyright © 2017 American Water Works Association
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be repro-
duced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any informa-
tion or retrieval system, except in the form of brief excerpts or
quotations for review purposes, without the written permission
of the publisher.
Disclaimer
Tis book is provided for informational purposes only, with the
understanding that the publisher, editors, and authors are not
thereby engaged in rendering engineering or other professional
services. Te authors, editors, and publisher make no claim as
to the accuracy of the book’s contents, or their applicability
to any particular circumstance. Te editors, authors, and pub-
lisher accept no liability to any person for the information or
advice provided in this book or for loss or damages incurred
by any person as a result of reliance on its contents. Te reader
is urged to consult with an appropriate licensed professional
before taking any action or making any interpretation that is
within the realm of a licensed professional practice.
Managing Editor: Melissa Valentine
Product Manager: Tony Petrites
Technical Editor: Jenifer Walker
Cover Art: Melanie Yamamoto
Production Editor: Megan McCarthy

ISBN: 978-1-625-76224-5
Contents

Acknowledgments vii
Introduction ix
Chapter 1—Water Tank Corrosion
and Control 1
Corrosion of Internal Wetted Surfaces 3
Chapter 2—Principles of Cathodic
Protection 11
Application of Cathodic Protection 13
Chapter 3—Cathodic Protection
Technology in Recent Years 19
Automatically Controlled Power Supplies 19
Sensor Technology 20
Mixed-Metal Oxide-Coated Titanium
Anode Wires 21
Specialized Anode Design 23
NSF-Certi fed Materials/Systems 23
Monitoring and Maintenance 24
New Challenges 24

v
Chapter 4—Tank Rehabilitation 27
Chapter 5—Industry Standards 29
Glossary 31
References 35

vi
Acknowledgments

Reviewed by the AWWA Steel Tank Committee

whose membership include the following:
Joe W. Davis, Tomas M. Dawson Jr., Leslie D. Scott,
and Gregory R. Stein.
And by the AWWA Corrosion Control Committee
whose membership include the following:
Graham Bell, Sylvia Hall, Mike Horton, and Andy
Romer.
With comments from:
Rajendra D. Vaidya and Al Fancher.

vii
I ntroduction

As early as 1943, an AWWA technical commit-

tee concluded it was necessary to control corrosion
of submerged surfaces inside water tanks. At that
time, cathodic protection was identi fed as an efec-
tive way to prevent leaks. It wasn’t until the 1970s,
however, when practical designs for water storage
tanks were widely introduced, that cathodic pro-
tection began to gain widespread use to prevent
corrosion.
Even the best protective coating systems can-
not prevent corrosion indefnitely. When cathodic
protection is added to a coated tank, however, the
advantage achieved by combining the benefts of a
protective coating with cathodic protection is sig-
nifcant for owners, doubling or even tripling the
life of the coating. Consequently, tank owners view
cathodic protection as a low-cost way to safeguard
investments in their storage tanks and protective
coating systems.
By pairing protective coatings and cathodic pro-
tection, it is possible to extend the life of a typi-
cal steel water storage tank’s coating system for
immersion service by as much as 20 years. With-
out cathodic protection, system failure is likely to
occur within 10 years.

ix
Chapter 1
Water Tank Corrosion and Control
Steel water storage tanks are subject to corrosion on
all of their external and internal surfaces. Te pri-
mary focus of this pocket feld guide is to provide
guidance for cathodic protection of the internal
wetted surfaces of steel tanks, but, for comprehen-
sive asset protection, corrosion and corrosion con-
trol of all surfaces should be considered.
Most storage tanks are constructed of either
steel or steel and reinforced concrete (compos-
ite tanks). For composite tanks, it is important
that corrosive admixtures be avoided and that the
f
depth of concrete cover over the rebar be su cient
to protect the steel reinforcements by providing
a high pH environment over the life of the tank.
For stainless steel tanks, a di ferent set of corrosive
conditions needs to be evaluated. Tese include
f
su cient oxygen in the water to form a protective
oxide f lm and the presence of certain active ions,
such as chlorides, that could lead to corrosion pit-
ting of the stainless steel.
Tere are distinct zones associated with a water
tank, each of which requires corrosion protection
by a combination of material selection, protective
coatings, and/or cathodic protection. Te connec-
tion of the carbon steel tank shell to di ferent met-
als should be avoided. Tis includes copper and

1
stainless steel tubing, ladders, safety rails nozzles,
noncompatible weld materials, and the like.
Te exterior surfaces of the tank shell and roof
exposed to the atmosphere are best protected from
corrosion by the use of protective coatings. Many
coating systems that have been successfully used
include epoxies, polyurethanes, and alkyds, some
of which incorporate zinc-rich primers. Section
4.3 of AWWA D102-14 “Coating Steel Water-
Storage Tanks” describes seven outside coating
systems. For the external surfaces of a f at bottom
tank, consideration should be given to the appli-
cation of cathodic protection to prevent corrosion
of the soil side. Accelerated corrosion can occur
because of corrosive soils or tank pad material,
high moisture content, or connection to copper
grounding. Applying a protective coating alone to
the soil side of the bottom plates is not an e fec-
tive alternative because the coating will be dam-
aged during placement and welding. Information
on tank bottom cathodic protection can be found
in NACE International’s RP 0193-2001, “Exter-
nal Cathodic protection of On-Grade Carbon
Steel Storage Tank Bottoms.”
Inside the tank, corrosion is even more challeng-
ing. Connection (metal-to-metal contact) to cop-
per, brass, and stainless steel appurtenances must
be avoided. Protective coatings and cathodic pro-
tection should both be used. Coating the inside
of a tank is not an easy process. Proper surface
2
preparation is essential. Humidity and temperature
for proper cure must be closely monitored, recog-
nizing that the side of the tank exposed to the sun
can be quite a bit hotter from radiant heating. Sur-
face preparation and quality application of coating
the roof, support columns, and purlins is di f-
cult because of impediments to inspection, includ-
ing access, crevices, and sharp edges. Section 4.4
of AWWA D102-14 “Coating Steel Water-Storage
Tanks” describes fve inside coating systems con-
sisting of epoxies, polyurethanes, or polyurea. Te
discussion that follows addresses corrosion and
cathodic protection of the internal wetted steel sur-
faces of carbon steel water storage tanks.
CORROSION OF INTERNAL
WETTED SURFACES
In fresh water tanks, corrosion activity on
internal wetted surfaces usually results in concen-
trated pitting attack, which leads to quicker wall
penetration than if the corrosion was more uni-
formly distributed on the metal surface. Tis is
particularly true on tank interiors that are coated,
where the corrosion attack is accelerated at holi-
days or voids in the coating. Te attack is initiated
by the development of anodic and cathodic areas
on the submerged metal surfaces. Te anodic
areas (e.g., location of coating holiday) will suf-
fer accelerated corrosion (metal loss), whereas the
cathodic areas will not corrode (see Figure 1-1).
3
FIGURE 1-1 Anodic and Cathodic Areas on Tank Wall

Te corrosion is often made even worse by the

small anode-large cathode area e fect (see Coating
Pinhole Corrosion).
Tere are a number of mechanisms that can
initiate and sustain corrosion of the submerged
steel in water tanks.
Uniform Corrosion
Although steel visually appears to be homoge-
nous, close inspection reveals that it is quite irregu-
lar, consisting of numerous grains of metal that are
electrically di ferent from each other. Tus, some
will be anodes, whereas others will be cathodes.

4
Te corrosion attack will usually appear as ran-
domly, closely spaced pits.

Stressed Metal
Usually steel that is under stress will be anodic
to unstressed steel. In tanks, these stresses can
be caused by such things as welding (where the
area immediately adjacent to the weld becomes
stressed), bending or forming without stress reliev-
ing, and bolting and riveting (usually the fastener
will be anodic to the adjacent plate).

Dissimilar Metal Corrosion

Te use of di ferent metals in direct contact with
each other will establish a corrosion cell where the
more noble metal will be cathodic and the more
active metal will be anodic. Examples of such cells
in tanks include the use of copper or stainless steel
heater coils, stainless steel ladders, stainless steel
nozzles, and weld seams where the metallurgy of
the welding rod di fers from the base plate metal
(see Figure 1-2).

Crevice Corrosion
Tis corrosion cell develops at crevices that create
oxygen concentration or ion entrapment cells. Gen-
erally, the corroding (anodic) area will be in the
crevice with the nearby surface area’s cathodic. In
water tanks, these develop most commonly between

5
FIGURE 1-2 Galvanic Corrosion between Coated Carbon
Steel and Stainless Steel Ladder

the head and plate of bolted or riveted plates and

between the overlapping areas of unsealed plates.

Differential Oxygen Concentration

When steel is immersed in water and where
some of the steel surface is exposed to a relatively
oxygen-enriched water as compared with other
steel surfaces, the area deprived of oxygen will be
anodic with respect to those surfaces exposed to
the abundantly oxygenated water. Tis phenom-
enon is often observed in poorly coated tanks
where the lower submerged surfaces are heavily
corroded (lower oxygen levels with depth), whereas
the upper areas show little corrosion. Even more
common is the appearance of vertical striation

6
FIGURE 1-3 Vertical Corrosion of Interior Tank Wall

corrosion where deep vertical gouges (sometimes

several inches or feet long) are observed on the
submerged surfaces of the tanks (see Figure 1-3).
Tis common corrosion phenomenon is caused by
the development of an initial corrosion pit gen-
erating soft, fowing corrosion products. Gravity
causes these products to migrate down the side of
the tank wall and shield the lower surface from
oxygen, rendering it anodic. Te shielded sur-
face begins to corrode, generating more corrosion
products with the process continuing over and
over down the wall of the tank.

7
FIGURE 1-4 Corrosion at Coating Holidays

Coating Pinhole Corrosion

When the internal tank surfaces are coated with
a dielectric material (e.g., epoxy), the corro-
sion activity will be concentrated at the holidays
(holes) in the coating. Te breaks in the coating
may result from mechanical damage, improper
surface preparation, or merely microscopic voids
in the coating surface. Te corrosion currents will
concentrate at the holidays and result in higher
corrosion current densities at these locations. Even
though a good coating will reduce the total metal
loss, a complete penetration of the metal surface
will occur more quickly than if the tank were not
coated (see Figure 1-4). Many other factors can
in fuence the rate at which corrosion will proceed
in water tanks. Te most signi f cant factors are:

8
water fow rates, relative surface area of anodes to
cathodes, active ion concentrations, temperature,
turbulence, and water level fuctuation.
Virtually all potable waters are corrosive with
regard to steel. Tus, the question is not one of
whether water tanks are subject to corrosion, but
rather, what is the most e fective and economic
means of corrosion protection?

9
Chapter 2
Principles of Cathodic Protection
Te principles of cathodic protection are best under-
stood by thinking about the corrosion cell. At the
anode, metal ions go into solution as the result of
an oxidation reaction; at the cathode, a reduction
reaction occurs, protecting the metal and preventing
corrosion. Corrosion current fows from the anode
through the water and to the cathode (see Figure
1-1). With cathodic protection, all submerged steel
surfaces are a cathode in a macro electrochemi-
cal cell that is built, where an anode for consump-
tion is intentionally provided, with the submerged
tank interior acting as the cathode. Tis cell is the
cathodic protection system (see Figure 2-1).
Cathodic protection requires an outside source
of direct current (DC) that fows through the water
onto the surface of the tank. One source of this cur-
rent may be a DC power supply connected to a rel-
atively inert anode that is suspended in the water
inside the tank. DC is forced to fow from the anode
through the water and to the tank surface. Tis is
impressed current cathodic protection.
Another source of DC may be obtained by con-
necting a more active metal (e.g., magnesium) to the
steel shell. Te more active (electronegative) metal
becomes the anode in an intentionally designed
corrosion cell and sacrifces itself to protect the
11
FIGURE 2-1 Water Tank Cathodic Protection

submerged surfaces of the tank. A familiar applica-

tion of cathodic protection is household water heat-
ers. A small magnesium, zinc, or aluminum rod is
installed inside the tank to provide cathodic pro-
tection and prevent corrosion of the exposed sub-
merged metallic components.
Because cathodic protection current must fow
from the anode through the electrolyte and onto the
surface to be protected, it can only be used to pre-
vent corrosion when the structure is submerged, bur-
ied, or embedded in concrete. Cathodic protection
is not applicable to the control of atmospheric corro-
sion. It will not protect areas above the water line on
the tank shell, the head space, or any surfaces that
are not in contact with the stored water.
12
APPLICATION OF CATHODIC PROTECTION
Corrosion protection of water storage tanks through
the application of cathodic protection has become
an accepted practice for both existing and newly
constructed tanks. Te increased use of cathodic
protection for these structures is credited to the
growing awareness that it is an economical means
of controlling corrosion on the submerged surfaces
of these structures and is the only method that pro-
vides complete corrosion control.
Tere is no doubt that cathodic protection is a
reliable, well-established, and cost-efective method
to prevent corrosion inside water tanks. Cathodic
protection should be included in all new tank and
tank rehabilitation designs. Tis conclusion is con-
sistent with the 1999 AwwaRF Report, “Main-
taining Water Quality in Finished Water Storage
Facilities,” in which it is recommended that cathodic
protection be provided in the design of steel tanks.
Tere are several variables associated with each
water tank that must be considered when designing
cathodic protection. Among these are water chemis-
try, coating, tank design, and tank function.
Variations in water chemistry that afect cathodic
protection include source of water (e.g., lakes, riv-
ers, wells), total dissolved solids, total hardness, dis-
solved oxygen, total alkalinity, pH, temperature,
and bacteria.
Variations in tank coating include type and con-
dition. Tere are also a number of diferent tank
13
designs and shapes, including ground storage reser-
voirs, standpipes, and elevated water storage tanks.
In addition, a tank may function as a water-storing
facility, pressure regulator, wash reservoir, or fre
protection reservoir or any combination of these.
Even though there are diferent and varying
conditions, standardization of cathodic protection
designs is possible because there are several condi-
tions in water tanks and treatment equipment that
favor this approach.
First, the electrolyte (water) in which the metal is
submerged is relatively uniform. Second, although
there are diferent structure shapes, they are all basi-
cally a combination of cylinders and curves. Both
of these two conditions are diferent from those
found on underground pipelines, where there is
considerable irregularity in soil conditions and pip-
ing confguration. Tird, the most responsible fact
for permitting standardized design is that cathodic
protection systems for water tanks are most often
impressed current. Great fexibility can be built into
an impressed current system to meet a variety of
current requirements without adding signifcantly
to the cost. Magnesium and other types of sacrif-
cial anode material are often used in smaller tanks
or those located remotely from AC power.
When preparing to design a cathodic protection
system for a water storage tank, the designer must
frst determine the following: total current required

14
for protection; water resistivity; anode material;
anode geometry; and service life.
Te total current required for cathodic protec-
tion is determined simply by multiplying the total
submerged surface area by a preselected current den-
sity. Although current density requirements can vary
in fresh waters from as little as 0.1 milliamperes to
5.0 milliamperes per square foot of bare submerged
surface area, a maximum design current density of
2.5 milliamperes per square foot will sufce for the
majority of all steel tanks. If less current is actually
required, the rectifer output can easily be reduced in
the feld. Some of the factors that increase the actual
operating current are temperature, turbulence, and
chlorides. Factors such as alkalinity will reduce the
current requirement. Te most important factor is
the type and condition of the coating. Although
there are a number of coatings for use in the interi-
ors of water storage tanks, epoxy coating systems are
the most common.
Te proper design of a cathodic protection system
makes it necessary to measure the water conductiv-
ity (or resistivity, which is the inverse of conductiv-
ity). Conductivity is a major factor governing the
electrical circuit resistance, which governs the volt-
age at which the system will operate to deliver the
required current. Te higher the voltage and current,
the greater the power consumption; the greater the
power consumption, the higher the operating costs.

15
 A large anode results in lower circuit resistance,
which then results in lower voltage required to
deliver the same current at lower operating costs.
But a larger anode typically results in a higher
initial cost; therefore, the designer must strike the
optimum economic balance between capital cost
and operating cost. Because most treated waters
fall in the resistivity range of 2,000 to 10,000 ohm-
centimeters, it is usually possible to adjust the num-
ber and size of the anodes to reduce the circuit
resistance such that the maximum system voltage
requirements are between 10 to 80 volts.
Most components in cathodic protection systems
for water storage tanks and water treatment equip-
ment have a design life of 20 years. Te electrical
components and the recti fer units in cathodic pro-
tection systems are capable of continuous operation
over this time with little attention. Te major excep-
tion is the cathodic protection anodes that are con-
sumed by the system operation. Anodes in impressed
current systems can be easily designed for 20 years or
more, whereas sacri fcial anodes usually have a maxi-
mum life of 10 years.
When protective coatings are used with cathodic
protection and in accordance with AWWA Stan-
dards and manufacturer speci fcations, the coating
system can be expected to have a useful life of 15 to
20 years (when used with cathodic protection), and
repainting of the submerged areas of the tank can be
done much less frequently.

16
 A coating serves an entirely di ferent function
inside a cathodically protected tank. When a coating
is used as the exclusive means for corrosion control,
voids, peeling, and/or cracking of only one percent
to three percent of the coated surface would indi-
cate failure of the paint system as a means for corro-
sion control. In fact, in most cases, accelerated attack
will occur.
In a cathodically protected tank, similar coat-
ing deterioration will be easily compensated for by a
small increase in current output of the cathodic pro-
tection system. Te coating’s major function with
cathodic protection is to reduce the power cost and
rate of anode consumption.

17
Chapter 3
Cathodic Protection
Technology in Recent Years
In recent years, the greatest advancements in
cathodic protection technology have been in six key
areas.

AUTOMATICALLY CONTROLLED
POWER SUPPLIES
When f rst applied decades ago, cathodic protection
had a reputation for being high maintenance. Sys-
tems had to be hand-calibrated regularly to adjust
for water level and temperature changes in a water
storage tank. In addition, in cold weather climates,
cathodic protection was considered to be a seasonal,
not permanent, solution.
Now monitoring sensors can be located inside
water tanks to detect environmental changes,
including the amount of water turbulence and aer-
ation generated during tank f lling and potential
water chemistry changes. Similar to a thermostat,
automatic controllers (see Figure 3-1) connected to
these sensors use the information to calibrate the
cathodic protection system automatically, without
human intervention. Systems adjust continuously to
maintain optimum protection levels, requiring only
annual maintenance checkups.

19
FIGURE 3-1 Automatically Controlled Recti f er for Water
Tanks

SENSOR TECHNOLOGY
Sensor technology is used for more than simply
def ning the cathodic protection level needed at a
given moment and signaling the power supply to
adjust for it. Sensors, which usually are reference
electrodes installed in a tank, can also provide data
about the internal coating condition to help owners
determine the percent of exposed steel without the
expense of internal inspection.
Owners can also chart current output to measure
the rate of deterioration and more accurately predict
when rehabilitation will be necessary. Without such
data, owners must rely mostly on visual inspection.
In addition, older technology sensors usually provide
reliable results for no more than 3 to 5 years. Today,

20
FIGURE 3-2 Mixed-Metal-Oxide-Coated Titanium Anode
Wire

standard sensors have a minimum 10-year life span

but often produce reliable, reproducible results for
much longer periods.
MIXED-METAL OXIDE-COATED TITANIUM
ANODE WIRES
Te small amount of DC current needed to polarize
submerged internal tank surfaces to prevent corro-
sion is delivered by anode wires that must be sub-
merged in the water. Older cathodic protection
systems relied primarily on electrodes made of high
silicon iron. When low temperatures caused icy con-
ditions, aluminum electrodes were chosen, but they
had to be replaced each spring. Both types of anodes
have been replaced by mixed-metal oxide-coated

21
FIGURE 3-3 Horizontal Hoop Design for Ground Storage
Reservoir

FIGURE 3-4 Horizontal Hoop Design for Elevated Tank

22
titanium anode wires, which are easier to handle and
install, have a life of 20+ years, and include NSF 61
certifed systems (see Figure 3-2).
SPECIALIZED ANODE DESIGN
Cathodic protection system installation is driven
primarily by climate. In cold climates, water stor-
age tanks are subject to ice buildup that can damage
system wiring, especially if the wiring is not prop-
erly suspended. Modern cathodic protection systems
with a horizontal hoop anode design prevent dam-
age caused by ice formation and provide more even
distribution of protective current; therefore, the sys-
tems require less current to achieve the same result.
Because such systems are suspended from the sides
of the tank by eye rings, no hand-holes need to be
cut in the top of a tank to access roof suspension sys-
tems (see Figures 3-3 and 3-4).
NSF-CERTIFIED MATERIALS/SYSTEMS
Many of today’s cathodic protection materials and
systems are certifed by NSF under ANSI/NSF
61, Drinking Water System Components—Heath
Efects, which provides owners extra assurance
that their systems aren’t endangering the drinking
water supply. NSF certifcation is an ongoing audit
and supply-chain management system that requires
quarterly independent third-party audits of materi-
als to assure ongoing compliance. Only systems that

23
are part of a supply-chain management system and
participate in ongoing testing can be NSF certifed.
MONITORING AND MAINTENANCE
Regardless of the type of cathodic protection system
installed, it should be checked every 2 months by
local personnel to ensure that it is operating prop-
erly. Te DC current and voltage outputs of the sys-
tem and potential set point should be recorded each
month and placed on record for future reference.
If any of the measurements are out of range,
steps should be taken to restore proper operation.
Annually, a complete system inspection should be
performed to include a potential profle of the sub-
merged tank surface. Advancements in cathodic
protection coupon technology allow for recording
polarized potentials (IR drop-free instant of) even
when the cathodic protection current cannot be
interrupted, as may be the case for direct connected
sacrifcial anode systems.
NEW CHALLENGES
Cathodic protection technology will continue to
address changing methods of steel water storage
tank design and construction. Use of complex, dis-
similar metals on internal tank surfaces is placing
new demands on protective coating systems. Tis
has increased the need for cathodic protection.

24
 Likewise, new piping and mixing systems can
pose additional corrosion risks. For example, inside
some carbon steel tanks are nozzles, safety rails, lad-
ders, and other components made of uncoated stain-
less steel. Interconnection of these di ferent alloys
can create dissimilar metal corrosion cells, or spots,
where the two dissimilar metals are submerged and
in contact with each other. Te cell can result in cor-
rosion to the coated carbon steel tank foor and shell.
In these environments, cathodic protection is even
more critical to prevent metal loss from corrosion.
Tat is why cathodic protection is so important for
preventing corrosion on interior submerged surfaces
of steel water storage tanks.

25
Chapter 4
Tank Rehabilitation
Cathodic protection is a reliable, cost-efective
way to prevent corrosion inside water tanks, but it
accounts for only about one percent of tank reha-
bilitation costs. Te remaining costs cover protec-
tive coating and application (see Figure 4-1).
Cost of Fighting Water Tank Corrosion
Cathodic protection accounts for only about 1 percent of the capital costs of building a tank.

100

20%

75 75%
Percent of Utility Budget

50

80%

25

24%

0 1%
Capital Maintenance and
Costs Life-Cycle Costs

Protective Coatings and Application Construction/Fabrication

Cathodic Protection Other

* Esti m ated avera ge costs. Actu al costs a n d resu l ts m ay va ry.

FIGURE 4-1 Relative Cost of Corrosion Protection

27
 Coating costs have risen in recent years, result-
ing mostly from design enhancements that
improved performance, lowered operational costs,
and adhered to more stringent volatile organic car-
bon (VOC) limits. For example, newer coatings are
designed to reduce the current demand (and elec-
tricity costs) on a cathodic protection system. In
turn, cathodic protection increases coating life by
preventing corrosion in voids or damaged areas.

28
Chapter 5
INDUSTRY STANDARDS
Cathodic protection, used in conjunction with pro-
tective coatings, is considered standard industry prac-
tice for controlling internal tank corrosion, according
to AWWA and NACE International, two organiza-
tions that have adopted corrosion control standards.
NACE International developed the frst cathodic
protection standard in 1988, which it updated with
NACE S0388-2014, the current version. In 1996,
NACE completed the Galvanic Anode Cathodic
Protection of Internal Submerged Surfaces of Steel
Water Storage Tanks standard for sacrifcial anode
use for cathodic protection. Te latest edition of this
standard was updated in 2011.
AWWA published its frst impressed current
cathodic protection standard in 1996. Te current
version was released in 2011 as ANSI/AWWA D104-
11. Te AWWA series was completed in 2010 with
ANSI/AWWA D106-10, Sacrifcial Anode Cathodic
Protection Systems for the Interior Submerged Sur-
faces of Steel Water Storage Tanks.
As these standards were evolving, technical work
groups representing the two organizations sought
to ensure that the AWWA and NACE standards,
although diferent, did not contradict each other. In
subsequent revisions, European and Australian stan-
dards will be reviewed for consistency.
29
Glossary
Alkalinity—Alkalinity measures the ability of a sub-
stance to resist a change in pH. In other words, alka-
linity measures water’s ability to neutralize strong
acids or bases; thus, alkalinity is also referred to as
the “bufering capacity” of the water. Alkalinity is
normally measured by the equivalent of milligrams
of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) per liter of water.
Anode —(1) Corrosion: Te electrode of a corro-
sion cell that has a greater tendency to corrode or
oxidize.
(2) Cathodic Protection: Te expendable
materials that are buried and through which direct
current fows into the soil. Common materials used
for this purpose are graphite, high silicon iron,
magnesium, zinc, and scrap iron.
Cathode —Te electrode of a corrosion cell where
a net reduction reaction occurs. In corrosion pro-
cesses, the cathode is usually that area which does
not corrode.
Cathodic Protection —Reduction or prevention of
corrosion of a metal surface by making it cathodic
by the use of sacri fcial anodes or impressed current
cathodic protection systems. When cathodic pro-
tection is applied, the structure is part of an elec-
trical circuit in which direct current fows from
an external anode into the surrounding electrolyte
31
and onto the structure to be protected. Tis current
opposes the corrosion cell currents discharged at
the anodic (-) areas. Te entire surface of the struc-
ture is changed to a cathodic (+) or protected state.
Hence the name “cathodic protection.”

Coating—A liquid, liquef able, or mastic composi-

tion that, after application to a surface, is converted
into a solid protective, decorative, or functional
adherent f lm.

Conductivity—A measure of the ability of a mate-

rial to carry an electric current. In water, this
depends on the total concentration of the ion-
ized substances dissolved and the temperature at
which the measurement is made. It is the recipro-
cal of resistivity and is usually expressed in µS/cm
(µmhos/cm).

Corrosion —Te deterioration of a material, usu-

ally a metal, that results from a reaction with its
environment.

Current Density—Te current to or from a unit

area of an electrode surface.

Electrode —A conductor used to establish contact

with an electrolyte and through which current is
transferred to or from an electrolyte.

Electrolyte —A chemical substance containing ions

that migrate in an electric feld. For the purposes of

32
this standard, electrolyte refers to the water, includ-
ing the dissolved chemicals, in the tank.

Epoxy—Type of resin formed by the reaction of ali-

phatic or aromatic polyols (such as bisphenol) with
epichlorohydrin and characterized by the presence
of reactive oxirane end groups.

Holiday—A discontinuity in a protective coat-

ing that exposes unprotected surface to the
environment.

Impressed Current —An electric current supplied

by a device using a power source that is external to
the electrode system. (An example is direct current
for cathodic protection.)

Impressed Current Anode —An anode, usually

composed of substantially inert material, that is
supplied with impressed current systems.

Polarization —Te change from the open-circuit

potential as a result of current across the electrode/
electrolyte interface.

Reference Electrode —An electrode whose open-

circuit potential is constant under similar condi-
tions of measurement, which is used for measuring
the relative potentials of other electrodes.

Resistivity —A measure of the speci fc resistance

of a material to the passage of electric current. It

33
is usually expressed in ohm-centimeters (ohm-cm)
and is the reciprocal of conductivity.

Sacri f cial Anode —A metal that provides sacri f-

cial protection to another metal that is more noble
when electrically coupled in an electrolyte. Tis
type of anode is the electron source in a sacri fcial
anode cathodic protection system.

Tank-to-Water Potential —Te voltage di ference

between a submerged metallic portion of the tank
and the electrolyte (water), which is measured with
a reference electrode in contact with the electrolyte.

Voltage Drop —Te voltage across a resistance

when current is applied in accordance with Ohm’s
law.

34
References
ANSI/NSF 61 (latest revision), “Drinking Water
System Components—Health Efects” (New
York, NY: ANSI and Ann Arbor, MI: NSF
International).
AWWA Standard D104-11, Automatically Con-
trolled, Impressed Current Cathodic Protec-
tion for the Interior Submerged Surfaces of Steel
Water Storage Tanks (catalog no. 441040).
AWWA Standard D106-10, Sacri fcial Anode
Cathodic Protection Systems for the Interior
Submerged Surfaces of Steel Water Tanks
(catalog no. 44106).
AWWA Manual of Water Supply Practices M58:
Internal Corrosion in Water Distribution Systems,
2011 (catalog no. 30058).
D.H. Kroon. Corrosion in Water Systems an
Overview, Water and Wastewater International,
October/November 1986.
J.B. Bushman, D.H. Kroon. Cathodic Protection
of Water Storage Tanks, Journal - AWWA,
January 1984.
NACE International SP0196 (latest revision),
“Galvanic Anode Cathodic Protection of

35
 Internal Submerged Surfaces of Steel Water
Storage Tanks” (Houston, T X: NACE).
NACE International SP0388 (latest revision),
“Impressed Current Cathodic Protection of
Internal Submerged Surfaces of Carbon Steel
Water Storage Tanks” (Houston, T X: NACE).

36