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5 th
4
z(i) 3
7 Brazilian Conference on Dynamics, Control and Applications
2
1
3
-4 2
-2 1
0 0
x(i)
2
4-3
-2
-1
y(i)
May 07 - 09, 2008
FCT - Unesp at Presidente Prudente, SP, Brazil
DINCON’ 2008
Abstract: The present article provides a brief review of the the structure’s vibrations [1–4]. These laminated composite
open literature concerning applications of piezoelectric sen- structures with integrated piezoelectric sensors and actuators
sors and actuators for active and passive vibration control. form a class of “smart structures” that has been widely used
Then, some recent advances on this subject are presented. for structural vibration control in the recent years. The piezo-
In particular, the following topics are discussed in detail: i) electric layers/patches can be either bonded to the surfaces
modeling of structures with piezoelectric sensors and actu- of the host structure or embedded into a laminate structure.
ators, ii) evaluation of the effective electromechanical cou- Surface-bonded, also known as surface-mounted, actuators
pling coefficient, iii) applications for active and passive vi- have the advantage of ease in construction, access and main-
bration control. tainability but may be subjected to high longitudinal stresses
and contact with surrounding objects that may be detrimental
Keywords: Piezoelectric Materials, Active Vibration Con-
to normally brittle piezoceramic materials. Embedding the
trol, Passive Vibration Control
piezoelectric layers/patches alleviate these problems and also
enables good mechanical and electrical link with the struc-
1. INTRODUCTION
tural element and gluing materials may be unnecessary. On
When incorporated into a laminated composite structure, the other hand, embedding may lead to complex manufactur-
piezoelectric materials can be used as distributed means for ing and electrical insulation.
sensing and/or actuating the structure’s response. This is
1.1. Piezoelectric extension and shear actuation and
achieved thanks to the electromechanical interaction that
sensing modes
occurs in a piezoelectric material for which the applica-
tion of a force or pressure produces electric charge/voltage Surface-mounted piezoelectric actuators are normally
(direct piezoelectric effect) and the application of electric poled in the thickness direction so that the application of a
charge/voltage is responded by induced strain (converse through-thickness electric field forces an elongation or con-
piezoelectric effect). Therefore, the dynamic response of a traction of the actuators. If the actuators are well-bonded to
structure with incorporated piezoelectric layers/patches can the surface of the host structure, their elongation or contrac-
be both monitored, through the measure of the charge/voltage tion causes a deformation of the host structure. This may be
induced in the piezoelectric element(s) acting as sensor(s), represented as the application of axial forces on the struc-
and controlled, through the application of an appropriate ture’s surface at the actuator edges leading to bending mo-
charge/voltage to the piezoelectric element(s) acting as ac- ments applied to the structure’s neutral line. That is why,
tuator(s). It is clear that to effectively control the structure’s surface-mounted actuators are also known as extension or
response using piezoelectric sensors and actuators, one must extension-bending actuators. They been widely used on ac-
be able not only to sense and actuate the structure’s response tive [1], passive [2] and hybrid active-passive [5] control ap-
but also to evaluate the appropriate charge/voltage to be ap- plications. Although extension actuators can be very effec-
plied to the actuator(s) based on the measured charge/voltage tive when surface-mounted on the host structure, they are not
induced in the sensor(s). This is achieved by a control sys- very effective when embedded in a laminate structure. This
tem that connects the sensor(s) and actuator(s) and can be is because they induce smaller bending moments when they
designed to induce the required response to the structure. are close to the structure’s neutral line.
Over the past two decades, several research works have Sun and Zhang [6] proposed the use of the thickness-
shown that the use of integrated piezoelectric patches act- shear mode of piezoelectric actuators embedded in a sand-
ing as sensors and/or actuators allows effective control of wich beam. In this case, the piezoelectric patches are poled
in the axial direction and, when subjected to the standard the ratio of electrical energy stored in the volume of a piezo-
through-thickness electric field, induce thickness shear stress electric body to the total mechanical energy supplied to the
in the sandwich structure’s core. These piezoelectric ac- body (or vice-versa). The EMCC is an important measure of
tuators are known as shear actuators and are produced by the effectiveness of the electromechanical coupling and, thus,
some piezoceramic manufacturers normally in the form of of the effectiveness of a piezoelectric material for a given ap-
plates poled in the length or width direction. Benjeddou, plication. Several formulas and methods were proposed to
Trindade, and Ohayon [7–9] showed that shear actuators in- evaluate numerically or measure experimentally the EMCC
duce distributed actuation moments in the structure unlike of a piezoelectric material [21–23]. Most of them refer to the
extension actuators which induce boundary forces. There- material EMCC, which is only function of the material prop-
fore, shear actuation mechanism may lead to less problems erties and normally requires an assumption of homogeneous
of debonding in actuators boundaries and to minor depen- deformation throughout the piezoelectric body [24].
dence of the control performance on actuators position and Some attempts to evaluate the effective EMCC of a struc-
length. Aldraihem and Khdeir [10–12] presented exact so- ture with piezoelectric elements were previously published
lutions for sandwich beams with shear and extension actua- in the literature [25–27]. Most of them make use of the for-
tors using equivalent single layer models based on first-order mulas proposed by Mason [21] and Ulitko [22], which mea-
and third-order shear deformation theories. Trindade, Ben- sure variations in the resulting electromechanical structure
jeddou, and Ohayon [13] presented a comparison between when the electric boundary conditions are changed. These
active control performances of shear and extension actuation formulas are intended to account automatically for nonho-
mechanisms using a sandwich beam finite element model. mogeneous deformations in the piezoelectric elements, cor-
They showed that shear actuators are generally more suit- responding to an integration of electromechanical coupling
able to control bending vibrations of stiff structures. Raja, throughout the volume of piezoelectric bodies. This leads to
Sreedeep, and Prathap [14] have presented a finite element a quite simple methodology when applying these formulas to
static analysis of sandwich beams actuated simultaneously evaluate the effective EMCC from experimentally measured
by shear and extension actuators for several boundary con- quantities. However, when applying these formulas to the-
ditions. Recent experiments and numerical simulations per- oretical models, care should be taken as to whether the the-
formed by Baillargeon and Vel [15] have shown that shear oretical model accounts properly for the electric boundary
actuators can provide significant reduction on the vibrations conditions [28].
of a sandwich beam. Vel and Batra [16] presented an ex-
1.3. Modeling of structures with piezoelectric sensors
act 3D solution for the static cylindrical bending of simply
and actuators
supported laminated plates with embedded shear piezoelec-
tric actuators. Edery-Azulay and Abramovich [17] also pre- The first model proposed for structures with piezoelectric
sented closed-form solutions for the static analysis of lami- actuators was quite simple considering that an induced strain,
nate/sandwich beams with embedded extension and shear ac- proportional to the voltage applied to the actuator, was ap-
tuators. It has been observed that extension actuators are gen- plied to the host structure [29]. Improvements of this model
erally more effective for very flexible host structures while were then proposed by Crawley and de Luis [30], accounting
shear actuators are more effective for stiffer structures (e.g. also for the position of the actuator along the thickness direc-
short beams). Also, the effectiveness of extension actuators tion and the shear lag due to the adhesive layer. A somewhat
is more dependent on the position along the beam than shear more sophisticated model based on a Bernoulli-Euler beam
actuators. These and other distinctive features of extension theory was presented in [31]. Herman Shen [32] presented
and shear actuators may be exploited to study their simulta- a Timoshenko beam model to account for the shear strains
neous use and to design a combined extension-shear actuated induced by the piezoelectric actuator. Lee [33] proposed a
beam [18]. These and other aspects of the shear actuation classical laminate theory, that is Kirchoff plate hypotheses
mechanism are reviewed in [19]. for an equivalent single layer. From the mid 90s on, several
modeling methodologies were proposed for general laminate
1.2. Effective electromechanical coupling coefficient
structures with piezoelectric layers/patches bonded to, or em-
It is well known that the sensing and actuation perfor- bedded in, the host structure [34, 35]. Several finite element
mances of piezoelectric materials depend highly on the effec- models with and without electric degrees of freedom were
tive electromechanical coupling provided to the structure to also proposed in the literature [36].
which they are attached. This coupling itself is known to be
1.4. Passive vibration control using shunted piezoelec-
dependent on the intrinsic electromechanical coupling coef-
tric materials
ficient (EMCC) of the piezoelectric material and on the me-
chanical coupling between the piezoelectric sensor/actuator The idea of connecting piezoelectric patches to shunt cir-
and the rest of the structure. In particular, the effective cuits is basically to control the mechanical energy via the
EMCC of a structure with piezoelectric elements should be electrical energy induced in the shunt circuit due to elec-
expected to be smaller than the material EMCC of the piezo- tromechanical coupling in the piezoelectric [37, 38]. Most
electric material embedded into the structure [20]. of the recent studies focus on optimizing the shunt circuits
The EMCC of a piezoelectric material was first intro- by including resistances, inductances and capacitances in se-
duced by Mason [21] and can be defined as the square root of ries and/or parallel [3, 39, 40]. Nevertheless, few studies
focus on the optimization of the electromechanical coupling mass density and Ω is the volume of the structure. The vir-
in the piezoelectric material. It has been shown that piezo- tual work done by internal forces can be found from the vir-
electric actuators using their thickness-shear mode can be tual variation of the electromechanic potential energy. In this
more effective than surface-mounted extension piezoelectric first formulation, it is chosen to write the potential energy
actuators for vibration damping [13, 15, 18, 41]. However, as the electric Gibbs energy, written in terms of mechanical
their use in connection to shunt circuits to provide passive strains ε and electric fields E, such that its variation reads
vibration control is much less explored. In particular, it was
shown that the use of piezoelectric patches in thickness-shear Z
δεt cE ε − δεt eE − δEt et ε − δEt ε E dΩ
mode may be more interesting since the electromechanical δU(ε, E) =
Ω
coupling is higher than that in extension mode [19, 42–44]. (3)
1.5. Active-passive vibration control using piezoelectric where cE , e and ε are the matrices of elastic (for constant
materials electric field), piezoelectric and dielectric (for constant me-
chanical strain) constants of the material.
In the last two decades, research was redirected to com- These virtual work expressions can be spatially dis-
bined active and passive vibration control techniques [45]. cretized through the discretization of the displacements
One of these techniques, so-called Active-Passive Piezoelec- fields, and thus of the corresponding strains, such that
tric Networks (APPN), integrates an active voltage source
with a passive resistance-inductance shunt circuit to a piezo- ū(x1 , x2 , x3 ,t) = Nu (x1 , x2 , x3 )u(t) (4)
electric sensor/actuator [46]. This technique allows to simul-
taneously dissipate passively vibratory energy through the
shunt circuit and actively control the structural vibrations. It ε(x1 , x2 , x3 ,t) = B(x1 , x2 , x3 )u(t) (5)
has been shown that combined active-passive vibration con-
trol allows better performance with smaller cost than separate The electric fields appearing in (3) can also be discretized
active and passive control, provided the simultaneous action and written in terms of difference of electric potential (volt-
is optimized. On the other hand, it has been shown in previ- age) as
ous studies [18, 47] that both purely active and purely passive
damping performance can be improved by properly selecting E(x1 , x2 , x3 ,t) = NV (x1 , x2 , x3 )V(t) (6)
between, or combining, extension and thickness-shear actu- Then, replacing discretized fields into the virtual work ex-
ation mechanisms of piezoelectric actuators/sensors. Hence, pressions yields
it is expected that the choice between actuation mechanisms
Z
should be important as well for active-passive vibration con-
δT = −δut Mü ; M = ρNtu Nu dΩ (7)
trol. Ω
Z
2. MODELING OF STRUCTURES WITH PIEZO- δW = δut Fm ; Fm = Ntu f dΩ (8)
ELECTRIC MATERIALS Ω
From equation (19), the generalized displacements u can δut (Ms + M p )ü + (Kus + KD
up )u − Kud Dn − Fm
be evaluated. Then, the electric potentials V p induced in the
+ δDtn −Ktud u + Kd Dn = 0
piezoelectric elements can be found using equation (18). It (26)
or in matrix form electrodes of the piezoelectric elements can be found using
equation (32). It is worthwhile to notice, from equation (33),
that the induced electric displacements in the sensors due to
Ms + M p 0 ü the direct piezoelectric effect lead to a decrease in their stiff-
0 0 D̈n nesses. This is due to the relaxation of the equivalent electric
K + KD
−Kud u Fm load generated in the piezoelectric layer by the induced po-
+ us t up = (27) tential.
−Kud Kd Dn 0
Finally, if electric charges are applied to the piezoelectric
where, as in the previous case, Ms and Kus are the mass elements, the second equation in (29) is automatically sat-
and elastic stiffness matrices of the structure (without piezo- isfied, since δq p = 0, and the first equation in (29) can be
electric elements) and M p and KD up are the mass and elastic written as
(for constant electric displacements) stiffness matrices of the
piezoelectric elements. Kud and Kd are the piezoelectric and (Ms + M p )ü + (Kus + KD
up )u = Fm + F p (34)
dielectric stiffnesses of the piezoelectric elements.
To account for the equipotential condition on the elec- where
trodes of each piezoelectric element, let us define the vectors F p = Kuq q p (35)
of electric charges q p on the electrodes of the piezoelectric in this case, the piezoelectric elements act as charge actuators
elements, such that applying piezoelectric equivalent forces on the structure and
their stiffnesses are those for constant electric displacement.
Dn = B p q p ; B p = L p A−1
p (28)
2.3. Connection to electric circuits
The boolean matrix L p has dimension N × N p , where N
is the number of spatial (nodal) points and N p is the number It is worthwhile to analyze the connection of piezoelec-
of independent piezoelectric elements. L p allows to set an tric elements to electric circuits, specially when shunt circuits
equal value to selected nodal electric displacements. A p is a are considered for passive vibration control. To this end, it
diagonal matrix with the surface area of the electrodes of the seems that an electric charge formulation is more appropri-
piezoelectric elements. ate since it is possible to relate the electric charges flowing
Substituting equation (28) in equation (27) and pre- between the piezoelectric elements electrodes with the elec-
multiplying the second line of the resulting equation by Btp tric charges flowing through the electric circuit. First, let us
leads to consider a set of simple but quite general electric circuits
composed of an inductor, a resistor and a voltage source.
The equations of motion for such circuits can be found us-
Ms + M p 0 ü ing d’Alembert’s principle, such that the virtual work done
0 0 q̈ p by the inductors δTL j , resistors, δWR j , and voltage sources,
K + KD δWV j , of the j-th electric circuit are
−Kuq u Fm
+ us t up = (29)
−Kuq Kq qp 0
q p = K−1 t
q Kuq u (32)
δWV = ∑ δWV j = δqtc Vc
j=1
Replacing equation (32) in the first line of equation (29) leads where qc is the vector of electric charges, Lc and Rc are di-
to the following condensed equations of motion agonal matrices with the inductances and resistances of each
circuit, and Vc is the vector of applied voltages.
(Ms + M p )ü + Kus + (KD
−1 t
Adding these virtual works to the electromechanical vir-
up − Kuq Kq Kuq ) u = Fm (33)
tual works of previous section, such that
From equation (33), the generalized displacements u can
be evaluated. Then, the electric charges q p flowing between δT − δU + δW + δTL + δWR + δWV = 0 (38)
or, in terms of the generalized displacements, by first mechanically loading the piezoelectric body in open-
circuit condition (Figure 1, a → b, initial (a: dashed) and
final (b: solid) configurations) so that both mechanical and
δut (Ms + M p )ü + (Kus + KD
up )u − Kuq q p − Fm electrical energies Uoc are stored in the piezoelectric body.
Then, the surfaces with electrodes are held to constrain the
+ δqtp (−Ktuq u + Kq q p ) + δqtc (Lc q̈c + Rc q̇c − Vc ) = 0
deformation of the piezoelectric body and an ideal electric
(39)
load is connected to the electrodes as shown in Figure 1
Then, the connection between each piezoelectric element (b → c). In this step, part of the energy stored in the body
and a corresponding electric circuit is done by stating that the is converted into work Uconv done in the electric load. The
electric charges flowing from the piezoelectric element enter electric load could be for instance a resistance so that the
the circuit and vice-versa, such that electrical energy would be converted into heat and dissipated
in the surrounding environment. When all electrical energy is
qc = q p (40) dissipated the difference of potential between the piezoelec-
tric body electrodes should be zero. Finally, the piezoelectric
Thus, replacing qc by q p in (39) leads to the following body is short-circuited and released from its holders so that
coupled equations of motion it deforms back to its original configuration, performing a
purely mechanical work Usc . In Figure 1, Uoc , Uconv and Usc
are the areas of the triangles [abd], [abc] and [acd], respec-
Ms + M p 0 ü 0 0 u̇ tively. From this energy cycle, it is possible to define the
+
0 Lc q̈ p 0 Rc q̇ p square EMCC as the following energy conversion efficiency
K + KD −Kuq
u Fm
+ us t up = (41) Uconv Uoc −Usc
−Kuq Kq qp Vc ki2j = = (45)
Uoc Uoc
In this case, the solution for u and q p must be simulta-
neous, that is accounting for the electromechanical and cir- Notice that a similar energy conversion efficiency analysis
cuit equations of motion. Notice that the passive components could be performed with other energy cycles, for instance,
of the electric circuit Lc and Rc affect the equivalent piezo- through electrical loading and measurement of energy ratio
electric force applied to the structure when an actuator with converted into mechanical work. Notice also that the EMCC
applied voltage is considered. For a simple actuator with ap- indices i and j state for the electric field/displacement and
plied voltage, that is with only a voltage source in the circuit strain/stress components, respectively.
(Lc = Rc = 0), the second equation in (41) can be solved for
q p leading to σ3 b
++
a→b E3
q p = K−1 −1 t
q Vc + Kq Kuq u (42) ––
Uconv
which can be substituted in (41) such that it reduces to c
b→c i
D3 = 0
−1 t
(Ms + M p )ü + Kus + (KD
up − Kuq Kq Kuq ) u = Fm + F p Usc
(43) Uoc E3 = 0
d c→a
where the equivalent piezoelectric force F p applied to the a εb ε3
structure by the piezoelectric actuators is
F p = Kuq K−1
q Vc (44) Figure 1 – Energy cycle for a piezoelectric body to evaluate elec-
tromechanical conversion energy.
From equation (43), the generalized displacements u in-
duced by mechanical and piezoelectric equivalent forces can
Let us now consider equation (45) to derive the EMCC in
be evaluated. Then, the electric charges q p flowing between
terms of material properties. For linear and unidimensional
electrodes of the piezoelectric elements can be found using
(direction 3) piezoelectric constitutive equations, the internal
equation (42).
energy stored in the piezoelectric body can be written as
3. EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTIVE ELEC- 1
Z
TROMECHANICAL COUPLING COEFFICIENT U= (σ3ε3 + E3 D3 ) dΩ (46)
2 Ω
3.1. Evaluation of material EMCC Using the e-form constitutive equations, the mechanical
Probably the most interesting method to evaluate the ma- stress σ3 and electric displacement D3 can be expressed in
terial EMCC is based on a closed-loop quasi-static energy terms of the mechanical strain ε3 and electric field E3 as
cycle [48] so that the effective energy conversion from me-
chanical to electrical and vice-versa can be computed. One σ3 = c̄E33ε3 − ē33 E3
(47)
possible energy cycle is shown in Figure 1. It is obtained D3 = ē33ε3 + ¯ε33 E3
where c̄E33 , ē33 and ¯ε33 are the elastic (at constant electric body. Supposing that the displacement u3 and, consequently
field), piezoelectric and dielectric (at constant strain) con- the mechanical strain ε3 , along the x3 direction are written as
stants. One can notice that during the first (a → b) and third
(c → a) phases of the energy cycle of Figure 1, that is unidi-
mensional contraction (extension) in direction 3 with D3 = 0 u3 (x3 ,t) = φ(x3 ) cosωt ; ε3 (x3 ,t) = φ0 (x3 ) cosωt, (56)
(E3 = 0), the constitutive equations (47) can be reduced to:
the strain, as in (50) and (51), and kinetic energies of the
First phase of energy cycle (a → b)
piezoelectric body are
2 ε
σ3 = c̄D D E
33ε3 with c̄33 = c̄33 + (ē33 /¯33 ) 1
Z
(48) U= cos2 ωt c̄33φ0 (x3 )2 dΩ ;
E3 = −(ē33 /¯ε33 )ε3 and D3 = 0 2 Ω
(57)
1 2 2
Z
Third phase of energy cycle (c → a) T = ω sin ωt ρφ(x3 )2 dΩ
2 Ω
σ3 = c̄E33ε3 Recalling that, for resonant vibrations, the maximum ki-
(49) netic energy equals the maximum strain energy, and sup-
D3 = ē33ε3 and E3 = 0
posing that the vibration mode φ(x3 ) remains unchanged
Hence, the total energy stored in the piezoelectric body in for open-circuit and short-circuit conditions, the maximum
the first and third phases of the energy cycle can be evaluated strain energy in these electric conditions reads
from equations (46), (48) and (49), such that
1 1 2
Z
max
Uoc = c̄D φ0 (x3 )2 dΩ = ω T̄ ;
1 2 Ω 33 2 oc
Z
2
Uoc = c̄D
33ε3 dΩ (50) (58)
1 1 2
Z
2 Ω
Uscmax = c̄E φ0 (x3 )2 dΩ = ω T̄
2 Ω 33 2 sc
1
Z
Usc = c̄E ε2 dΩ (51) where
2 Ω 33 3 Z
T̄ = ρφ(x3 )2 dΩ (59)
Considering homogeneous deformation throughout the Ω
piezoelectric body, the square EMCC for this mode of de- max and U max can be seen
Notice that the integrals in Uoc sc
formation can be written from equations (45), (50) and (51) as the modal stiffness in open and short circuit conditions
as whereas T̄ is the modal mass. The square EMCC, for this
particular vibration mode, can then be defined as
2 c̄D E
33 − c̄33
k33 = D
(52)
c̄33 2
max −U max
Uoc sc ω2oc − ω2sc
k33 = = (60)
which, from equation (48), can be simplified to
max
Uoc ω2oc
For homogeneous properties throughout the piezoelectric
2 ē233 ē2 body, equation (60) reduces to equation (45). This analysis,
k33 = D ε
= E 33σ (53)
c̄33¯33 c̄33¯33 however, is only valid under the assumption that the electric
field E3 and displacement D3 can be set to zero throughout
A similar expression can be obtained using the formula
the piezoelectric body in short-circuit and open-circuit con-
proposed in [49] and based on the ratio between the square of
ditions, respectively.
a so-called mutual elasto-dielectric energy Um and the prod-
uct of the stored elastic Ue and dielectric Ud energies, such 3.2. Evaluation of effective EMCC
that
It is also worthwhile to evaluate the effective EMCC for
Um2 a general mechanical structure with bonded and/or embed-
2
k33 = (54) ded piezoelectric elements. In this case, the effective EMCC
UeUd
should account not only for the material EMCC of each
where the mutual, elastic and dielectric energies should be piezoelectric element but also for the mechanical coupling
defined as between the piezoelectric elements and the rest of the struc-
1
Z
1
Z ture. Indeed, a satisfactory measure of the effective square
Um = d¯33σ3 E3 dΩ ; Ue = s̄E σ 2 dΩ ; EMCC for a structure with piezoelectric elements should be
2 Ω 2 Ω 33 3
(55) the ratio of electrical energy stored in the piezoelectric ele-
1
Z
Ud = ¯σ E 2 dΩ ments to the total mechanical (strain) energy supplied to the
2 Ω 33 3
structure. However, the evaluation of such effective EMCC
Although the energy cycle (Figure 1) and the EMCC def- requires accounting for non-homogeneous properties and de-
inition (Equation (45)) are defined for quasi-static defor- formation. Hence, a general procedure based on a model of
mation, this analysis may be extended to resonant vibra- the structure with piezoelectric elements is proposed.
tions. However, in such cases, the deformation throughout Starting from the reduced equations of motion (17) and
the piezoelectric body may not be homogeneous and, thus, (19), the i-th eigenmode and eigenfrequency of the structure
both open-circuit and short-circuit energies must be evalu- with piezoelectric elements in short-circuit and open-circuit
ated through integration over the volume of the piezoelectric can be evaluated, respectively, by
h i are two main levers to maximize the effective EMCC: i) the
2
−ωisc M + (Ks + Ksc i
p ) Tsc = 0 (61) material EMCC for the main deformation mode, and ii) the
energy ratio stored in the piezoelectric element for a given
h
2
i structural eigenmode.
−ωioc M + (Ks + Koc i
p ) Toc = 0 (62)
3.3. Comparison with experimental results for a can-
where, for the sake of clarity, the matrices M, Ks , Ksc
p and tilever beam
Koc
p are defined as
A comparative analysis is performed in this subsection
M = Ms + M p ; Ks = Kus ; Ksc E for an aluminum cantilever beam with two thickness-poled
p = Kup ;
−1 t
(63) piezoelectric patches bonded symmetrically on its top and
Koc E
p = Kup + K̄uv K̄v K̄uv bottom surfaces near the clamp (Figure 2). The beam has
a length of 243.5 mm, a thickness of 2 mm and a width
Supposing that the short-circuit and open-circuit condi-
of 30 mm, and its material properties are: Young modu-
tions of the piezoelectric elements do not yield large varia-
lus 69 GPa, mass density 2790 kg m−3 and Poisson ra-
tions in the structure eigenmodes (Tisc = Tioc = Ti ), which
tio 0.3. The piezoelectric patches are identical and made
should be valid for relatively small piezoelectric elements,
of a PIC255 piezoceramic with thickness 0.25 mm, width
and for mass-normalized eigenmodes, the i-th short-circuit
20 mm, length 25 mm, mass density 7800 kg m−3 , equiv-
and open-circuit eigenfrequencies can be written as
alent SC Young modulus 62.1 GPa, equivalent piezoelec-
2 tric coefficient e31 = 11.2 C m−2 and dielectric coefficient
ωisc = Tti (Ks + Ksc
p )Ti (64)
σ33 = 15.5 nF m−1 . These data were adapted from [51]. No-
and tice, however, that the piezoceramics width was considered
2
ωioc = Tti (Ks + Koc
p )Ti (65) equal to that of the beam (30 mm) in the calculations using
the present beam model.
Therefore, the effective square EMCC for the structure
with piezoelectric elements, vibrating in the i-th mode, can
PIC255 Piezoceramic
be defined as 0.25
Aluminum 2.00
PIC255 Piezoceramic 0.25
2 2 17 25
ωioc − ωisc Tti (Koc sc
p − K p )Ti
243.50
Ki2 = = t (66)
ωioc 2 Ti (Ks + Koc
p )Ti
4 4 4
2 2 2
2 2 2
0 0 0
0 100 200 0 100 200 0 100 200
PZT length (mm) PZT length (mm) PZT length (mm) 0 0 0
0 10 20 0 10 20 0 10 20
PZT segments PZT segments PZT segments
Square EMCC M7 (%)
4 4 4
Square EMCC M4 (%)
2 2 2
2 2 2
0 0 0
0 100 200 0 100 200 0 100 200
PZT length (mm) PZT length (mm) PZT length (mm) 0 0 0
0 10 20 0 10 20 0 10 20
PZT segments PZT segments PZT segments
two models since the effect of charge cancelation is smaller. 0.2 0.2
This effect was also suggested more than sixty years ago by 0
30
0
30
0.4 0.4
sandwich beam with several shear piezoelectric patches em-
0.2 0.2
bedded in the beam’s core in order to maximize some se- 0 0
30 30
lected modal effective EMCC. For that, let us consider the 25 25
20 20
sandwich beam shown in Figure 5. It consists of two alu- 15
15
10
5
15
15
10
5
10 10
minum faces, for which the properties are: Young modulus Spacing (mm) 5 25
20
Length (mm) Spacing (mm) 5 25
20
Length (mm)
69 GPa and mass density 2690 kg m−3 , and a rigid foam core,
0.8 0.8
Square EMCC M4 (%)
σ11 = 15.5 nF m−1 . The width of all layers was considered Figure 6 – Average and modal square EMCC for the sandwich
to be equal to 25 mm. beam for varying patches spacing and length.
0.8 0.8
107, 129, 155, 174, 201] mm. The effective square EMCC
0.6 0.6
Feedback), to evaluate the voltage to be applied to piezoelec-
0.4 0.4
tric actuators, using both extension and shear mechanisms,
0.2 0.2
are presented. For that, two active damped cantilever beams
0 0 were considered and are shown in Figure 9. They were con-
30 30
20 0.8 20 0.8
structed using aluminum sheets with length 280 mm, width
0.6 0.6
Spacing (mm)
10
0.2
0.4
Spacing (mm)
10
0.2
0.4 25 mm and thickness 3 mm.
Thickness (mm) Thickness (mm)
The actively damped beam (Figure 9a), named Extension
Figure 7 – Average and modal square EMCC for the sandwich Active (EA), was obtained by bonding a transversely poled,
beam for varying patches spacing and thickness. or extension, PIC151 piezoceramic patch (PI Ceramic) on
one of the surfaces of the beam using an epoxy-based glue
(Araldite) cured at 60o C. The piezoceramic patch has length
25 mm, width 25 mm and thickness 0.5 mm and was bonded
at 70 mm of the aluminum sheet left end. The beam with
Figure 8 – Optimal design to maximize the average effective bonded piezoceramic patch is then clamped, using two bolted
square EMCC for the sandwich beam. thick steel plates fixed to a heavy concrete block, such that
the cantilever section is 220 mm long and the piezoceramic
patch is located at 10 mm of the clamp, as shown in Fig-
tioning of each piezoelectric patch. Hence, the parameters ure 9a. Another configuration, shown in Figure 9b and
d and e appearing in Figure 5 are now relaxed so that the named Shear Active-Passive (SAP), is a sandwich construc-
spacing between patches and between the first patch and the tion with two 3 mm aluminum facings. The sandwich core is
clamped end are considered as design parameters. Also, a composed of a longitudinally poled, or shear, PIC255 piezo-
larger number of piezoelectric patches is allowed, so that it ceramic patch (PI Ceramic) and two layers of a viscoelastic
should be possible to better fill the sandwich beam core with double coated polyethylene foam tape (3M 4494), as shown
active materials. In addition to the spacing between patches, in Figure 9d. The foam tape has thickness 1 mm and width
the rigid foam shear modulus and piezoelectric patches thick- 25 mm. The piezoceramic patch is 0.5 mm thick but this
ness and length are considered as design parameters. For the thickness increases to approximately 0.8 mm after cabling
sake of simplicity, however, the length a is considered equal of the top and bottom electrodes. The shear piezoceramic
for all piezoelectric patches. Other geometric properties, ac- patch was bonded to the top and bottom aluminum facings
cording to Figure 5, are fixed at L = 220 mm and H = 3 mm. with Araldite cured at 60o C. To withstand the large clamping
Material properties of the two aluminum faces are fixed at force of the bolts, a 1 mm aluminum sheet was used for the
Young modulus 69 GPa and mass density 2690 kg m−3 . 60 mm long clamped section core. The experimental designs
The optimization was performed using a genetic algo- are depicted in Figure 10.
rithm search method, with a population size of 180 individ- A general schematic representation and picture of the ex-
uals evolving for 40 generations. During each generation, perimental setup are depicted in Figure 11. An accelerom-
25 individuals suffer mutations in all of its properties and eter (Brüel&Kjær 4375) was considered for both measure-
7 arithmetic crossovers between two randomly selected in- ment and observation of the structural response and feedback
dividuals are performed. The performance index is defined control. Its placement was optimized to provide a satisfac-
as the average square EMCC for the first six bending eigen- tory reading of the structural response and to improve the
modes. Figure 8 presents the optimal design obtained at the active control performance of each configuration (Figure 9).
end of 40 generations. Its parameters are 0.4 MPa for the The accelerometer output is passed through a signal condi-
foam shear modulus, 1 mm thickness and 5 mm length for tioner (Brüel&Kjær 2626) before acquisition. The structure
the piezoelectric patches, and the following positions for the is both excited and controlled using the piezoceramic patch,
(a) Extension Active (EA)
Piezoceramic Accelerometer
0.5
Aluminum 3.0
10 25 PA SC
160
220
ADC DAC
dSPACE Control Desk dSPACE CLP
(b) Shear Active-Passive (SAP) SIMULINK/MATLAB
Accelerometer
Piezoceramic Foam Aluminum 3.0
1.0
Aluminum 3.0 PZT Accelerometer
10 25
130
220
The Simulink model used for the signal processing and Acceleration Velocity Control
voltage
Total
voltage
verse velocity measurement at the accelerometer location; 2) Delay Chirp Chirp gain
where the control gain can be chosen afterwards, followed by Figure 12 – Simulink model used for signal processing and feed-
a controlled saturation to avoid uncontrolled saturation of the back control voltage evaluation.
combined voltage signals at the dSPACE connector panel;
3) setup of the excitation voltage signal to be applied to the
piezoceramic patch, for which a chirp signal was used; and Using the compiled model uploaded in the dSPACE con-
4) output of combined voltage signals, to be applied to the trolled board, a series of measurements were performed for
piezoceramic patch, to the dSPACE connector panel. Some each design configuration to determine satisfactory parame-
issues regarding the Simulink model deserve discussion. In ters of the data acquisition, signal processing, accelerometer
particular, the high-pass filtering of the accelerometer signal location and piezoceramic patches control gains. To qual-
ify the measurements and the damping performance, the fre- Some damping performance analyses based on the FRFs
quency response function (FRF) between the chirp excita- obtained for each configuration design and for four selected
tion voltage and the transverse velocity at the accelerometer control gains are now presented. In particular, Figures 13
location was evaluated. For that, a routine was developed in and 14 show the FRF for the two cantilever beams: EA and
MATLAB to process data recorded by the dSPACE interface. SAP, respectively. Figure 13 shows that the velocity feed-
It consists mainly of evaluating and plotting the FRF for each back control law may yield a significant decrease in the re-
run, recording N selected satisfactory FRFs, and evaluating, sponse amplitude at the first and second eigenfrequencies.
plotting and recording the average FRF. In this work, N = 20 However, the same performance is not observed at the other
selected FRFs were used to evaluate the average FRF. A FRF eigenfrequencies. In fact, the amplitude at the fifth eigenfre-
estimator equal to the cross-spectrum, between input (chirp quency increases with the control gain magnitude. This was
voltage) and output (velocity), divided by the autospectrum expected and it is a known downside of such a simple control
of the input was considered. The input and output spectra law. It may be easier however to analyze the damping per-
were obtained using the fast fourier transform algorithm of formance of this active damping treatment through the modal
MATLAB. damping factors for each control gain. They are shown in Ta-
ble 3 for the first five bending modes of the EA damped can-
−40 tilever beam. Notice that the beam without active damping
−50
is represented by k0 = 0, that is with zero control voltage.
In this case, the piezoceramic patch acts only as additional
−60
mass and stiffness to the beam and, thus, should not improve
−70 modal damping. Hence, as expected, very low damping fac-
Velocity/Voltage (m/s/V, dB)
−80 tors (less than 0.4%) were measured for the zero control gain
−90
and are attributed mainly to the material damping of the alu-
minum beam. This case may therefore be used as a refer-
−100
ence for the non-treated cantilever beam. As observed in
−110 Figure 13, the first and second modes damping factors are
−120 significantly increased by the feedback controller, while the
fifth mode damping factor has a small overall decrease for the
−130 k0
k1 larger control gain. Notice that, as it is well-known for direct
−140 k2 velocity feedback controllers, this damping performance is
k3
−150 2 3
valid only for this selected position of the accelerometer, at
10 10
Frequency (Hz) 160 mm from the clamp, for which the controller clearly pri-
oritizes the first vibration mode.
Figure 13 – FRF for the EA damped cantilever beam with ac-
celerometer at 160 mm from clamped end for various control Table 2 – Damping factors (%) for the first five bending modes
gains: k0 = 0, k1 = −2 kVs/m, k2 = −6 kVs/m, k3 = −10 kVs/m. of EA and SAP damped beams with various control gains
(kVs/m).
Gain M1 M2 M3 M4 M5
k0 = 0 0.39 0.17 0.16 0.25 0.25
−70
EA k1 = −2 4.12 1.29 0.21 0.63 0.32
k2 = −6 10.9 3.83 0.27 1.20 0.27
−80
k3 = −10 14.9 6.99 0.33 1.71 0.22
k0 = 0 3.49 1.85 0.90 0.98 1.25
−90
SAP k1 = −10 5.75 5.22 1.84 1.39 1.18
Velocity/Voltage (m/s/V, dB)
−100
k2 = −25 8.17 11.3 4.09 1.90 1.13
k3 = −40 10.8 18.7 9.91 2.41 1.02
−110
where
0.5
G(ω) = c −ω2 M + Kus + KD
Piezoelétrico Aluminio 3.0
up
−1 10 25
220
−Kuq (−ω2 Lc + jωRc + Kq )−1 Ktuq b (73)
Figure 15 – Cantilever beam with a bonded extension piezoelec-
Notice that the resistance and inductance of the electric tric patch connected to a resistive-inductive shunt circuit.
circuits lead to a modification of the dynamic stiffness of
the piezoelectric elements. The short-circuited and open-
circuited cases can be represented by considering Lc = Rc = Figure 16a shows the frequency response function of
0 and Rc → ∞, respectively. In these cases, the frequency the cantilever beam, zoomed around the first resonance fre-
response function reduces to quency, for four circuit conditions: open-circuit (Rc → ∞,
solid), short-circuit (Rc = Lc = 0, long dash), resistive (Rc =
9223 Ω, Lc = 0, short dash) and resistive-inductive or reso-
−1 t −1
G(ω) = c −ω2 M + Kus + KD
up − Kuq Kq Kuq b (74) nant (Rc = 3452 Ω, Lc = 691 H, dash-dot). The resistance
30 shows the frequency response function, zoomed around the
second resonance frequency, where one may observe that the
25
resistive circuit yields some amplitude reduction for the sec-
ond resonance also while the resonant circuit does not affect
Velocidade na ponta (m/s/N, dB)
20
the second resonance, which keeps its open-circuit condition.
15
0
Steel 5.0 mm
PZT-5H PZT-5H PZT-5H Rigid Foam 0.5 mm
Steel 5.0 mm
−5 d L e L e L
320 325 330 335 340 345 350
Frequência (Hz) (b) 100 mm
with the first patch d = 3 mm distant from the clamp. How- optimal electric resistance of the corresponding shunt cir-
ever, average damping factors around 1.5% can be observed cuits. This fact can also be observed from Figure 18 and
throughout the ranges d = 3 − 7 mm and e = 11 − 14 mm. Table 3. In particular, Table 3 presents also the loss factor
For the optimal configuration, the average damping factor is of each shunted piezoelectric patch when excited at the sec-
1.54%, while the individual modal damping factors for the ond to fifth eigenfrequencies and Figure 18 shows these loss
third, fourth and fifth modes are, respectively, 0.94%, 1.87% factors as functions of frequency. It can be observed that, as
and 1.80%. This damping performance was obtained by tun- expected, the maximum loss factor (30.86%) for each patch
ing the piezoelectric patches P1, P2 and P3 to the 5th, 4th is obtained at its corresponding tuned eigenfrequency. How-
and 3rd eigenmodes, respectively. ever, significant loss factor values are maintained at the other
Table 3 shows the breakdown of the modal damping fac- eigenfrequencies. In particular, a minimum loss factor of al-
tors with individual contributions from each piezoelectric most 21% is obtained at the 3rd, 4th and 5th eigenfrequencies
patch to each eigenmode. It can be observed that although for all patches. Even at the second eigenfrequency, which
each patch was tuned to only one eigenmode, all patches was not included in the tuning procedure, loss factors up to
contribute to all eigenmodes, including the 2nd eigenmode 20% are obtained for the third patch.
which was not included in the tuning. As expected, the
largest contributions for the fifth and fourth eigenmodes 20
Rsc
damping were produced by their assigned patches, P1 and Rop
P2, respectively. However, the same behavior was not ob- 0 Roc
served for the third eigenmode, for which the smaller con-
tribution comes from its assigned patch P3. This can be ex- −20
Tip velocity (m/s/N, dB)
plained by the fact that the third eigenmode was the last one
to have a patch assigned to it, due to its overall smaller damp- −40
ing, and thus it was assigned to the last patch available (P3).
−60
35
ω4
R3op = 436.06 Ω −80
R4op = 265.09 Ω ω3 → ↓ ← ω5
30 R5op = 170.84 Ω
−100
25
−120
Damping factor (%)
−80
15
−100
10
−120 5
−140 0
−5
−160
2
10
3
10 −10
35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75
Frequência (Hz) (a) Frequência (Hz) (a)
−35 15
−40
−45
Velocidade na ponta (m/s/V, dB)
−55
−60
5
−65
−70
−75
0
−80
−85
−90
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 −5
Frequência (Hz) 320 325 330 335 340 345 350
(b) Frequência (Hz) (b)
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