BIO 160 LEC UNIT I REVIEWER History

 Draws upon need to control pests in agriculture,

Ecology
disease spread in humans
 oikos: household/ home/ place to live
 Wildlife and fisheries management and harvesting
 logos: study
 Human population change- demography, important
 Term promulgated by Ernst Haeckel (oekologie) in
in insurance and government (ex. High COVID-19
1869 and used by Drawing shortly thereafter
cases in Italy due to older population)
Introduction to Ecology  Mathematics and Computers- Equations describing
 Greek words: ‘Oikos’ meaning house, habitat or systems and simulations
place of living and ‘Logos’ meaning to study
 Ecology is defined as the study of interrelationship Ecology: a multidisciplinary science
of different organisms with each other and with
their environment. It is concerned with the general
principles that apply to both animals and plants.

Definition(s)
 Krebs (1972): Ecology is the scientific study of the
processes regulating the distribution and abundance
of organisms and the interactions among them, and
the study of how these organisms in turn mediate
the transport and transformation of energy and
matter in the biosphere (i.e., the study of the design
of ecosystem structure and function).
 By ecology, we mean the body of knowledge
concerning the economy of nature – the
investigation of the total relations of the animal both
to its organic and to its inorganic environment;
including above all, its relationship with those
animals and plants with which it comes directly or
indirectly into contact – in a word, ecology is the
study of all complex interrelationships referred to
by Darwin as the conditions of the struggle for
existence (natural selection) (Haeckel, 1870).
 Parallel to economy (Haeckel) = management of the
household many principles in common – resources
allocation, cost-benefit ratios
 Burdon-Sanderson (1890s): Elevated Ecology to
one of the three natural divisions of Biology:
Physiology – Morphology – Ecology
 Andrewartha (1961): “The scientific study of the
distribution and abundance of organisms.”
 Odum (1963): “The structure and function of
Nature.”
*adapted from Elements of Ecology, R.L. Smith and T.M.
Smith, 4th Ed.
Branches
 Autecology = study of an individual organism/
species in relation to its environment and to other
species
o Before you can describe and ecosystem,
you must study the cause & effect
interactions between species.
 Synecology = study of a community of organisms
o Only when you understand key interactions
of an area, can you ever really describe an
ecosystem: the discipline of synecology
(community ecology)
Classification of Ecology
Based on Study Area
 Autecology: deals with the study of an individual
species of organisms and its population
o Ecologists study the behavior and
adaptations of particular species to the
environmental condition at every stage of
that individual’s life cycle.
o Also called Species ecology
  Synecology: deals with the study of communities, o What are the best policies for managing our
their composition, their behavior, and relation with environmental support systems- our
the environment. watersheds, agricultural lands, wetlands?
o Also called ecology of communities o We must apply ecological principles to:
o Further divided into 3 types:  Solve or prevent environmental
1) Population ecology problems
2) Community ecology  Inform our economic, political,
3) Ecosystem ecology and social sectors on how to
manage environmental concerns
Objectives of Ecological Studies
 It is important for humanity to understand its Ecology and Environmentalism
environment because we have the ability to modify  Ecology provides the science behind many
the environment through the use of technology, and questions related to human impacts on the
through overexploitation of natural resources (ex. environment, but it is not the same as
severe logging, mining, etc.) as a result of greed or environmentalism
sheer pressure numbers. Therefore, ecology is more  Ecology is a science
than just the understanding of the interrelationships o Seeking understanding of effects of
between organisms and their environment; it also  Organisms on environment
has social, political, economic, and technological  Environment on organisms
dimensions.  Environmentalism is a social & political
 It also is a study of evolutionary development of movement concerned with the quality of the human
organisms, the biological productivity and energy environment (advocacy).
flow in the natural system.
 To develop mathematical models to relate Classification of Ecology
interaction of parameters and to predict the effects. Based on Environment or habitat
1. Aquatic ecology: the study of interaction of
Why Study Ecology? organisms in the water
 Curiosity- How does the world around us work? a. Marine water ecology
How are we shaped by our surroundings? i. Ocean
 Responsibility- How do our actions change our ii. Deep Sea
environment? How do we minimize the detrimental iii. Estuary
effects of our actions? Overfishing, habitat b. Freshwater ecology
destruction, loss of biodiversity, climate change. i. Lotic (running water)
 Nature as a guide- The living world has been 1. River
around much longer than we have and has evolved 2. Stream
many problems with creative solutions, ecological 3. Spring
systems are models for sustainability. How can we ii. Lentic (standing water)
feed our growing population? Where will we live? 1. Pond
 Sustainability- as a property of human society in 2. Lake
which ecosystems (including humans) are managed 2. Terrestrial ecology: the study of interaction of
such that the conditions supporting present day life organisms on land:
on earth can continue. a. Grassland ecology
b. Forest ecology
Ecology helps us understand complex problems. c. Desert ecology

Ecology- A Science for today Based on Advancement in the field of ecology

 Goal of ecology- to understand the principles of a. Productive ecology
operation of natural systems and to predict their b. Population ecology
responses to change. c. Community ecology
 We have a great need for ecological understanding: d. Ecosystem ecology
e. Microbial ecology
 f. Radiation ecology o At the ecosystem level, how does energy
g. Pollution ecology move around?
h. Space ecology  Move on to nutrients
o How does nutrient availability limit
organism growth?
o On an ecosystem and global scale, how do
organisms fit in to global nutrient cycles?
 Then focus on populations and communities
o Numerical models of the growth of
individual populations
o Then apply these to model competition
between populations for the same resources
o Metrics of species diversity and responses
of communities to changes
Perspectives of Ecologists: Organism Approach
 How do form, physiology, and behavior lead to
survival?
 Focus is on adaptations, modifications of structure
and function, that suit the organism for life in its
environment:
o Adaptations result from evolutionary
change by natural selection, a natural link
to population approach

Perspectives of Ecologists: Population Approach

 What determines the numbers of individuals and
their variations in time and space?
 Focus is on processes of birth and death,
immigration, and emigration, influenced by:
o Physical environment
o Evolutionary processes
o Interactions with other populations, a
natural link to community approach

Perspectives of Ecologists: Community Approach

 How are communities structured from their
component populations?
 Focus is on the diversity and relative abundance of
different kinds of organisms living together,
affected by:
o Population interactions, promoting and
limiting coexistence
o Feeding relationships, responsible for
fluxes of energy and materials, a natural
link to ecosystem approach

How will we learn about ecology?

 Start with energy flows
o At the individual level, how do organisms
“make a living”?
Other branches:
 Ecophysiology examines how the physiological
functions of organisms influence the way they
interact with the government, both biotic and
abiotic.
 Ecomechanics uses physics and engineering
principles to examine the interaction of organisms
with their environment and with other species.
 Behavioral ecology examines the roles of behavior
in enabling an animal to adapt to its environment
 Systems ecology is an interdisciplinary field
focusing on the study, development, and
organization of ecological systems from a holistic
perspective.
 Evolutionary ecology studies ecology in a way that
explicitly considers the evolutionary histories and
their interactions.
 Political ecology connects politics and economy to
problems of environmental control and ecological
change.
 According to the species/fields of interest

Ecosystem
 The term Ecosystem was first proposed by A.G.
Tansley in 1935.
 He defined it as “the system resulting from the
interaction of all the living and nonliving factors of
the Environment.”
 An ecosystem consists of the biological community
that occurs in some locale, and the physical and
chemical factors that make up its non-living or
abiotic environment. There are many examples of
ecosystems- a pond, a forest, an estuary, a grassland
 1. Ecological Niche – the range of conditions to which a
species is adapted.
2. Because of the differences in the environmental
conditions encountered by organisms, different species
will evolve different adaptations.
3. Depending on their evolutionary history, different
species will show different tolerance ranges for various
environmental conditions

Coexistence of Species
- Species are adapted to different conditions
- Organisms are found in different niches
- There is no single species that dominates everywhere
because of the variable conditions in different places

A. Fundamental Niche
- Range of conditions to which a species is adapted
B. Realized Niche
- Range of conditions actually occupied by a species
- Often smaller that fundamental niche
- Organisms can tolerate extremes of their tolerances, but
they become inferior competitors

Three Components of the Abiotic Portion of the

Ecosystem
1. Inorganic Substances
- carbon, nitrogen, water, and so on
- involved in the material cycles of the ecosystem
2. Organic Substances
- carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, humic substances and
so on
- link abiotic with biotic
3. Climate Regime
- temperature and other factors that delimit the
conditions of existence
Effect of Abiotic Factors
1. Abiotic factors limit the distribution of all organisms.
2. Each organism is governed by a range of conditions that
influences its survival.
3. Conditions outside this range can spell death for the
organism

Range of Conditions Survived by Organisms

a. Arctic and Antarctic (Temperature <—40˚C)
b. Deserts and Tropics (Temperature >+40˚C)
c. Extreme conditions in thermal vents have been found to
support extensive biological communities
- water temperature 400˚C
- extreme pressure prevents boiling of water
- no light
Niche
Limiting Factors
-Define the variability of life
-When one limiting factor extends beyond the tolerance
range of an organism, stress occurs
-Each factor that is necessary for survival should fall within
ideal range
Zones of Stress – represent the range of values that are
above or below the ideal but not outside the range allowing
survival
Limits of Tolerance – upper and lower limit of a factor
beyonf which the organism cannot survive
Range of Tolerance - range of values that includes the zones
of stress and the optimum values. These values do not
include the upper or lower limits beyond which the organism
cannot survive.
The Law of Limiting Factors – quantities of any single
factor above or below optimum levels necessary for organism Heat-Shock Proteins (Hsps)
growth, reproduction, or survival will limit growth, -Overheating in animals living in hot deserts can lead to
reproduction, or survival denaturation of enzymes and other essential proteins.
-Exposure to abnormally high temperatures triggers elevated
levels of Hsps in the cells.
-Hsps act as chaperone proteins that ’rescue’ proteins shoes
tertiary structure has been disrupted by overheating.
-Chaperone proteins bind to denatured regions of a protein
and change the misfolded structure to return to the correct
three-dimensional structure.

Temperature
Effects on Organisms * psychrophilic bacteria = cold loving

1. Most organisms perform best within a narrow range of High temprerature causes cell membranes to leak and
temperatures. enzymes to stop working
2. Organisms have evolved ways to compensate for
variations in environmental temperature by regulating
their body temperature.
3. Other organisms survive extreme temperatures by
entering a resting stage.
 Desert Plants
- Decrease heating by conduction; leaves far enough above
ground.
- Increase rates of convective cooling: small leaves.
- Reduce rates of radiative healing: orient leaves parallel to
sunlight, reflective leaves.

Since Dipsosaurus has enzymes that are stable even at

high Tb it needs to expend less energy for thermoregulation

Regulating Body Temperature: Heat Transmittance

Acclimation – involves physiological, not genetic changes in

response to temperature; generally reversible with changes in
environmental conditions.
Metabolic Heat – energy released by an organism during the
process of cellular respiration.
Conduction – movement of heat between objects in physical
contact.
Convection – process of heat flow between a solid body and a
moving fluid/wind.
Radiation – heat transfer through electromagnetic radiation.
Evaporation – heat loss by an organism.

Arctic and Alpine Plants

- Increase rate of radiative heating; leaves absorb light,
oriented perpendicular to sun’s rays, “cushion growth”
- Decrease rate of convective cooling: compact,
hemispherical growth from (decrease exposure to surface
wind)
- Many evolved to do both; can heat up to temperatures
above that of air.

Sun-tracking behavior of Dryas

-Air temperature at 15˚C
Temperature Regulation by Plants -Flower temperature at 25 ˚C
-Basking insect temperature at 25 ˚C
-Sun tracking by Dryas flowers keep flowers facing the sun Heat Exchange with the Environment in a Terrestrial
for several hours each day Reptile on a Hot Sunny Day
-Sunlight reflected inward by parabolic shaped flowers heats
interior

Temperature Regulation in Animals

 Poikilotherms:
- Cold-blooded
- Temperature varies directly with environment
 Ectotherms:
- Rely mainly on external sources
 Homeotherms:
- Warm-blooded
- Endotherms that use metabolic energy to maintain a
constant body temperature
 Endotherms:
- Rely heavily on internal metabolic heat energy
 Heterotherms:
- May regulate by endothermy/ectothermy

Temperature and Pigmentation

Costs and Benefits of Homeothermy Balancing Heat Gain Against Heat
Costs:
- Increased energy requirements
- Increased susceptibility to thermal stress
Benefits:
- Ability to be active in otherwise inhospitable
environments
- Freedom from dependence on sunlight to regulate
body temperature
- Increased ability to sustain a high level of activity

*decreased heart rate, shivering suppressed, respiration

rate reduces, oxygen consumption reduced, vasoconstriction
of periphery

The operation of the nasal counter-current heat exchanger.

Temperatures (˚C) within the dog’s nasal passages and at the
mucosa during inhalation and exhalation indicate the
conversation of heat when the mouth is closed. The small
arrows show the direction of heat transfer from the mucosa
to the air on inhalation (a) and in the reverse direction at
exhalation (b)
Bypass of the dog’s nasal counter-current heat exchanger by
opening the mouth, an indication of how heat loss is
enhanced.

Behavioral Thermoregulatory Strategies


Light as an Abiotic Factor
- Solar spectrum – made up of short-wave radiation, light,
and long wave radiation; short wave radiation are
cosmic rays, X-rays, and ultraviolet rays, which have
wavelengths shorter than 0.4mm.
- Ultraviolet radiation: absorbed by ozone layer, only a
small fraction reaches the earth’s surface;
3 types: uv-C, uv-B, and uv-A
- Light has wavelengths of 0.4 to 0.7 mm and it is called
photosynthetically active radiation (PAR). The
infrared rays have longer wavelengths, longer than
0.74mm.
- Electromagnetic spectrum of solar radiation:
*Note:
Of the total range of solar radiation coming into the earth’s
atmosphere, the wavelengths of approximately 400 to 700
nm (1nanometer=1 billionth of a meter) constitute the
visible light. These wavelengths are also known as
photosynthetically active radiation since they refer to the
wavelengths that plants use as a source of energy for
photosynthesis.
 
Wavelengths shorter that the visible range are ultraviolet
(UV) light of which there are two types, namely UV-A with
wavelengths from 315-380 and UV-B with wavelengths
from 280 to 315 nm.
Wavelengths longer that the visible range is called infrared
radiation. Near infra-red radiation refers to wavelengths of
approximately 740 to 4000 nm while far infra-red or thermal
radiation includes wavelengths from 4000 to 100,000 nm.
Effect of Light on Plants
● Phenology – timing of seasonal activities of plant in
relation to changes in environmental condition.
● Sciophytes – shade-loving or photophobic plants,
which have best growth under low intensities of
light.
Examples: beech, spruce, firs.
● Heliophytes or photophilous plants – best grow in
full sunlight.
Examples: pine, willows, and birch.
● Photoperiodism – actual duration or length of the
day (photoperiod) is a significant factor in the
growth and flowering of a wide variety of plants.
In this basis, angiosperms are divided into 3
categories:
o Long day plants bloom when light duration
is more than 12hrs per day.
Examples: beet roots, carrot, oats, and rye.
o Short day plants bloom when light duration
is less than 12hrs per day.
Examples: tobacco, dahlia, hemp, and
cosmos.
o Day neutral plants show little response to
the length of daylight.
Examples: Cucumber, cotton, and potato.
● Heliotropism or phototropism – effect on
movement in some plants.
*Note:
Phenology is the study of periodic plant and animal life
cycle events and how these are influenced by seasonal and
interannual variations in climate, as well as habitat factors
(such as elevation). 
The word, coined by the Belgian botanist Charles Morren in
1849, is derived from the Greek φαίνω (phainō), "to show,
to bring to light, make to appear" + λόγος (logos), amongst
others "study, discourse, reasoning" and indicates that
phenology has been principally concerned with the dates of
first occurrence of biological events in their annual cycle. 
Examples include the date of emergence of leaves and
flowers, the first flight of butterflies and the first appearance
of migratory birds, the date of leaf coloring and fall in
deciduous trees, the dates of egg-laying of birds and
amphibia, or the timing of the developmental cycles
of temperate-zone honey bee colonies. In the scientific
literature on ecology, the term is used more generally to
indicate the time frame for any seasonal biological
phenomena, including the dates of last appearance (e.g., the
seasonal phenology of a species may be from April through
September).
Photoperiodism is the physiological reaction of organisms
to the length of night or a dark period. It occurs in plants and
animals. Photoperiodism can also be defined as the
developmental responses of plants to the relative lengths of
light and dark periods.
Phototropism is the growth of an organism in response to a
light stimulus. Phototropism is most often observed
in plants, but can also occur in other organisms such
as fungi. The cells on the plant that are farthest from the
light have a chemical called auxin that reacts when
phototropism occurs. This causes the plant to have elongated
cells on the furthest side from the light. Phototropism is one
of the many plant-tropisms or movements which respond to
external stimuli. Growth towards a light source is called
positive phototropism, while growth away from light is
called negative phototropism (skototropism). Most plant
shoots exhibit positive phototropism and rearrange their
chloroplasts in the leaves to maximize photosynthetic energy
and promote growth. Some vine shoot tips exhibit negative
phototropism, which allows them to grow towards dark,
solid objects and climb them. The combination of
phototropism and gravitropism allow plants to grow in the
correct direction.
Heliotropism, a form of tropism, is the diurnal motion or
seasonal motion of plant parts (flowers or leaves) in
response to the direction of the sun The habit of some plants
to move in the direction of the sun, a form of tropism, was
already known by the Ancient Greeks. They named one of
those plants after that property Heliotropium, meaning sun
turn. The Greeks assumed it to be a passive effect,
presumably the loss of fluid on the illuminated side, that did
not need further study. Aristotle's logic that plants are
passive and immobile organisms prevailed. In the 19th
century, however, botanists discovered that growth
processes in the plant were involved and conducted
increasingly ingenious experiments. A. P. de Candolle called
this phenomenon in any plant heliotropism (1832).
It was renamed phototropism in 1892, because it is a
response to light rather than to the sun, and because the
phototropism of algae in lab studies at that time strongly
depended on the brightness (positive phototropic for weak
light, and negative phototropic for bright light, like
sunlight).  A botanist studying this subject in the lab, at the
cellular and subcellular level, or using artificial light, is
more likely to employ the more abstract word phototropism.
The French scientist Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan was
one of the first to study heliotropism when he experimented
with the Mimosa pudica plant.
Light promotes the growth in most of the plants by
promoting the development of chlorophyll, photosynthesis,
synthesis of growth hormone and stomatal opening.
Competition, shade tolerance for plants.
*In the forest, tall trees get much of the light and those
underneath are shade tolerant plants.
Effect of Light on Animals
● Color – differentiate light colors; well-marked in
fish, birds, and primates due to the presence of
cones in the retina of the eye.
● Pigmentation – light intensity induces chemical
changes leading to pigment formation in the cells.
Cave animals lack skin pigments. If they are kept
out of darkness, they regain skin pigmentation.
Tanning occurs in human beings in response to
prolonged exposures to bring sunlight.
● Bird Migration – in the northern hemisphere, birds
migrate towards the north during spring (increasing
photoperiod) and towards the south during autumn
(decreasing photoperiod). It also controls the
migration of fishes like eels and salmon.
*Note:
Biological pigments, also known simply
as pigments or biochromes, are substances produced by
living organisms that have a color resulting from
selective color absorption. Biological pigments
include plant pigments and flower pigments. Many
biological structures, such
as skin, eyes, feathers, fur and hair contain pigments such
as melanin in specialized cells called chromatophores. In
some species, pigments accrue over very long periods during
an individual's lifespan.
Pigment color differs from structural color in that it is the
same for all viewing angles, whereas structural color is the
result of selective reflection or iridescence, usually because
of multilayer structures. For example, butterfly wings
typically contain structural color, although many butterflies
have cells that contain pigment as well.
Effect of Light on Aquatic Life
 Photoperiod
Effect on Reproductive Activities
- Breeding behavior of insects, certain birds, and
mammals.
For example, in some birds, gonads become active
during summer. Starlings breed in spring (longer
photoperiod) while deer breed in autumn
(decreasing photoperiod).
Effect on Development
- Light in some cases, for example in Salmon larvae,
accelerates development where as in Mytilus larvae
it retards it.
Metabolism
- Light increases the enzymatic activities and general
metabolic rate. It also increases photo-oxidation and
respiration rates. Animals found in caves have low
rate of metabolism.
Locomotion
- The regulation of speed of locomotion by light is
called photokinesis.
For example, blind larvae of mussel crab move faster in light
intensities.
- The orientation of animals during locomotion in
response to light is called phototaxis.
For example, Euglena is positively phototactic
while earthworms, slugs are negatively phototactic.

Abiotic Factor: Wind

- Exacerbates the effects of temperature and water
loss.
- Also exerts forces on organisms (waves act in the
summer)

*Note:
The vertical zonation in the aquatic environment is
determined by light. The photic zone is the layer where light
can penetrate and therefore is able to support photosynthetic
organisms. The aphotic zone is beyond the depth to which
light can penetrate and therefore is unable to support
photosynthetic organisms.

Biological Rhythm Based on Light

Circadian Rhythm
 Operating on a 24-hour day – night cycle of the
earth’s rotation. The simplest form of this is the
alternating periods of activity and sleep which
correlate with dark and light cycle.
In this cycle, some animals remain most active at sunrise
and sunset times. Such animals are known as crepuscular;
some animals are active during the night (nocturnal), but
most animals are active during the daytime and called as
diurnal.
Prevailing Wind Patterns Set Ocean Currents in Motion
- The patterns of wind flow. Land masses can
interrupt these patterns at a local or regional level.
- Ocean Currents are created by the flow of winds
and cause great patterns of circular flow in the
oceans. The Gulf Stream is one such current.
Without the heat in this mass of water, the climate
of northern Europe would be much cooler. This
would alter the biological communities found there.

*Note:
There is a special mention of the Gulf Stream in this slide.
The Gulf Stream is a strong ocean current that brings warm
water from the Gulf of Mexico into the Atlantic Ocean. It
extends all the way up the eastern coast of the United States
and Canada. If the Gulf Stream stops (God forbid)
water would push back toward the U.S. In the long term,
that would disrupt agriculture in those areas, drowning the
economies that rely on growing and distributing crops.
*Note:
Atmospheric circulation is the large-scale movement of air
and together with ocean circulation is the means by which
thermal energy is redistributed on the surface of the Earth.
The Earth's atmospheric circulation varies from year to year,
but the large-scale structure of its circulation remains fairly
constant.
The Earth contains five major wind zones: polar easterlies,
westerlies, horse latitudes, trade winds, and the doldrums.

*Solar-driven air circulation


*Latitude and Atmospheric Circulation
*Note:
The circulation of wind in the atmosphere is driven by the
rotation of the Earth and the incoming energy from the sun.
Wind circulates in each hemisphere in three distinct cells
which help transport energy and heat from the equator to the
poles.
Coriolis Effect
An island's windward side faces the prevailing, or trade,
winds, whereas the island's leeward side faces away from
the wind, sheltered from prevailing winds by hills
and mountains. Wind is transported from the windward side
of a ridge to the leeward side.
The term leeward, or lee, refers to slopes that are oriented
away from the wind. If winds are strong enough, snow
from windward slopes can be redistributed or blown
to leeward areas, causing them to become loaded.
In contrast to the moist windward side of a mountain, the
leeward side typically has a dry, warm climate. This is
because by the time air rises up the windward side and
reaches the summit, it has already been stripped of the
majority of its moisture.

*The Coriolis Effect and Wind Direction

- Winds in the Northern Hemisphere deflected to the

right of their direction of travel
- Winds in the Southern Hemisphere deflected to the
left.
*Note:
 The Coriolis Effect makes things (like planes or currents of
air) traveling long distances around the Earth appear to
move at a curve as opposed to a straight line.
But because the Earth rotates, circulating air is deflected.
Instead of circulating in a straight pattern, the air deflects
toward the right in the Northern Hemisphere and toward the
left in the Southern Hemisphere, resulting in curved paths.
This deflection is called the Coriolis effect.

Wind patterns interact with mountains to cause increased

rain on windward side and rain shadows on leeward side.
Vegetation on north and south-facing parts of the Effect of atmosphere on the distribution of plants
mountain The atmosphere has a tremendous effect on the distribution
of plants and animals. Global patterns of circulations affect
rainfall patterns and the prevailing wind directions. Changes
in air circulation over the Pacific Ocean can lead to events,
such as El Nino, which have global repercussions (i.e.,
torrential rains in the Andes and severe drought in
Australia).

*Note:
The windward side is the side of the mountain that the wind
encounters. The land on the windward side of
a mountain can be lush and green as a result of this
precipitation. On the other side of the mountain, the
leeward side, the air rapidly descends and becomes warmer
once more. In contrast to the moist windward side of *Note:
a mountain, the leeward side typically has a dry, warm Plants consume carbon dioxide—a significant greenhouse
climate. gas—in the process of photosynthesis. The reduction of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has an indirect
Sea Breeze and Land Breeze cooling effect. Plants also cool the atmosphere because they
release water vapor when they get hot, a process similar to
sweating.
El Niño refers to the above-average sea-surface temperatures
that periodically develop across the east-central equatorial
Pacific. It represents the warm phase of the El Nino
Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle. La Niña refers to the
periodic cooling of sea-surface temperatures across the east-
central equatorial Pacific. The ENSO is an irregular periodic
variation in winds and sea surface temperatures over the
tropical eastern Pacific Ocean, affecting the climate of much
of the tropics and subtropics. The warming phase of the sea
temperature is known as El Niño and the cooling phase as
La Niña.
*Note:
Land breeze blows during the night from land to sea and Abiotic Factor Pressure:
the land becomes cooler faster than the sea. The air above
the sea becomes less dense (i.e. warmer) and rises. The
cooler air from the land moves in to take its place. Sea
breeze blows during the day and the land heats up faster than
the sea.
Land breezes usually blow dry winds. While the sea
breeze contains more amount of moisture due to the particles
absorbed from the water bodies. Hence, both the land breeze
and sea breeze occur near water bodies.

*changes in elevation accompany changes in Life Zones

(ecosystems)
*Note:
This slide states that changes in elevation accompany
changes in ecosystems. Unlike latitudinal variation, habitats
along altitudinal gradients do not differ in day length or
solar angle of incidence but do yield dramatic changes in
barometric pressure that influences diverse biological
processes such as metabolic rate (Hammond et al., 1999)
and aerodynamic performance (Altshuler et al., 2004).
Elevational belts can thus constrain physiological capacity.
Mountain zones can therefore be functionally isolated
habitats acting as islands in a sea of unsuitable habitat
(Brown, 1971).
Adiabatic Cooling
*Note:
There are six main climate regions: tropical rainy, dry,
temperate marine, temperate continental, polar, and
highlands.
Other references would refer to 6 Climate Zones such as the
following.
A - Tropical Climates. Tropical moist climates extend north
and south from the equator to about 15° to 25° latitude
B - Dry Climates
C - Moist Subtropical Mid-Latitude Climates
D - Moist Continental Mid-Latitude Climates
E - Polar Climates
H – Highlands

Climate
 Four Abiotic Factors that determine climate:
- Sunlight
- Temperature
- Wind
- Precipitation
 Macroclimate
- Global, regional, local climate
 Microclimate
- Details of environmental conditions in small
spaces like forest floor, under a rock or a log
*Note:
This slide shows that as the elevation increases, the
Temperature
temperature decreases. Such change can be associated with
- Partly determined by the amount of solar radiation
adiabatic cooling which is the process of reducing heat
hitting an area
through a change in air pressure caused by volume
- Depends on latitude, angle of incidence
expansion. An adiabatic process is a
thermodynamic process where a fluid becomes warmer or
cooler without getting heat from, or giving it to, something
else. Usually the temperature instead changes because of
changes in pressure.

Weather vs. Climate

Weather – the properties of temperature, pressure,
humidity, rainfall, sunshine, and wind on a given place and
time. Refers to the daily or weekly conditions.
Climate – the average weather conditions of an area which
includes atmospheric conditions, seasons. Refers to
atmospheric conditions over longer periods such as seasons.

Main Climatic Region

1. Tropical - from 0°–23.5° (between the tropics)
2. Sub-Tropical - from 23.5°–40° Seasons
3. Temperature - from 40°–60° - caused by the tilt of the earth as it revolves around
4. Arctic and Antarctic - 60°–90° the sun.
 Botanical Climate Indicators
- certain characteristics, such as smooth margins
indicate a plant is from a tropical to subtropical
climate.
*Note:
The basic types of margins are:
- Entire: having a smooth edge (even edged) with
neither teeth nor lobes.
- Serrate (Toothed) : having a saw -like margin with
small teeth that can vary in size (from very small to
medium), in sharpness (from needle-like, to soft)
and in shape (from rounded to points).

*Note:
The four seasons happen because of the tilt of the Earth's
axis. At different times of the year, the sun's rays hit
different parts of the globe more directly. The angle of the
Earth's axis tilts the Northern Hemisphere towards the sun
during the summer. Without the tilt of the earth's axis, we
would not have seasons.
In a world without seasons, according to Don Attwood, an
ecological anthropologist at McGill University in Montreal,
humans would probably never have advanced past a state of
living in small, scattered settlements, scrounging for survival
and often dying of horrific insect-borne diseases because
most of these diseases are found in tropical and subtropical
areas.

The Physiognomic Method

- a technique used to analyze climate and elevation.
- Describes common characteristics of leaves and
forests found in each climate type.

*Note:
Physiognomy refers to the external appearance of the
community, its vertical structure, and the growth forms that
dominate each canopy layer. For example, a desert
community, consisting of only a single canopy layer of
widely scattered shrubs has 100% canopy cover.
Tropics
- Leaf margins between 57% and 89% entire:
- Leaves with drip tips common on understory
evergreens
- Vines are common in the understory
Subtropics
- Leaf margins between 39% - 55% entire
- Broad-leaved evergreens often with conifers and
broad-leaved deciduous.
Warm Temperate
- Leaf margins between 30% - 38% entire
- Broad-leaved deciduous with conifers
- Evergreens present, but not dominant
Cool Temperate
- Leaf margins less than 20% entire
- Conifer with some broad-leaved deciduous.

Microclimates

Note:
Topography, large bodies of water and urban areas are three
things that can create microclimates on a large scale. Small-
*Note: scale microclimates are created by items such as houses,
Any climatic condition in a relatively small area, within a fences, rocks, ponds, raised beds, soil types and paved
few meters or less above and below the Earth's surface and surfaces.
within canopies of vegetation. A microclimate is a local set
of atmospheric conditions that differ from those in the
surrounding areas, often with a slight difference but
sometimes with a substantial one. The term may refer to
areas as small as a few square meters or square feet or as
large as many square kilometers or square miles.

*Note:
Shows the abiotic components namely inorganic and organic
substances composing the chemical factors and the climatic
factors which constitute the physical factors. The air, water
and soil may be made up of the chemical factors just
mentioned.

Air
- mixture of different gases including nitrogen,
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water vapor.
- There are other gases that are useful but come in
very small quantities.

*Note: Nature of Air

Microclimates exist, for example, near bodies - Air is a mixture of many gases with oxygen and
of water which may cool the local atmosphere, or in heavy nitrogen as significant components.
urban areas where brick, concrete, and asphalt absorb the - Air is around us although it cannot be seen but it
sun's energy, heat up, and re-radiate that heat to the ambient can be felt.
air: the resulting urban heat island is a kind of microclimate. - Living things need oxygen for respiration.
Microclimatic conditions depend on such factors as - Terrestrial organisms breathe in oxygen from the
temperature, humidity, wind and turbulence, dew, frost, heat atmosphere.
balance, and evaporation. - Oxygen is dissolved in water for living organisms to
use.
Aquatic Microclimates
Atmosphere
- Every living thing needs air to breathe. We breathe
in oxygen present in the air.
- The layer of air that surrounds the earth is called
atmosphere.
- The atmosphere is thicker near the ground and gets
thinner as elevation gets higher.
- It is difficult to breath in thin air hence
mountaineers climbing up tall mountains like the
Everest use oxygen cylinders.
*Note:
Nitrogen makes up more than ¾ of the air. Second is oxygen
with almost 21% and trace elements constitute the remainder
of the air.
Animals are dependent on plants for oxygen and plants are
dependent on animals for carbon dioxide (plants use carbon
dioxide as a raw material for producing food). Hence plants
and animals are independent, and they maintain a balance
between carbon dioxide and oxygen in the atmosphere.
Fish takes in the dissolved oxygen in water with specialized
respiratory structures like gills.
Air is important in allowing things to burn.
Layers of the Atmosphere
- Troposphere: the lowermost layer of the
atmosphere where there is life and weather changes
like cloud formation, rains, snow take place.
Extends up to about 15 kms from the earth.
- Stratosphere: the layer above the troposphere.
Planes reach this region. Extends up to 35 kms from
the troposphere and the air (ozone layer) is thinner
and less dense compared to troposphere. Hence,
there are oxygen masks available in airplanes for
people with breathing problems.
- Mesosphere: above the stratosphere where the
temperature is very low and extremely colder
compared to troposphere and stratosphere.
*Note:
The atmosphere is divided into layers based on how the
temperature in that layer changes with altitude,
the layer's temperature gradient. The temperature gradient of
each layer is different. In some layers, temperature increases
with altitude and in others it decreases.
Water
- chemical compound with formula H2O
- vital to life
- Animals including man need 75% water to function.
- Water covers 71.4% of the earth.
- Pure water has no smell, taste, or color. Lakes,
oceans, and rivers are made of water.
- Rain is water that falls from clouds in the sky.
- If water gets very cold (below 0 degrees Celsius), it
freezes and becomes ice.
- Frozen rain is hail.
- Snow is formed from water vapor, not rain. If water
gets very hot, (above 100 degrees Celsius), it boils
and becomes steam.

*Note:
Slides show how the water molecules are arranged in the
various states, very loose in water vapor, very tight in ice
and in between for the liquid state.
Surface water
- Water in a river, lake, or freshwater wetland.
- naturally replenished by precipitation and naturally
lost through discharge to the oceans, evaporation,
and sub-surface seepage.
Ground water
- sub-surface water, or groundwater is freshwater
located in the pore space of soil and rocks. It is also
water that is flowing within aquifers below the
water table.
Desalination
- artificial process by which saline water (generally
sea water) is converted to fresh water.
*Note:
A process that takes away mineral components from saline
water. More generally, desalination refers to the removal of
salts and minerals from a target substance, as in
soil desalination, which is an issue for agriculture. The by-
product of the desalination process is brine.
The earth's natural water cycle – evaporation and rainfall,
driven by solar energy – is an example of desalination in
action. Sea Water Reverse Osmosis or “SWRO” has
emerged as the most common water desalination technology
used in the United States.
Desalination is key to providing fresh water to millions of
people around the world. Yet, it can harm marine wildlife,
takes a lot of energy, and is often not sustainable. Providing
fresh water for the 10 billion people expected to live on
Earth by 2050 is one of the biggest challenges of our
century.
Saudi Arabia is the country that relies most on desalination –
mostly of seawater. The US is second. It uses mainly
brackish and wastewater.
Desalination has the potential to increase fossil fuel
dependence, increase greenhouse gas emissions, and
exacerbate climate change if renewable energy sources are
not used for freshwater production. Desalination of surface
water intakes is a huge threat to marine life.
At least three principal methods of desalination exist:
thermal, electrical, and pressure. The oldest method,
thermal distillation, has been around for thousands of years.
In thermal distillation, the water is boiled and then
the steam is collected, leaving the salt behind.
Water Properties
- Universal solvent
- High specific heat capacity
- High latent heat of vaporization
- Low viscosity
- High cohesion and adhesion
- Lower density in solid state
- Low ionization
Uses of Water
Human Uses of Water:
- Irrigation
- Drinking
- Washing
- Putting off fire
- Recreation
- power generation
In animals: - Yemen
- cooling - Djibouti
- digestion - Jordan
Three Processes in the Water Cycle Countries That are Most Likely to Run Out of Water in
- Evaporation – from oceans and other water bodies the immediate Future
into the air and transpiration from land plants and - South Africa is one of the first countries facing the
animals into air situation of the water crisis.
- Precipitation – from water vapor condensing from - Jordan - the third most water scarce country in the
the air and falling to earth or ocean world.
- Runoff – from the land usually reaching the sea - Egypt
- Mexico
- England
Reclaimed water
Rainwater harvesting and recycled wastewater
reduce scarcity and ease pressures on groundwater and other
natural water bodies. Groundwater recharge, that
allows water moving from surface water to groundwater, is a
well-known process to prevent water scarcity.
Preventing water shortage by
- Education/Awareness.
- New Conservation Technologies
*Note: - Recycle Wastewater
The water cycle is the path that all water follows as it moves - Improve Irrigation and Agriculture Water Use
around Earth in different states. Liquid water is found in - Water Pricing
oceans, rivers, lakes—and even underground. Solid ice is - Energy Efficient Desalination Plants
found in glaciers, snow, and at the North and South Poles. - Rainwater Harvesting
Water vapor—a gas—is found in Earth’s atmosphere. - Community Governance and Partnerships

*Note: The water cycle consists of three major processes:
evaporation, condensation, and precipitation. Evaporation.
Evaporation is the process of a liquid's surface changing to a
gas. In the water cycle, liquid water (in the ocean, lakes, or
rivers) evaporates and becomes water vapor.
Some of the major causes of water shortage:
- Climate change.
- Natural calamities such as droughts and floods.
- Increased human consumption.
- Overuse and wastage of water.
- A global rise in freshwater demand.
- Overuse of aquifers and its consequent slow
recharge.
5 Countries Most Threatened by Water Shortages
- Libya
- Western Sahara
Atmospheric Moisture
Water exists as:
1. Invisible vapor (humidity)
Humidity:
- The actual amount of water vapors in the
atmosphere is known as absolute humidity
- Measured in ounces per cubic yard or gains per
cubic foot of air
- Differs from place to place
- Declines if we move from equator (20mm) towards
pole (1mm)
- Percentage of moisture present in atmosphere as
compared to its full capacity is called relative
humidity. It is defined as the percentage of
maximum quantity that the air can hold at a
temperature.
- Temperature governs humidity. Warm air can hold
more water than cold air. The capacity of air
carrying vapors become double with increase of
11˚C.
- Relative humidity is low during day, and high in
night
- In rain forests low relative humidity is 20% and in
desert it may be below 10%
*Note:
Absolute humidity is the measure of water vapor
(moisture) in the air, regardless of temperature. It is
expressed as grams of moisture per cubic meter of air
(g/m3).  Relative humidity also measures water vapor
but RELATIVE to the temperature of the air.
Absolute humidity is the quality of water vapor in the wet
air of unit volume (1 m3), for which the symbol is ρv.
Because water vapor in humid air has the same volume as
that of wet air, the absolute humidity is the density of water
vapor in the wet air.
Relative humidity tells us how much water vapor is in the
air, compared to how much it could hold at that temperature.
It is shown as a percent. For example, a relative humidity of
50 percent means the air is holding one half of the water
vapor it can hold. Again, this is all dependent on the
temperature.
Measurement of Relative Humidity Psychrometer
*Note:
A psychrometer is a hygrometer consisting of a wet-bulb
and a dry-bulb thermometer, the difference in the two
thermometer readings being used to determine atmospheric
humidity. It measures the dry-bulb and wet-bulb
temperatures simultaneously. The measurement of the wet-
bulb temperature is achieved by means of a wet wick placed
over the thermometer bulb. The thermometer can be
practically of any type. A cylindrically shaped sensor is
preferred.
A psychrometer is a device used to measure the humidity of
air. It accomplishes this by comparing the difference in
temperature between a dry thermometer bulb and a wet
thermometer bulb that has lost some of its moisture through
evaporation.
2. Visible vapor (cloud and fog)
- Consist of water droplets or sometimes ice crystals
formed form cooling of the air below its dew point
- Clouds and fogs differ in location.
- Clouds are separated from the ground by some
distance while fogs are close to the ground. When
further cooled both can be converted to droplets.
- Clouds are formed when air moves upward from the
land surface into colder regions of the atmosphere.
- Fog is formed by warm air passing over cold water
currents in the sea, by warm air rising up a sloping
land surface to high elevations and by rapid cooling
of the land surface during the night.
Effect of Atmospheric Moisture
- Effect on intensity of solar radiation
Vapor in atmosphere intercepts solar radiation
before it reaches the earth, hence less energy is
available for photosynthesis and respiration hence
slow growing dwarfed trees.
- Effect on evaporation and transpiration
Increase in relative humidity reduces the rate of
evaporation and transpiration while decrease
increases rate of evaporation and transpiration.
Source of Soil Moisture
When fog moves horizontally or clouds get close to the
earth, minute water droplets are deposited as they pass
through foliage and also absorbed by soil
Direct Use by Plants
Mosses and lichens absorb moisture from humid atmosphere
without waiting for condensation. When relative humidity
rises above 85%, epiphytes and xerophytes absorb water
directly from the atmosphere.
Importance of Precipitation to Plants
Snow
- May be injurious or beneficial
- Melted snow is a source of water.
- Snow can break off tree branches aided by wind and
rain.
- Can damage vegetation at high altitude and latitude.
- Snow can press seedlings deeper where they can eb
attacked by fungi easily
Rainfall
- Source of moisture for soil
- Helps to crack open thin-skinned fruits like cherries
and tomatoes thus releasing the seeds
- The amount of rain determines vegetational zones
e.g. rainforests
Hail
- Can cause damage to aerial parts of plants
Drought
- Drought is defined as a period of abnormally dry
weather sufficiently prolonged for the lack of water
 to cause serious hydrologic imbalance in the
affected area.
- Xerophytes and succulents are adapted to water
stress.
- Drought leads to
- Reduction in size
- Reduction in yield and vigor
- Leads to death
When dry season is accompanied with higher
temperature
- Plants are forced to use up soil moisture rapidly
further promoting the effects of drought.
Plant Responses to drought:
- In some plants, the leaves curl, or wilt and the
stomata are closed.
- Prolonged drought inhibits production of
chlorophyll, so the leaves turn yellow.
Plant Adaptations to Drought
1. Reduction in leaf area of canopy
- Plants drop their leaves and reduce leaf area
canopy and develop new leaves at the start of
the rainy season.
- The effect of drought on photosynthesis of the
leaves is compensated for by the green stem.
2. Change in the angle of leaves
- When water is limited, plants reorient leaves so
the surface is parallel to the sun’s rays thus
reducing transpiration and evaporation.
3. Succulence
- Development of fleshy tissues for storage and
retention of water such as in succulent plants
like cacti.
- They absorb water during the rainy season and
use this during the dry season.
4. Leaf adaptations
- Small leaves
- Thickened cell walls
- Modified stomata
- More developed palisade tissues
- Denser vascular system
- Coated with wax and resins
5. Root adaptations
- Deep roots can reach underground water.
- Spreading shallow roots to cover large areas
6. Ephemeral life cycle
- Seeds germinate quickly, bloom and produce
seeds before moisture is gone.
- Drought escapers survive as dormant seeds.
7. Halophytes have salt-secreting glands and leaves
coated with waxes.
Ecological Classes of Plants Based on
Water Relations
1. Hydrophytes
- Include aquatics that grow in water
- Presence of spongy tissues
- Presence of air spaces
- Phytoplankton, floating plants, and submerged
plants
2. Xerophytes
- Live in dry habitat
- Complete life cycle but in short duration
- Contain water storing tissues
3. Mesophytes
- Cannot inhabit water or wet soil and soil where
water is depleted
Soil
- mixture of minerals, organic matter, gases, liquids,
and countless organisms that together support life
on Earth.
Two Main Physical Properties of Soil
1. Color
- Tells us something about the plant nutrients that
are found in the soil
- Most obvious property when looking at soil
- Geologists officially recognized over 170
different soil colors
- Most common soil colors are shades of black,
brown, red, and gray.
Black Soil
- Also known as regur or black cotton soil
- Dark gray to black in color
- High clay content
- High in moist retention
- Develops cracks in summer
- Rich in iron, lime, calcium, magnesium,
carbonates, and aluminum
- Highly suitable for cotton
Red Soil
- formed from weathering of old crystalline rocks
- sandier and less of clay
- rich in iron, small amount of humus
- poor in phosphorus, nitrogen, and lime
- slightly acidic and does not retain moisture
- porous and friable
Brown Soil
- formed under high temperature and rainfall
with wet and dry spell
- Silica is leached due to high rainfall.
- Remnants of iron and aluminum oxides left
behind are called laterites.
 - brown to yellowish in color
- becomes hard when exposed to atmosphere
- used as building material
Desert Soil
- contains soluble salts
- originated from mechanical disintegration and
wind deposit
- porous and coarse
- 90% sand and 5% clay
- rich in nitrates and phosphates
- poor in nitrogen and humus
- friable, sandy, and low moist content
Saline and Alkaline Soil
- contains salts like sodium, magnesium, calcium
- infertile, unfit for cultivation
- sandy to loamy in texture
*Note:
Soil types depend on the percentage of clay, silt, or sand.
Silty clay loam therefore has 15% sand, 60% silt and 25%
clay.
2. Texture
- Determined by the size of particles
- Affects the soil’s ability to hold water and
thereby sustain plant growth
- Most important physical property of the soil
- Provides the following information:
a. how easily water flows through it
b. the water holding capacity
c. how well plants will grow in it
*Note:
Soils are named and classified based on their horizons.
The soil profile has four distinct layers:
1. O horizon
2. A horizon
3. B horizon, or subsoil
4. C horizon, or soil base
The O horizon has freshly decomposing organic matter—
humus—at its surface, with decomposed vegetation at its
base. The Organic or O horizon or organic layer (also
called the humus layer) is a thick layer of plant remains such
as leaves and twigs. Humus is rich, highly decomposed
organic matter mostly made from dead plants, crunched-up
leaves, dead insects, and twigs. Biological agents are also
responsible for the breakdown of complex organic matter
which releases simple nutrients. This process of
mineralization make soil fertile.
Topsoil - Topsoil is considered the "A" horizon.
The uppermost horizon is called the topsoil layer. The
topsoil layer is a mixture of sand, silt, clay, and broken-
down organic matter, called humus. Topsoil consists
of most weathered mineral and organic material.
Subsoil - Subsoil is considered the "B" horizon.
Overuse of pesticides or herbicides can destroy the soil.
Sometimes chemically treated wood used in landscaping can
also damage the soil. If not used properly,
this can contaminate the soil as well as the plant and
microbial life it sustains. Also, overuse of winter salt can
harm your soils. Factors that can deteriorate or destroy soil
structure include, for example: compaction, cultivation,
removal of vegetation.
Soil pollution increases the salinity of the soil making it
unfit for vegetation and subsequently useless and barren. If
some crops manage to grow under these conditions,
they would be poisonous enough to cause serious health
problems in people consuming them.
Uses of Soil:
1. Agriculture
2. Development – construction of homes, buildings,
stores, office buildings, etc.
3. Mining – removal of iron, copper, and coal
Soil Conservation Methods