UNIVERSITY OF GONDAR

COLLEGE OF NATURAL AND COMPUTATIONAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY

An Ethnobotanical Study on Plants Used as Veterinary Medicine and Wild Food in and
Around Gonidteklehaymanot Monastery, West Belessa District, Central Gondar Zone,
Ethiopia

A Thesis Submitted to the Department of Biology in Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Biology

By

Temesgen Demssie Mulat

Advisors: Getinet Masresha (PhD)

Getnet Chekole (MSc.)

October, 2020

Gondar, Ethiopia
 UNIVERSITY OF GONDAR
COLLEGE OF NATURAL AND COMPUTATIONAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY
APPROVAL SHEET

Advisors Approval

As a thesis research advisor, we hereby, certify that we have read and evaluated the thesis
entitled “An Ethnobotanical Study on Plants Used as Veterinary Medicine and Wild Food in
and Around Gonid Teklehaymanot Monastery, West Belessa District, Central Gondar Zone,
Ethiopia” prepared, under our guidance, by Temesgen Demissie. We recommend the thesis to
be submitted for defense as it fulfills the required standard of the level.

Advisors‟ Name signature date

Dr. Getinet Masresha ____________ __________
Mr. Getnet Chekole ____________ ___________

Approved by Examining board

This is to certify that the thesis prepared by Temesgen Demissie entitled “An Ethnobotanical
Study on Plants Used as Veterinary Medicine and Wild Food in and Around Gonid
Teklehaymanot Monastery, West Belessa District, Central Gondar Zone, Ethiopia” and
submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Biology
complies with the regulations of the University and meets the accepted standards with respect to
originality and quality.

Signed by Examining Board

Name Signature Date
1.__________________________________ ____________ ________
External Examiner

2.__________________________________ ____________ ________

Internal Examiner
3.__________________________________ ____________ _________
Chair person
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First I would like to thank Ministry of Education and University of Gondar for sponsoring my
postgraduate study.

Second I would like to acknowledge my advisors Dr.Getinet Masresha and Getnet Chekole for
their constructive comments and friendly approach to complete the thesis starting from proposal
development up to final thesis.

My appreciation also goes to the people of West Belessa District selected kebeles for their
positive response, sharing their valuable knowledge and time as well as for their tremendous
generosity and hospitality.

I would like to thank the local people of West Belessa District for their kindness in providing me
information on medicinal plants as well as wild edible plants.

I also thank the following offices: West Belessa Woreda Rural Agricultural Development Office
and Administrative Office for their provision of information during data collection.

Lastly but not least, I would like to thank my colleagues for their moral support during my study
as well as to train me computer skills and research techniques.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................ ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................... iii
LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................... vi
LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................... vii
LIST OF APPENDICES .............................................................................................................. viii
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ...................................................................... ix
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... x
1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 1
1.1. Background of the Study .................................................................................................................... 1
1.2. Statement of the Problem ................................................................................................................. 3
1.4. Objectives of the Study ...................................................................................................................... 5
1.4.1. General objective ........................................................................................................................ 5
1.4.2. Specific objectives ...................................................................................................................... 5
1.5. Scope and Limitation of the Study ..................................................................................................... 5
1.6. Significance of the Statement ............................................................................................................ 5
2. LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................................... 7
2.1. Overview of medicinal plants in Ethiopia ............................................................................... 7
2.2. Indigenous knowledge ....................................................................................................................... 7
2.3. Traditional Medicines in Ethiopia ...................................................................................................... 9
2.4. Wild Edible Plants in Ethiopia .......................................................................................................... 10
2.5. Ethnoveternary Medicinal Plants in Health Care System ................................................................ 11
2.6. Ethnoveternary Studies of Medicinal Plants Research in Ethiopia .................................................. 12
2.7. Threats to Wild Edible and Medicinal Plants ................................................................................... 13
2.8. Conservation and Management of Wild Edible and Medicinal Plants ............................................ 14
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS .............................................................................................. 16
3.1. Description of the Study Area .......................................................................................................... 16
3.1.1. Geographic location of the study area ....................................................................................... 16
3.1.2. Climate ...................................................................................................................................... 17
3.1.3. Population of the study area ...................................................................................................... 18
3.1.4. Socio-economic situations in the study area ............................................................................. 18
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 3.1.5. Vegetation of the study area...................................................................................................... 18
3.1.6. Land use .................................................................................................................................... 19
3.2. Materials .......................................................................................................................................... 20
3.3. Reconnaissance survey .................................................................................................................... 20
3.4. Selection of the study sites .............................................................................................................. 20
3.5. Selection of Informants .................................................................................................................... 20
3.6. Data Sources .................................................................................................................................... 21
3.5. Ethnomedicinal Data Collection Methods ....................................................................................... 21
3.5.1. Face to face interview ............................................................................................................... 21
3.5.2. Guided field walk with informants ........................................................................................... 21
3.5.3. Focused group discussion ......................................................................................................... 22
3.5.4. Plant Specimen Collection and Identification ........................................................................... 22
3.6. Ethnobotanical Data Analysis .......................................................................................................... 22
3.6.1. Descriptive statistics ................................................................................................................. 22
3.6.2. Informant consensus ................................................................................................................. 22
3.6.3. Informant consensus factor (ICF) ............................................................................................. 23
3.6.4. Preference ranking .................................................................................................................... 23
3.6.5. Direct matrix ranking ................................................................................................................ 24
3.6.6. Fidelity level Index (FLI) .......................................................................................................... 24
3.6.7 Jacquard coefficient of similarity (JCS)..................................................................................... 24
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................................................... 25
4.1. Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents in the Study Area .............................................. 25
4.1.1. Traditional knowledge with relation to gender ......................................................................... 26
4.1.2. Traditional knowledge with relation to age .............................................................................. 26
4.1.3. Traditional knowledge with respect to educational status ........................................................ 27
4.2. Wild Edible Plants ............................................................................................................................ 28
4.2.1. Source of wild edible plants ...................................................................................................... 28
4.2.2. Plant parts used for food ........................................................................................................... 29
4.2.4. Method of consumption of wild edible plants........................................................................... 30
4.2.5. Taste of Wild Edible Plants ...................................................................................................... 31
4.2.6. The multipurpose of wild edible plants..................................................................................... 31

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 4.3. Veterinary Medicinal Plants of the Study Area ................................................................................ 32
4.3.1. Sources of medicinal plants ...................................................................................................... 33
4.3.2. Growth Habit of Ethnoveternary Medicinal Plants ................................................................... 33
4.3.3. Parts used for remedy preparation............................................................................................. 34
4.3.4. Method of Ethnoveternary remedy Preparation ........................................................................ 35
4.3.5. Route of administration ............................................................................................................. 36
4.3.6. Distribution of medicinal plants in the study area .................................................................... 37
4.3.7. Temporal availability of Wild Edible Plants ............................................................................. 38
4.4. Ranking of Most Important Wild Edible Plants ................................................................................ 38
4.4.1. Preference ranking of some wild edible plants ......................................................................... 38
4.4.2. Direct Matrix ranking on multipurpose of wild edible plants ................................................... 39
4.4.3. Informant consensus on some wild edible and medicinal plants .............................................. 40
4.4.4. Informant consensus factor by category of livestock diseases .................................................. 41
4.4.5. Preference ranking of medicinal plants ..................................................................................... 42
4.4.6. Fidelity Level Index (FLI) ........................................................................................................ 43
4.4.7. Direct Matrix ranking on multipurpose medicinal plants ......................................................... 44
4.4.8. Direct matrix ranking on threats of WEPs and MPs ................................................................. 45
4.4.9. Preference ranking on threatened MPs and WEPs in the study area ........................................ 46
4.4.10. Jaccard`s Coefficient of Similarity (JCS) ............................................................................. 46
5. CONCLUSSION AND RECUMMONDATIONS ................................................................... 48
5.1. CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................................... 48
5.2. RECOMMENDATIONS....................................................................................................................... 48
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 49
APPENDICES .............................................................................................................................. 54

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Demographic characteristics of respondents .................................................................. 25

Table 2: Traditional knowledge with respect to gender................................................................ 26
Table 3:Traditional knowledge with regarded to age ................................................................... 27
Table 4: Traditional knowledge with respect to educational status .............................................. 27
Table 5: Seasonal collection of medicinal and wild edible plants ................................................ 38
Table 6: Preference ranking of some wild edible plants in the study area ................................... 39
Table 7: Result of direct matrix ranking on six multipurpose wild edible plants ......................... 40
Table 8: Informant consensus on some wild foods and medicinal plants..................................... 41
Table 9: ICF value of major livestock diseases in the study area ................................................. 42
Table 10: Preference ranking of medicinal plants used for treating Rabies ................................. 43
Table 11: Fidelity index of some medicinal plants ....................................................................... 44
Table 12: Result of direct matrix ranking on five medicinal plants ............................................. 45
Table 13: Direct matrix ranking on six factors perceived as threats to MPs & WFPs ................. 45
Table 14: Preference ranking on some threatened plant species in the study area ....................... 46
Table 15: Distribution and Similarities for the reported TMPs within 10 study sites .................. 47

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Map of west Belessa ...................................................................................................... 16
Figure 2: Climadiagram of the study area..................................................................................... 17
Figure 3: Plant parts used for food ................................................................................................ 29
Figure 4: Distribution of wild edible plants across their habitat ................................................... 30
Figure 5: Method of consumption of WEPs in the study area ...................................................... 31
Figure 6: Taste quality of WEPs in the study area........................................................................ 31
Figure 7: Multipurpose WEPs in the study area ........................................................................... 32
Figure 8: Habitat of medicinal plant in the study area .................................................................. 33
Figure 9: Growth habit of medicinal plants in the study area ....................................................... 35
Figure 10: Parts of medicinal plants used for ailments of livestock ............................................. 35
Figure 11: Preparation of remedy in the study area ...................................................................... 36
Figure 12: Dosage form of medicinal plants in the study area ......Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 13:Route of administration by healers ............................................................................... 37
Figure 14: Distribution of medicinal plants in the study area ....................................................... 37

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LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendices 1: The list of wild edible plants ................................................................................. 54

Appendices 2: List of medicinal plants collected from the study area ......................................... 56
Appendices 3: Research interview questions for respondents ...................................................... 63

viii
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

BDRADO Belessa District Rural Agricultural Development Office

CBD Convention on Biological Diversity

CSA Central Statistical Agency

GDP Gross Domestic Product

IBC Institute of Biodiversity Conservation

ICF Informal Consensus Factor

IK Indigenous Knowledge

MP Medicinal Plant

NMA National Meteorology Agency

NRM Natural Resource Management

NTFP Non-Timber Forest Product

USA United Status of America

WEP Wild Edible Plant

WFPs Wild Food Plants

WHO World Health Organization

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ABSTRACT

Plants are the backbone of life and are central to livelihood of human being. Human being
depends on plants to fulfill their daily needs and developed unique knowledge and practice of
their utilization. Thus, this study was conducted in West Belessa District, Central Gondar Zone,
Ethiopia with the objective of documenting medicinal and edible plants with associated
indigenous knowledge by the local people. A total of 95 informants (age≥20, 80 male and 15
female) were selected from 10 Kebeles. Out of 95 informants, 55 of them were general
informants selected randomly whereas the remaining 40(35 male and 5 females) informants were
key informants selected purposively based on their experiences recommended from the
community and administrative offices. Ethnobotanical data were collected using face to face
interviews, field observations and group discussions through semi-structured interview.
Ethnobotanical data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and ethnobotanical clustering
techniques (informant consensus, informant consensus factor, fidelity level and Jacquard coeffici
ent of similarity) and ranking methods (preference ranking and direct matrix ranking). A total of
90 plant species (67% from the wild vegetation, 20.90% from home gardens and 11.90% from
both habitats) distributed in 55 genera and 41 families were identified from the study area. From
these, 67 species were recorded for the treatment of livestock disease whereas 23 species were
recorded as edible plants. Herbs accounted the highest percentage (31.3%) followed by shrubs
(25.4%) as remedies. The most frequently used plant parts were leaves (52.2%) followed by
roots (19.4%). The most widely used method of preparation was crushing (26.9%) followed by
powdering (20.9%). Oral use was the commonest (56.7%) administration route followed by
dermal use (29.9%). The most cited medicinal plants wer Brucea antidysenterica (70%) followe
d by Calpurnia aurea (68.9%) whereas, Rhus vulgaris was cited by (58.9%) as staple food.
Highest ICF values (0.77) were recorded for respiratory system problem followed by dermal
related problems (0.701) and Brucea antidysenterica was ranked first as the most effective
treatment against Rabies and the highest FL values of livestock medicinal plants were recorded
for Nicotiana tobacum (100%) against Leech. Agricultural expansion was given priority ranking
as the major destructive factor followed by deforestation and charcoal making. The most
threatened medicinal plants and edible plants in the study area were Olea europaea subsp
cuspidata and Mimspos kummel Jaccard’s similarity index showed that the study area has the
highest similarity between Gondibrareg and Kalay had (JCS) value of 0.83 which indicated
that the local people of these area shared common knowledge of medicinal plants and consumpti
on of wild edible plants. The study revealed that plants used as veterinary medicine and wild
food are facing serious problems in study area. Thus, in order to conserve medicinal and edible
plant with the associated indigenous knowledge, community based intervention is required.

Keywords: Indigenous Knowledge, Traditional Medicine, Wild Edible, Ethnoveterinay

x
1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background of the Study

Plants are the backbone of life on this Earth and are central to livelihood of human being. People
in different parts of the world depend on plants and its parts to fulfill their daily needs and
developed unique knowledge and practice of their utilization (Arun and Kumar, 2018). Globally,
approximately 85% of the traditional medicines used in primary healthcare are derived from
plant species (Muhammad Umair et al., 2017).

According to Zewdu Birhanu (2013), in Ethiopia, 70% of human and 90% of livestock
population depend on traditional medicine; Ethiopian plants have shown very effective medicinal
value for some ailments of both human and domestic animals, thus medicinal plants and
knowledge of their use provide a vital contribution to human and livestock health care needs in
the country.

Wild edible plants are all non-domesticated plants species used by people which are a continuum
results from co-evolutionary relationships between humans and their environment (Mekuanent
Tebkew et al., 2018). Wild edible plants are those plants with edible parts which are found
growing naturally on forests, farms and fallow or on uncultivated land. They are means of
survival for rural communities, especially during times of drought, famine, shocks and risks.
Wild plants, since ancient times, have played a very important role in human life; they have been
used for food, medicines, fiber and other purposes and also as fodder for domestic animals
(Farooa et al., 2017).

Moreover, Wild vegetables contribute to people food security and health in many rural areas of
the world. They may have remarkable nutrient values and can be an important source of
vitamins, fibers, minerals, and fatty acids; they may also show important medicinal properties.
Wild edible plants have always been an essential and widespread food source for food-insecure
families living in poverty in developing countries (Haile Tesfaye, 2020).

In addition, they used to diversify food sources, mitigate malnutrition, and generate alternative
incomes, especially, at times of critical food shortages due to any catastrophes like droughts, as
1
well as during famines brought by market fluctuations and political unrest (Derebe Alemneh,
2016).

Moreover, Ethiopia has the largest livestock population in Africa. The recent studies showed that
about 31 million heads of cattle, 27 million sheep, 24 million goats, 7.02 million equine (horses,
donkeys, and mules), one million camels and 56 million poultry are found in the country (Fekadu
Fullas, 2010). Thus, livestock is a major asset for resource-poor smallholder farmers and
pastoralists throughout the world and internal parasites are recognized by these communities as
having an impact on livestock health (John and Githiori et al., 2005).

In many developing countries, livestock play an important role in most small-scale farming
systems. They provide attraction to cultivate fields, manure to maintain crop productivity, and
nutritious food products for human consumption and income-generation (Sere et al., 2008). Due
to this, many people depend on their livestock: animals provide them with food, clothing, labor,
fertilizers and cash, and act as a store of wealth and a medium of exchange. In addition, animals
are a vital part of culture and in many societies are regarded as equal to humans (Ngeh, 2007).
Moreover, animals are a source of calories in the form of meat, milk, and its derivatives for the
livelihood of local people and also they are a source of earning (Khalid et al., 2019).

Traditional medicine in Ethiopia has been widely used by various ethnic groups, about 90% of
livestock population depends on traditional medicine and most of it comes from plants
(Semayat Oyda, 2017). Thus, Plant based remedies are still the most important and sometimes
the only source of therapeutics in the management of livestock diseases (Teka Feyera et al.,
2017).

A large proportion of the population uses this form of treatment for primary health care and for
the treatment of ailments in their livestock (John et al., 2005). In general, these practices have
been developed by trial and error and actual experimentation. Ethnoveterinary medicine
comprises of traditional surgical techniques, traditional immunization, magic-religious practices,
and the use of herbal medicines to treat livestock diseases (Fekadu Fullas, 2010).

Ethnoveterinary remedies are accessible and easy to prepare and administer, at little or no cost to
the farmer. In many poor rural areas, ethnoveterinary medicine can play an important role in
2
animal production and livelihood development, and often becomes the only available means for
farmers to treat ill animals (Semayat Oyda 2017). As reported by Ahmed Hassen et al. (2010)
livestock production is an important component of the Ethiopian economy with an overall
contribution of about 20% to GDP and 40% to the gross value of annual agricultural output.

However, due to the prevailing animal diseases, the economic benefits gained from this sector
still remain marginal. Therefore, animal diseases are among the principal causes of poor
livestock performance and cause of high economic losses in the country. Conventional veterinary
service is still less developed in the country which is characterized by lack of adequate animal
health infrastructure, veterinary clinics and veterinarians. Furthermore, most modern drugs are
expensive and not affordable to the majority of Ethiopian farmers and pastoralists (Teka Feyera
et al., 2017).

Correspondingly, there are also a myriad of diseases that affect this livestock population. About
36 traditionally characterized animal diseases occur in the country. Some of them do not have
equivalent English names. A few examples of vernacular names of these diseases are aba megal,
chefin, mendf, amenmnnn [kumegna] (emaciation), dereba and kurtimis in the highlands, aba
senga (anthrax), azurite (epilepsy), adrik and gendi (trypanosomiasis) in the medium highlands
(weynadega), and rinderpest (desta) (Fekadu Fullas, 2010).

The aforementioned long list of animal diseases is traditionally treated by healers, largely, by
using plants. However, the decline of vegetation cover becomes a serious challenge in getting
medicinal and wild edible plants easily (Reynolds et al., 2007).

1.2. Statement of the Problem

The Ethiopian people have been dependent on plants, mainly medicinal plants for treatment of
ailments as well as a source of foods. The cost of modern drugs or budgetary constraints,
inadequate veterinary service, and due to cultural acceptability of the system were the major
factors that enforce the local people to depend on plants as a source of medicine and foods. In
addition, the widespread of animal disease was also major causes that the local people widely
practice on medicinal plants and used wild edible plants to fulfill nutritional needs. Gond-
Tekelehymanot Monastery Forest is located in West Belessa District Central Gondar Zone,

3
Northwest Ethiopia which is the largest monastery forests in the district and known in the
Amhara region by its plant species coverage. Even though the Monastery Forest is protected by
the scouts, local people practiced on fire wood, construction materials, charcoal production and
farm implements illegally. The destructive activities of the local people increase from time to
time exerting strong pressure on the natural forest species. All activities discussed above were
prevalent in the study area too. Due to this, documentation work related to ethno-veterinary and
wild edible plant traditional knowledge in the country still now remains at minimum level. The
unsustainable utilization of the resource leads to the rapid loss of plant diversity. The problem is
sensitive and requires urgent solutions because there is no enough scientific information
regarding the status and utilization of medicinal and wild food plants in the study area.
Therefore, there is a gap in the documentation of the wealth of plants with their indigenous
knowledge and the knowledge related to management and conservation of plants. Since,
documentation of these plants and the indigenous wisdom associated with them is important in
order to pass the knowledge to the next generation. Thus, this research work was initiated to
document the traditional medicinal plants and wild edible plants with indigenous knowledge in
the study area.

1.3. Research Questions

The findings of the study were believed to answer the following main research questions.

 What are medicinal plant species used by local people to treat livestock ailments?
 Which types of wild plants are edible by the local people?
 Which plant parts are used for remedy and food?
 How the local people use medicinal and wild edible plants?
 What are the major threats of medicinal and wild edible plants?
 How the local people conserve medicinal and wild edible plant species?
 What are the major routes of remedies application?

4
1.4. Objectives of the Study

1.4.1. General objective

The main objective of the study was to document plants used as treatment of livestock ailments
as well as wild food plants with the associated indigenous knowledge in West Belessa District.

1.4.2. Specific objectives

The specific objectives of the study were to:
 document medicinal plants used as treatment of livestock ailment
 identify wild edible plants used by the local people
 identify the plant parts used for medicinal and wild edible values
 describe the route of application of medicinal and wild edible plants
 identify the conservation practice of medicinal and wild edible plants and
 identify the major threats of medicinal and edible plants

1.5. Scope and Limitation of the Study

The study was focused basically on the role and documentation of the medicinal plant species
and wild edible plants in and around Gonid Teklehaymanot West Belessa District using
representative sampling study sites and respondents. However, the actual field study was
challenged during transportation to the field and group discussion due to fear of COVID- 19.

1.6. Significance of the Statement

The result of the work could be used as basic scientific information regarding medicinal plants
used to treat of livestock in the study area. In addition, this work was providing recommendation
which will be used for decision makers to design appropriate measures or administrative
interventions to conserve medicinal and wild edible plants. Moreover, the result generated from
this work could be used as base line information for future related studies in the study area.

5
6
2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Overview of medicinal plants in Ethiopia

According to Admasu Moges and Yohannes Moges (2003), the history of medicinal plants has
been identified and used throughout human history and can be traced bake to the time when
humans started making conscious interaction with plants. The ancient Egyptians wrote, the
information on over 850 plant medicines, including Garlic, Juniper, Cannabis, Aloe, (Patricia
Shanely et al., 2003). Even before 15000 B.C. the Greek and Roman medicinal practices, as
preserved in the writings of Hippocrates, provided the pattern for latter Western medicine.
Similarly, Theophrastus wrote the historical Planetarium written in 4th century which was the
first systematization of the botanical work. Christopher Columbus in 1492, brought tobacco
species and other useful plants to Europe from Cuba (Endeshaw Bekele, 2007).

According to Adimasu Mekonen (2018), Ethiopia is believed to be home for about 6,500-70000
species of higher plants with approximately 12% endemism, and hence one of the six plant
biodiversity rich countries of Africa. The diversity is also considerable in the lower plants, but
exact estimate of these has to be made. The genetic diversity contained in the various biotic
make up is also high thus making the country a critical diversity hot spot for plants.

Moreover, in most developing countries including Ethiopia animal disease remains one of the
principal causes of poor livestock performance leading to an ever increasing gap between the
supply and the demand for livestock products (Semayat Oyda, 2017).

In addition, Ethiopia is one of the developing countries which depend on wild edible plants to
fulfill nutritional needs in addition to domesticated cultivars, especially in poor rural
communities during periods of food scarcity (Haile Tesfaye, 2020).

2.2. Indigenous knowledge

Indigenous knowledge refers to accumulation of knowledge, rule, standards, skills and mental
sets which are possessed by local people in a particular area (Abebe Geleta, 2017). Indigenous
knowledge also described by Senanayake (2006), which is the unique knowledge confined to a
particular culture or society. It is also known as local knowledge, folk knowledge, people's
knowledge, traditional wisdom or traditional science. This knowledge is generated and

7
transmitted by communities, over time, in an effort to cope with their own agro-ecological and
socio-economic environment.

According to Eskedar Abebe (2011), IK is now considered to be cultural knowledge in its

broadest sense, including all of the social, political, economic and spiritual aspects of a local way
of life. Sustainable development researchers, however, have found the following categories of
indigenous knowledge to be of particular interest: resource management knowledge and the
tools, techniques, practices and rules related to pastoralism, agriculture, agro forestry, water
management and the gathering of wild food; classification systems for plants, animals, soils,
water and weather; empirical knowledge about flora, fauna and inanimate resources and their
practical uses; and the worldview or way the local group perceives its relationship to the natural
world.

Moreover, Indigenous knowledge can play crucial roles in the formulation and implementation
of sustainable development policies and has profound roles to play in conserving and promoting
sustainable ways of utilizing the region‟s natural resources for the common good of all its
inhabitants of human or livestock‟s. It provides the basis for grassroots decision making, much of
which takes place at the community level through indigenous organizations and associations
where problems are identified, and solutions are determined (Ndangwa Noyoo, 2007).

The traditional knowledge on ethnoveterinary practices by local healers who are knowledgeable
and experienced in traditional systems of treatment is important, but their knowledge is not
documented and is dwindling fast. It is also indicated that the knowledge of ethnomedicinal
plants is on the verge of irreversible loss and declining to deterioration due to the oral passage of
herbal heritage from generation to generation rather than in writings, despite their vital role in
catering for the health of human, and livestock population (Gebremedhin Romha et al., 2015).

Traditional healing knowledge is maintained by certain families or social groups. Healers used
several methods of preparation of traditional medicines from plants and have indigenous knowle
dge and age-old experience in the use of plants as a source of medicinal Knowledge on plant use
is the result of many years of human interaction and selection on the most desirable and
successful plants present in the immediate environment at a given time (Fisha Mesfine et al.,
2009). According to Tariku Berihun and Eyayu Molla (2017), some studies in Ethiopia indicated
8
that many rural people are endowed with deep knowledge on how to use plant resources. This is
particularly true with regard to the use of medicinal plants and wild edible plants that are
consumed at times of famine and other hardships.

2.3. Traditional Medicines in Ethiopia

Ethiopia is a country characterized by a wide range of ecological, edaphic, and climatic

conditions. As a result of its wide range of ecological, edaphic and climate diversity, it is an
important regional center for biological diversity and possesses a wide range of potentially useful
medicinal plants, more extensive indeed than available in many other parts of the world. This
wide potential has been made reachable by a rich biodiversity and an ancient indigenous
knowledge on the use of plants in traditional medicine on which 80% of the rural communities in
the country depend on tradition medicines (Firew Bekele, 2019).

According to Zuberi (2014), a country with a wide range of climatic and ecological conditions
supporting an enormous diversity of fauna and flora, and possesses a wide range of potentially
useful medicinal plant, it has been estimated that 95% of traditional medical preparations in
Ethiopia are of plant origin.

Ethiopia is also home to many languages, cultures and beliefs which have in turn contributed to
the high diversity of traditional knowledge and practices of the people which, among others,
includes the use of medicinal plants to cure such diversified diseases and possible causative
agents. Hence, in Ethiopia, plants have been used both in the prevention and cure of various
diseases of humans and their animals from time immemorial (Mebrahtu Hishe and Zemede
Asfaw, 2015).

Since, the Ethiopian people have been dependent on traditional medicine, mainly medicinal
plants, from time immemorial, for control of human and animal health problems, and they still
remain to be largely dependent on the practice. The reliance on medicinal plants is partly owing
to the high cost of modern drugs, inaccessibility of modern health institutions and due to cultural
acceptability of the system (Balcha Abera et al., (2013).

9
Traditional medicine comprises a medical aspect of traditional knowledge that developed over
generations within various societies before the era of modern medicine. It is termed as alternative
medicine, complementary medicine and indigenous medicine in many countries (Roshana and
Sanmugarajah, 2018).

According to Gebremedhin Romha (2015), in Ethiopia, animal disease remains one of the
principal causes of poor livestock performance, leading to an ever increasing gap between the
supply of, and the demand for livestock products. Conventional veterinary services, despite its
paramount role, have limited coverage in developing countries. Due to this reason livestock
keepers particularly in rural areas frequently visit traditional healers to get solutions for their ill-
health animals; they complement modern medicine by developing a socially acceptable remedy
from inexpensive resources.

The widespread prevalence of a wide range of diseases and parasites in all agro-ecological zones
of the country causes direct economic losses through high mortality of animals and contributes to
the poor productive and reproductive performance of the animals. The annual mortality of
livestock is estimated at 8-10%, 14-16% and 11-13%, for cattle, sheep and goat respectively.
Animal health problems that contributed to the low productive and reproductive performance of
livestock include absence of proper disease control measure, absence of proper livestock
movement control, inadequate veterinary service, budgetary constraints and absence of full cost
recovery (Aleme Asresie and Lemma Zemedu, 2015).

2.4. Wild Edible Plants in Ethiopia

Wild edible plants (WEPs) refer to species that are neither cultivated nor domesticated, but are
available from their wild natural habitat and used as sources of food (Ermias Lulekal et al, 2011).
According to Harpreet et al. (2018), wild edible plants refer to edible species that are not
cultivated or domesticated. Despite the primary reliance of most agricultural societies on staple
crop plants, the tradition of eating WEP products continues in the present day. WEPs have an
important role to play in poverty eradication, security of food availability, diversification of
agriculture, generation of income resources, and alleviating malnutrition. In addition to their role
in closing food gaps during periods of drought or scarcity, WEPs play an important role in
maintaining livelihood security for many people in developing countries (Ermias Lulekal et al.,
10
2011). Over 70% of the wild edible plants are consumed when food scarcity is high and at time
of starvation (Cunnigam, 2001; Tilahun Teklehaymanot and Mirutse Giday, 2010).

In addition, wild edible plants provide medicines that are affordable and readily available to the
vast majority of the rural population in Ethiopia, as is the case in many other developing
countries in the world. Research has shown that many of the wild edible plants have been found
to be rich sources of one or more of the nutritionally important substances, such as proteins,
carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals. Besides the dietary substances, some of them also contain
considerable amounts of a variety of health-promoting compounds, such as phenolic compounds

(Haile Tesfaye, 2020).

2.5. Ethnoveternary Medicinal Plants in Health Care System

Traditional health care is culturally deep rooted with oral and written pharmacopoeias. In
Ethiopia, 80% of human and 90% of livestock population depends on traditional medicine,
(Haile Tesfaye, 2020). Plant diversity remains crucial for human well-being and still provides a
significant number of remedies required in healthcare (Bogale Haile, 2018).

Due to the limited availability and affordability of pharmaceutical medicines show that the
majority of the world‟s population depends on traditional medical remedies (Kaliyaperumal et
al., 2013). Today, medicinal plants play a great role in human health services worldwide. Many
people in the modern world are turning to herbal medicine.

Medicinal plants have important contributions in the healthcare system of local communities as
the main source of medicine for the majority of the rural population. Traditional medicine has
remained as the most affordable and easily accessible source of treatment in the primary
healthcare system of resource poor communities and the local therapy is the only means of
medical treatment for such communities (Mulugeta Kebebew, 2016).

Ethiopian plants have shown very effective medicinal value for some ailments of human and
domestic animals. Thus, medicinal plants and knowledge of their use provide a vital contribution
to human and livestock health care needs throughout the country. Many species of Ethiopian
medicinal plants have a long history of use as remedies. The major reasons why medicinal plants
are demanded in Ethiopia are due to culturally linked traditions, the trust the communities have
11
in the medicinal values of traditional medicine and relatively low cost in using them (Endashaw
Bekele, 2007).

2.6. Ethnoveternary Studies of Medicinal Plants Research in Ethiopia

Traditional medicine has been practiced for the last several thousands of years but only found its
legitimate place in the WHO program only about 35 years ago (WHO, 1978). World Health
Organization established a worldwide program to promote and develop basic and applied
research in traditional medicine (WHO, 1978).

Ethiopians in their long history discovered the medicinal properties of many plants. Medicinal
practitioners of the northern and central provinces had the advantage of recording the
information for future generation. Such written data can be supplemented by the observation of
foreign travelers who preserved much information about Ethiopians medical practitioners, who
were less able to preserve them for posterity. Traditional knowledge, especially on the medicinal
uses of plants, has provided many important drugs of modern day (Eshetu Girma, 2017).

However in Ethiopia research and documentation on medicinal plants have been started only
very recently (Eskedar Abebe, 2011). Although the contribution of medicinal plant species to
modern health system and the poor society who live mainly in the rural area is very high, lack of
detailed descriptions of the medicinal plants has made it difficult for the researchers to decide the
identity of these plants with the only reference being the local names of the plants and there is
very little attention in modern research and development and the effort made to upgrade is not
satisfactory. One of the reasons is that the traditional medicinal plant species are not well
described (Tadesse Beyene, 2015).

Some studies in Ethiopia indicated that many rural people are endowed with deep knowledge on
how to use plant resources. This is particularly true with regard to the use of medicinal plants and
wild edible plants that are consumed at a time of famine and other hardships (Tariku Berihun and
Eyayu Molla, 2017).

Traditional practitioners mostly use herbs, spiritual healing, bone-setting and minor surgical
procedures in treating disease. Most traditional medical traditions in Ethiopia rely on

12
explanations of diseases that draw on both the mystical and natural causes of an illness and
employ a holistic approach to treatment. Under the rule of Menelik (1865-1913) western
medicine became more incorporated in to the Ethiopian medical system (Abebe Geleta, 2017).

2.7. Threats to Wild Edible and Medicinal Plants

A threat is a status or the position of a species which determines whether it will survive or be
extinct in the future. Various human-induced and natural factors can threaten the survival of
many medicinal plant species (Firew Bekele, 2019).Currently some of the remnant forests with
large number of the wild edible plants in the study area are subjected to frequent deforestation by
the local community. This is attributed mainly to human population pressure and its associated
effects. Agricultural land expansion, wild fire, fuel wood collection, overgrazing and
overharvesting are the main reasons for the destruction of wild edible plants. Of these factors,
Agricultural land expansion, ranks first followed by overgrazing and fuel wood collection
(Tariku Berihun and Eyayu Molla, 2017).

Some climatic factors (prevailing temperature, rainfall, humidity, altitude of the growing region,
light), nutritional factors (nutrients, pH, cation exchange capacity), harvesting factors (age,
season, collection time, plant organ), and post-harvesting factors (storage hygiene, drying
process) are the major factors affecting the contents and composition of medicinal plant raw
materials and their products. For these, some of the most important laboratory test methods
(histological techniques), common sense, and good pharmaceutical practices are used (Admasu
Moges and Yohannes Moges, 2019).

Moreover, environmental degradation, agricultural expansions, cultivation of marginal lands, and

urbanization are also posing a significant threat to the future wellbeing of human and animal
populations that have relied on these resources to combat various ailments for generations
(Gebremedhin Romha et al., 2015).

The knowledge of medicinal plants, historically, was occupied by a few specialized herbal
healers in rural communities; thus much of their use was observed as being primary of local
interest. For past couple of decades, medicinal plants have been increasingly recognized for their
role as not only for health care but also for improving the economic status. This ongoing trend
13
towards increasing commercialization has resulted in overharvesting of some economically
important medicinal plant species, many of which has become rare, endangered and threatened.
Since the medicinal plants form an important health commodity, sustainable utilization and
conservation of this valuable bio-resource is an urgent task (Chandra, 2009).

2.8. Conservation and Management of Wild Edible and Medicinal Plants

Even though plants play a vital role in treating various human and livestock health care they are
currently under pressure because of accelerated devastation of plant resources with lose of
indigenous knowledge. The current loss of medicinal plants and the associated indigenous
knowledge in Ethiopia is due to natural and anthropogenic factors (Abebe Geleta, 2017).

Similarly, wild edible plants are threatened with various human and natural factors like land use
change (expansion of agricultural lands), developmental activities (road construction and
urbanization), habitat destruction (timber harvest, fuel wood collection, and wildfire), drought,
overharvesting, and overgrazing. These are among the main factors that reduce the diversity and
density of wild edible plants in the study area (Halie Tesfaye, 2020).

Though there have been some attempts in investigating medicinal and wild edible plant uses, yet
no in depth study on the relation between these plants, indigenous knowledge and sustainable
management of such plant resources. Thus, conservation of these plants and knowledge of their
use have generally been neglected. Moreover, the attitude of the young generation towards the
traditional medicine healers is negative and this forced healers to keep the knowledge secret
(Mekuanent Tebkew et al., 2018).

According to Gebremedhin Romha et al. (2015), warranting urgent need to document and
preserve the indigenous knowledge. Hence, it is a timely endeavor to document, promote and
conserve the country‟s ethno veterinary medicinal plant lore. Such documents are important to
define and maintain cultural identity of the people in addition to serving as keys toward
establishing people-centered natural resource management systems and potentials for scientific
discovery of new compounds used in the development of modern drugs..

14
According to IUCN, (2009) cited in Gundu and Adia (2014), to save endangered species from
extinction, adequate preservation and conservation of such species and their habitat is necessary.
Two main methods of conserving biodiversity are considered, these are ex-situ and in-situ
conservation. In-situ conservation involves the conservation and preservation of species in their
natural habitat in places where the species naturally occurs. Under this method the entire
ecosystem is protected and maintained so that all the constituent species, both known and
unknown are conserved. Ex-situ conservation is the process of protecting or preserving an
endangered species of either replants or animal outside of its natural habitat either by removing
whole or part of that population from the threatened habitat and placing it in a new environment
which maybe a wild area or within human control environment.

15
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1. Description of the Study Area

3.1.1. Geographic location of the study area

West Belessa is found in Central Gondar Zone, Amhara National Regional State of Northwest
Ethiopia (Figure 1). The study area lies between 12° 13' 30.00”-120 39' 16" N Latitude and 37°
38' 14"-37° 59' 26" E Longitude with 792 Km southwest of Addis Ababa, 88 Km away from
North Gondar Town. The study area is bordered on the south by South Gondar Zone, on the west
by Gondar Zuria, on the North by Wegera, and on the East by East Belessa District (Thowdros
Sisay, 2016). Towns in West Belessa include Arbaya and Worhela. The District was part of
former Belessa District. This District is described as a highly degraded and seriously drought-
affected, with an altitude that varied between 1,200 and 2400 meters above sea level.

Figure 1: Map of west Belessa District and sampled Kebeles

16
3.1.2. Climate

The rainfall and temperature data for this study were collected from the nearest (2012-2019)
Meteorological station of Bahir Dar (NMA, 2020). Metrological data taken from Bahir Dar
National Meteorology Service Agency indicates that West Belessa district area obtains
maximum rain fall at June, July and August (315.8 mm, 720 mm and 499.5 mm y-1) respectively.
The low rain fall was recorded in January and February; indirectly these two months had highest
temperature within eight year data. But, the dry season extends from September to February. The
highest mean annual rain fall of the study area within eight years was 720 mm, whereas the
lowest mean total of the study area within 12 months was 163.8 mm. The average temperature in
the year was 23 0c. The lowest mean annual temperature over eight years was 20.70C, whereas
the highest was 250C (February and Jun) (Figure 2). The climate is mild and generally warm.
The summers have good deal of rain, while the winter has rarely very little. The other months are
dry and hot.

CLIMADIGRAM OF WEST BELESSA DISTRICT 2012-2019

800 30
700 720
25
PRECIPTATION

600

TEMPRATURE
20
500 499.5
400 15
AVE.TEMPRATURE
300 315.8
10 AVE.PRECIPTATION
200
134 5
100
38.4 49.4 56.1 48.5 61.5 39.1
0 3.5 0 0
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS

Figure 2: Climadiagram of the study area

KEY: JAN-JANUARY, FEB-FEBRUARY, MAR-MARCH, APR-APRIL, MAY, JUN-JUNE,
JUL-JULY, AUG-AUGUST, SEP-SEPTEMBER, OCT-OCTOBER, NOV-NOVEMBER, DEC-
DECEMBER

17
3.1.3. Population of the study area

The 2007 census report of Ethiopia, the district has an estimated total population size of 179,111
of which 89,911 are males and 89,200 females. About 10% of the populations are urban residents
and the remaining 90% are rural residents with an estimated area of 10,257.79 square kilometers.
A total of, 52,138 households were counted in this area. On average 435% household and 47,356
housing units. The District has an estimated population density of 74.6 people per square
kilometer, which is greater than the Zone average of 60.23.The majority (97%) of the people are
Orthodox Christians and 2.9% are Muslims. The ethnicity of the district population belongs
largely to the Amhara (99.11%); who speak the Amharic language, all other ethnic groups made
up 0.89% of the population (ThowdrosSisay 2016).

3.1.4. Socio-economic situations in the study area

The major livelihood in the District is agriculture but other alternate incomes are livestock
rearing, trades, charcoal production, sand exportation. Among annual crops in the District are
cereals (sorghum, teff, maize, millet, barely, wheat and lentil), pulses (pea, bean, and chickpeas),
vegetables (cabbage, onion, garlic) and root crops. In the District, cereals are used mainly for the
home consumption. The district is also known by livestock rearing such as shoats (goat and
sheep), bovine (cattle) and equines (donkey, mule and horse) (WBDAO, 2019).

According to Theowdros Sisay (2016), West Belesa District can be characterized as having low
educational coverage, poor livelihood diversification, and low access of water for irrigation,
highly frequent extreme climate hazards, and lack of warning to these problems before they
occurred were the major vulnerability indicators contribute to the farmers‟ vulnerability. In
addition, it is also observed that the water and the agriculture sectors are highly vulnerable.

3.1.5. Vegetation of the study area

The District has different climatic zones and topography due to this the vegetation of the district
falls in various habitats but the dominant vegetation type is occurred around Gonid and Abraham
forest which is categorized under Dry evergreen Afro-mountains vegetation types and there are
also other vegetation types which includes riverside vegetation, seasonal wetland vegetation,
open wooded grassland vegetation and hilly area woodland vegetation (Thowdros Sisay, 2016).

18
In the study area there are different types of plant species including the herbs, shrubs climber‟s
and tree plant species. Some vegetation which is more available in the study area described as:
Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata (Weyra)-commonly called olive, is an evergreen tree that is
native to the Mediterranean region. It typically grows to 20-30‟ tall with rounded crown. Young
trees have smooth gray bark, but trunks and branches. It is also a famous edible oil tree crop
worldwide and has great commercial value due to its peculiar nutritional benefits (Zizhang et al.,
2017).
Carissa spinarum L. (Agam)- is a much branched spiny multi stemmed shrub, often scrambling
up to 6m tall and forming a dense canopy. All parts of plant release white, non-toxic, milky
latex.
Calpurnia aurea (Digita)- is a flowering plants within the family of Fabaceae . It is locally
known as Digita (Amharic). The genus comprises shrubs or small trees in or along the margin of
forests in many parts of Ethiopia and widely distributed in Africa.
Dodonaea angustifolia (Kitikita)- have different sub- species example, D.vscosa is a shrub
growing to 1-3 m tall, rarely a small tree to9m(30ft) tall. The leaves are variable in shape,
generally obovate but some of them are lanceolate.
Acacia abyssinica ( Girar)- is a genus of flowering plants within the family of Fabaceae.
Spreading with a low canopy and have rounded or vase shape. Has evergreen to partly deciduous
foliage and yellow flower.
Euphorbia tirucalli (kinchib)- brush-like branch masses that are noticeable feature of the plant.
It can occur over the widest distribution of all local Euphorbia and is also a very variable plant
ranging from many branched shrubs to large trees, depending on the particular habitat.

3.1.6. Land use

Land size in West Belessa district were classified for different purposes like cultivated land, bar
land, agricultural, grazing, forest land, plantation, shrub land, settlement area and wetland. As
information obtain from (WBDAO, 2019), the total area of district was recorded as 98,382.9
hectare. Among this 61238.89% used for cultivated land, 3.38% (3321.83) used for bar land,
11.56%(11377.19) used for grassland, 0.05%(47.59 hectare) used for plantation, 22.57%
(22,203.17 hectare) used for shrub land, only 0.2%(1094.78 hectare) used as forest land.

19
3.2. Materials

Cutting tools (knives, plant digger, and scissors), mobile phone, field note books, pen, plant
press, pencils, polyethene bags and questioners were used for data collection and plant specimen
preparation.

3.3. Reconnaissance survey

General information about the District was obtained during reconnaissance survey from
December to January during which general information about topography, number of study sites,
availability of medicinal and edible plants and healers were gathered. Thus, the survey was used
to determine study sites, sample size and number of informants. In addition, during
reconnaissance survey vegetation cover and settlement pattern of inhabitants were also inspected
during survey.

3.4. Selection of the study sites

After reconnaissance survey, out of 32 Kebeles in the district, ten (10) representative Kebeles
were selected as study sites purposively based on the availability of vegetation cover with its
familiar traditional medicine practitioners. These study sites were selected by the recommendatio
n of local authorities, Kebele agricultural officials and forest scouts.

3.5. Selection of Informants

After selection the study sites, a total of 95 informants (80 male and 15 female) with age of ≥20
were selected. During selection of informants, 80 informants were selected from eight Kebeles
(ten from each). But the remaining 15 informants were taken from Gonidbrareg by considering
the availability of plant resource. From each Kebeles the minimum of 3-4 key informants were
purposively selected based on recommendations from the religious leader, local Kebeles
administrators and knowledgeable elders as well as the local community. General informants
were selected by simple random sampling from the households whereas key informants were
selected purposively. Martin (1995) indicated that when recording indigenous knowledge held by
knowledgeable traditional healers or by certain social groups, the choice of key informants is
crucial. Accordingly, 40 key informants (35 males and 5 females) with age of ≥20 were selected

20
purposively. The remaining fifty five (55) informants were selected randomly using lottery
methods.

3.6. Data Sources

Ethnomedicinal data was obtained from both primary and secondary sources. The primary
sources were comprised face to face interview, focus group discussion, market survey, guided
field walk with the informants and field observation in the study sites whereas secondary data
were obtained from related review literature, published journal and online sources.

3.5. Ethnomedicinal Data Collection Methods

The technique was employed to gather traditional medicinal plants with the indigenous
knowledge and various relevant information such as plant parts used, route of application,
preparation, distribution in their habitat, common name of medicinal and wild edible plants. The
techniques to be used for collection of relevant information were:

3.5.1. Face to face interview

Face to face interview was used using semi-structured interview questionnaires prepared in
Amharic, latter translated in to English (Appendix 3). The questionnaires contained relevant
points regarding medicinal and wild edible plants with the associated indigenous knowledge.
After the consent of informants, information related informants‟ demographic characteristics,
types of wild edible plants, and traditional medicinal plants, parts used, rout of application,
administration, common animal diseases, disease treated, major threats of plants and threatened
plants were collected. The dispersion of wild edible plants and medicinal plants was also
recorded as common, less common, sparse/occasional and rare.

3.5.2. Guided field walk with informants

Guided field walk was done with informants after face to face interview to confirm the recorded
data and to gather additional information which was not mentioned during face to face
interviews. During this field observation, information on growth habit, habitat, edibility, taste
quality, distribution of plant species, local name of medicinal plants and wild edible plants were
recorded and analyzed. Moreover, the plants abundance, medicinal and wild edible plant
21
threatening factors as well as conservation efforts of the local people were also observed. Plant
specimens were collected during guided field walks.

3.5.3. Focused group discussion

During discussion with informants, basic and qualitative information such as local name of
medicinal plants, medicinal value, mode of administration, diseases of animals encountered
regularly, local name of wild edible plants, major threats of plants, the most threatened plants in
the area, conservation and management of plants in the study area were collected.

3.5.4. Plant Specimen Collection and Identification

The study was focused on collecting traditional medicinal plants and wild edible plants with the
help of informants from different types of field areas like wood land, wild forest, grazing lands,
and crop fields and around rivers. After collecting of plant specimens leveled specimens with
their local names, scientific name, collection date and then each plant specimens were pressed
with plant pressed in Maksegnit Laboratory room. These medicinal plants were identified by
using online internet.

3.6. Ethnobotanical Data Analysis

3.6.1. Descriptive statistics

Descriptive statistical methods were employed to analyze and summarize the data on medicinal
and wild edible plants and conservation. The most useful information gathered on medicinal and
wild edible plants was analyzed through descriptive statistical analysis such as percentage and
frequency as used by Martin (1995), Alexiades (1996) and Cotton (1996).

3.6.2. Informant consensus

Informant consensus is a technique by which medicinal and wild edible plant species was
determined and evaluated the consensus of informants and also it is important to evaluate the
reliability of information recorded from informants. In order to evaluate the reliability of
information during the interview, informants were contacted 2 times for the same ideas and the
validity of the information was proved and recorded. Consequently, the idea of the informant

22
deviates from the original information, it was rejected. Since, it was considered as irrelevancy.
Only the relevant ones were statistically analyzed. Thus, based on the response of informants, the
reliability of information was determined using the formula is given by Alexiades (1996).

3.6.3. Informant consensus factor (ICF)

Informant consensus factor was calculated for each category to identify the agreements of the
informants on reported cures for group of ailments. According to Heinrich et al., (1998) the ICF
was calculated as follows: Where, Number of use citations in each

category; indicates the number of plant species used for a particular use category by all
informants. The factor provide arrange of 0 to 1. (i.e. close to 1) indicating that relatively few
plants are used by a large proportion of informants, while low values (< 0.5) indicate that
informants do not agree on the plant species to be used to treat a category of ailments (Bogale
Haile 2018).

3.6.4. Preference ranking

Preference ranking was performed on six sweet wild edible plants used as a source of food that
frequently used by the community in the study area, i.e. ranking was based on the response of
five informants to classify the relative sweetness or quality of wild edible plants (Table 6). Five
key informants were also identifying the best preferred medicinal plant species to treat rabies
diseases. To perform this, five informants were selected to identify the best preferred medicinal
plant species for treatment of rabies. Each informant was provided with five medicinal plants
reported to cure this disease. The medicinal plant that was believed to be the most effective was
given the highest value, i.e., 5, and the one with the least effectiveness received the lowest value,
i.e., 1. Finally, the value or uses of plant species were ordered according to their perceived
degree of importance in the community as stated by Martin (1995). Thus, the value of each
species was summed up and the rank for each species was determined based on the total score.
This helped to indicate the rank order of the most effective medicinal plants used by the
community to treat the disease.

23
3.6.5. Direct matrix ranking

Direct matrix ranking was performed by considering several attributes of medicinal plants like
food, medicine, charcoal, construction, fence purpose and firewood (Table 7). These were uses
of medicinal plants commonly reported by key informants. In order to compare multiple uses of
medicinal plant species, seven important plants were selected based on uses by the
recommendation of informants and use categories. By adding the scores given as (5-best,4-
verygood, 3-good, 2 -less, 1-least, 0-not use). It was possible to compare use values of medicinal
plants and also to identify the main threats for over harvesting of the plants. Based on
information gathered from informants, the average value of each use diversity for a species was
taken and the values of each species summed up and ranked.

3.6.6. Fidelity level Index (FLI)

Fidelity level index is an important technique to determine the most preferred plant species used
for the treatment of same ailment of livestock. Fidelity level Index was calculated using the
following formula as stated by Friedman (1986) as follow: FL (%) = (NP/N)*100
Where NP is the number of informants that claim use of plant species to treat particular diseases
and N is the number of informants the use the plant as medicine to treat any given disease. Based
on the FL value, high FL value indicates plants were considered the most preferred species for
particular ailment category whereas, low value of FL indicates least preferred species for
particular ailment category.

3.6.7 Jacquard coefficient of similarity (JCS)

JCS is technique by which values were used so as to assess medicinal and wild edible plant
species composition similarity among ten study sites or Kebeles by using presence-absence data.

JCS was calculated as stated by Kent and Coker, (1992) as follow: JCS= , Where a=

number of species which is found in habitat A, b = number of species which is found in habitat
B, c = number of species which is common in both habitat A and B. Values close to one showed that
most of the species are commonly available, while values close to 0 indicated dissimilar plant
assemblages.

24
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1. Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents in the Study Area

About 95 informants were participated in the ethnobotanical survey of West Belessa District. Of
these 80(84.2%) informants were males and the rest 15(15.79%) informants were females. The
majority respondents were greater than 61 years old which accounts 44(46.3%) and 37(38.95%)
informants were in the age between 41-60 years old. The majority of respondents were married
which accounts 80(84.2%), 9(9.4%) and 6(6.3%) were single and divorced respectively. Among
the total informants 85(89.5%) were follower of Orthodox Tewahido Christianity and the
remaining 10(10.5%) were follower of Islam. The majority of informants were illiterate
39(41.05%) followed by 1-4 class plus religious educated 27(28.4%) (Table1). Among the total
informants, 60(63.15%) of them were farmers followed by religious leader 28(29.5%).
61(64.20%) of them were live above 20 years in the study area and 34(35.8%) were lived for 20
years respectively. This proportion is similar with other studies in Ethiopia (Eshetu Girma, 2017,
Birhanu Adbaru, 2018).

Table 1: Demographic characteristics of respondents

No Characteristics Categories Frequency Percentage
(%)

1 Sex Males 80 84.2

Females 15 15.8
2 Age 20-40 14 14.7
41-60 37 38.95
>61 44 46.3
3 Marital status Married 80 84.2
Single 9 9.47
Divorced 6 6.3
4 Religious Orthodox 85 89.5
Muslim 10 10.5
5 Educational level 1-4 class 10 10.5
5-8 class 6 6.3
>8 class 4 4.2
1-4 plus Religious educated 27 28.4
5-8plus Religious educated 6 6.3
>8 plus Religious educated 4 4.3

25
 Illiterate 39 41.05
6 Main Job Farmer 60 63.15
Civil servant 3 3.15
Religious leader 28 29.47
Merchant 4 4.2
7 Inhabited in the More than 20 years lived 61 64.20
area For 20 years 34 35.8

4.1.1. Traditional knowledge with relation to gender

The result of this study showed that, most collected wild edible plants and medicinal plants were
reported by males, which is 345 plants were cited by males i.e each male respondent was cited
4.31 species on average, whereas, females were report for some wild foods and medicinal plants.
Based on informants report, female informants had less experience than male informants on
knowledge of medicinal plants to treat animal ailments. This is may be due to their numbers
taken as sample during informant selection and also other socio- cultural norms (Table 2). This
finding is in line with the results of Abreha Tesfaye, (2008), the reason for having the number of
female informants lowered is due to cultural influence, shyness and the dominance of male
household heads. Both men and women believed that women usually do household jobs and they
cannot go far into the forest. Hence, they knew less forest plants than males.

Table 2: Traditional knowledge with respect to gender

Sex Frequency Use report Average
Males 80 345 4.31
Females 15 45 3.0

4.1.2. Traditional knowledge with relation to age

With respect to age classes in the study area, the majority of knowledgeable people were found
above the age of 61 which is 214 plants were cited by above the age of 61 that means on average
4.86 plant species were cited by each individual informants (Table 3). The knowledge of
traditional medicine obtained from elder informants as compared with young informants because
elder informants had more experience and familiar with their environment. This indicates that, as
the age became increase, knowledge will be acquired. Generally, this report showed that, young
informants have minimal interested to use medicinal plants to treat livestock diseases due to
26
various reasons like enforce of modern education, urbanities. This finding is in line with the
results of (Getu Alemayehu, 2015 and Adimasu Mekonnen, 2018). According to Getu
Alemayehu, (2015), much of knowledge of wild edible plants in the study area obtained from
elder informants, when compared with the young people. This was evidence that informants
greater than age 30 mentioned 40 (54%) wild edible plants out of the total wild edible plant
species.

Table 3: Traditional knowledge with regarded to age

Age group (in year) Number & Gender of Total Use Average
informants report
Male Female
20-40 12 2 14 35 2.5
41-60 31 6 37 117 3.16
>61 37 7 44 214 4.86
Total 80 15 95 366 10.52

4.1.3. Traditional knowledge with respect to educational status

According to the data obtained from the study area, the largest percent of informants (41.05%)
was uneducated but most wild edible and medicinal plants were mentioned by uneducated
informants. As informants report, 214 plants were cited by uneducated informants which is on
average 5.49 were cited by each individual informant (Table 4). This showed that, illiterate
informants were more knowledgeable on traditional medicine as well as wild food types than
educated informants. This may be illiterate informants had no option to get modern medicine for
their healthy management. Thus, in order to sustain their life those uneducated informants were
participated on use of traditional medicine and they acquired knowledge via time than educated
people. On the other hand, modern education had negative influence on development of tradition
al medicinal knowledge. This finding is similar with the result of Birhan Adbaru (2018).

Table 4: Traditional knowledge with respect to educational status

Educational Total Use report Average
status(Grades) Gender
Male Female
1-4 8 2 10 37 3.7
5-8 5 0 5 18 3.6
>8 4 0 4 11 2.75
27
1-4 + religious education 23 4 27 111 4.11
5-8 + religious education 4 2 6 20 3.33
>8 + religious education 3 1 4 13 3.25
Illiterates/ uneducated 33 6 39 214 5.49
Total
80 15 95 424 27.96

4.2. Wild Edible Plants

A total of 23 Wild Edible plant species distributed in 22 genera and 18 families were identified
by local communities within the study area. This study revealed that most of the recorded wild
edible plant species or their parts are consumed as raw/fresh without further processing. Shrubs,
herbs and trees were found to be the sources of wild food plant species in this study. Regarding
to the family number Solanaceae and Moraceae represented by 2 species each and the remaining
16 family represented by one species each (Appendix 1). This indicated that the study area was
more favored to the above members of life forms. This led the community members to have
accumulated indigenous knowledge on different life forms. Commonly consumed plants in West
Belessa District communities are also documented as wild food types in other parts of our
country (Tariku Berihun and Eyayu Molla, 2017). The similarity indicated the sharing of
knowledge about edibility of plants in different parts of the country.

4.2.1. Source of wild edible plants

In the study area, wild food plants were distributed and found in different habitats with different
proportion. Accordingly, most of them were found in the wild habitat 17(68%) followed by
home garden 4(16%) and both in wild and home garden 2(8%). The result showed that most
medicinal plants were distributed in the natural forests, river margins, pasture lands and other
wild habitats. This is may be the local people in study area were not participated to grow Wild
Edible plants in their home garden. This is also may be different factor faced to grow in home
garden such as lack of water and interest. These finding is in line with the work of Getu
Alemayehu (2015), Mekuanent et al. (2018) and Haile Tesfaye (2020). In addition, this finding
also agree with some previous reports (Ensermu Kelbessa et al., 2015) with emphasis on wild
edible plants reported as Fabaceae was the highest family, followed by Tiliaceae comprised 32%

28
and 18% wild edible plants, respectively. This may be due to the two districts may have similar
weather condition and topographic land.

4.2.2. Plant parts used for food

Local people of the study area used different parts of the wild edible plants used for food
including fruits, roots, stem, leaf, barks, bulbs and whole parts. According to the data collected
from informants, the most frequently utilized edible plant parts were fruits which accounts
16(64%) followed by stem and leaf 2(8%) the remaining parts accounts in (Figure 3). This result
indicates that, fruits were harvesting widely in comparison of other parts. The reason that why
the local people eating fruits than different parts of plants is may be fruits have a higher amount
of calories and taste as compared to most varieties of plant parts. Fruit was the dominant part of
wild edible plants that was reported to be highly edible in most studies undertaken in different
parts of Ethiopia by Ensermu Kelbessa et al. (2015); Amsalu Abich et al. (2018) and Haile
Tesfaye (2020). According to Haile Tesfaye (2020), the increased use of wild fruits compared to
other parts of the plant may be because the fruits are used more during seasons of food shortages,
and fruit has good taste and flavor because of its chemical composition.
20
16
15
Key
Frequency
10 Percentage

5 3
2 2
64% 1 1 1
8% 4% 12% 4% 4%
0 8%
Fruit Stem Leaf Barke Bulb Whole Root
Parts

Figure 3: Plant parts used for food

4.2.3. Distribution of wild edible plants

As informants report in the study area, the highest number (more available) of wild edible plant
species in the district were Euclea racemosa (Dediho), Rhus vulgaris (kimo), and Zizlphus spina-

29
christi (L.) Desf. (Gaba) as tree level. From herbs species Physalis peruviana (keyawit) and
Oxalis letifolia (michamicho) contained highest number of species across their habitat. As
informants reported that, out of the total wild edible plants 4(16%) of them were commonly
occurred and 2(8%) less commonly available in the study site. The rest most edible plants that
mentioned by informants were recorded as sparsely/occasional and rarely occurred across their
habitat (Figure 4). These sparsely and rarely available species may be due to multiple use of
plants tends to decrease their numbers from their natural habitat whereas, plants having less
function for the local community their numbers become increase. Such multipurpose functions of
wild edible plants were live fencing, medicine, fodder, charcoal, construction, furniture and
firewood. Similar finding is shown by (Getnet Chekole, 2011).

10 8 9
Percentage

5 32% 4
36% Key
16%
2 8%
0 Frequency

Rare Percentage
Sparse
Common
Less
common
Distribution

Figure 4: Distribution of wild edible plants across their habitat

4.2.4. Method of consumption of wild edible plants

Concerning route of consumption of wild edible plants, local community of the study area
mostly consumed wild foods in fresh form 22 (88%) followed by chopping (Figure 5). The result
showed that most wild edible plants consumed as in the form of fresh. This activity is not harm
for survival of species. The reason why the local people tend to use fresh form as compared to
other consumption methods is may be to get active nutrients or chemical ingredients. The result
agreed with some previous studies reported by different researchers in which fresh
administration was the most dominant route of consumption than other consumption (Halie
Tesfaye (2020) and Zemede Asfaw et al. (2015).

30
 30 Key
22
Percentage

20 Frequency
Percentage
10
88% 1 4%
0
Fresh Chopping

condition of wild foods

Figure 5: Method of consumption of Wild Edible Plants

4.2.5. Taste of Wild Edible Plants

In the study area, most wild edible plants that were mentioned by informants had Sweet taste.
Out of the total (23) wild edible plants that were reported in the study area, 13(52%) of them
were sweet taste, followed by (6.24%) sour test. The remaining wild edible plants were salt and
bitter shown in (Figure 6). As most informants reported that, most wild edible plants are present
around Gonidbrareg and Abrham forest and the taste quality of plants also mentioned well by the
local people those are found in and around two forest sites. This finding was similar with Ermias
Lulekal et al. ( 2011); Tariku Berihun and Eyayu Molla ( 2017).

15

10 Key

5 % of total
0 frequency
sweet salt bitter sour

Figure 6: Taste quality of Wild Edible Plants

4.2.6. The multipurpose of wild edible plants

In the study area informants were reported various multipurpose of wild edible plants. Apart
from their food values, the reported wild edible plants are used for different purposes. Among
the total edible plants 6(24%) of them were used for firewood, followed by 4(16%) used for
31
fodder, construction and live fence, 4(8%) as medicine, the rest of wild edible plants were used
as charcoal, tooth brush and furniture purposes shown in (Figure 7). This shows that the local
people harvest the wild edible plants not only for food but mostly for construction, firewood, and
furniture. In fact, the study area is more exposed to drought due to this there is scarcity of food
availability for animals. As most informants reported that, the community was practiced on
firewood collection and fodder for animals. This result was similar to the findings of previous
investigators (Tariku Berihun and Eyayu Molla, 2017)

30
key
20 percent
frequency
10

Figure 7: Multipurpose Wild Edible Plants

4.3. Veterinary Medicinal Plants of the Study Area

A total of 67 species of medicinal plants belonging to 55 genera and 41 families were used to
treat 38 different health problems were recorded and identified in the study area (Appendix 1). In
terms of species composition, Fabaceae was the most dominant family represented by 6 (10%)
species followed by Malvaceae and Euphorbiaceae which were represented by 3(5%) species
each and Aloeceae, Apiaceae and Solanaceae represented by 2(3.33%) species for each
respectively. The remaining families were represented by one species each (Appendix 2). These
traditional medicinal plants treat various livestock ailments. During data collection, informants
conveyed that plants used to treat livestock are less familiar compared to plants used to treat
human ailments.

32
4.3.1. Sources of medicinal plants

In the study area, medicinal plants were distributed and found in different habitats with different
proportion. Accordingly, most of them were found in the wild habitat (67.2%) followed by home
garden (20.9%) and both in wild and home garden (11.9%) (Figure 8). The result showed that
most medicinal plants were distributed in the natural forests, river margins, pasture lands and
other wild habitats. This result showed that, healers do not grow plants in their home gardens the
reason may be to keep the secrecy and the local people may consider as a source of income.
These finding is in line with the work of Ermias Lulekal et al. (2008), Birhanu Adbaru (2018),
Nigussie Amsalu et al. (2018), Admasu and Yohanes Moges (2019).

50 45
40
30
20 14 key
8 frequency
10
67.20% 20.90% 11.90% percent
0
Wild Homegarden Both wild&
homegarden

Figure 8: Habitat of ethnoveternary medicinal plant

4.3.2. Growth Habit of Ethnoveternary Medicinal Plants

All plant growth forms were not equally used as remedies due to the difference in distribution
among the growth forms. The medicinal plants growth forms recorded in different proportions.
Out of the total 67 medicinal plants, herbs constituted the highest species 21(31.3%) followed by
shrubs (25.4%) and trees 14(20%) respectively (Figure 9). This indicates that most widely used
medicinal plants habit in the study area were herbaceous species followed by shrubs. This is may
be herbs can grow everywhere (roadside, home garden, farmland and wild) and common in the
study area compared with other species such as tree, shrub and climber. In addition, herbs may
not be exposed to various threats as compared with trees and shrubs as a result; they can be
harvested and cultivated easily by local people. Relatively high number of herbs and shrubs for
medicinal purpose has also been reported previously by others Balcha Abera (2014); Eshetu

33
Girma and Abebe Geleta (2017); Adimasu Mekonnen (2018); Yihenew Simegniw et al. (2019)
and Selemon Tesfaye et al. (2020).

25
key
20 frequen…
Percentage

percent
15

10

0
Tree Shrubs Climber Herbs
Growth habit
Figure 9: Growth habit of Medicinal Plants

4.3.3. Parts used for remedy preparation

Local people of the study area used different parts of the medicinal plants for traditional
remedies preparation including leaves, roots, seeds, bulbs, barks, rhizomes and fruit. According
to the data collected from informants, the most frequently utilized veterinary medicinal plants
parts were leaves for remedy preparation which accounts 35(52.2%) followed by roots
13(19.4%) and seeds 9(13.4%) respectively (Figure 10). In general, using leaves for remedy
preparation is may be a good habit for the survival of medicinal plants because harvesting of
leaves has less impact on distraction of plants from their habitat compared to roots and barks.
The reason why leaves were used mostly that may be the presences of several secondary
metabolites in the leaf cells could make them to have more medicinal value than other parts.
Moreover, It can easily harvest in the area from the forest. However, roots, bulbs, fruits or whole
plant parts have negative effect on the survival of plants.

This finding is similar with Adimasu Mekonnen (2018), in which leaves accounts 20(38.47%)
followed by roots 10(19.23%) as remedy preparation in Dehana Woreda, Amhara Region. The
result also in line with the report of some previous similar studies (Moa Megersa, 2010; Abebe
Geleta, 2017; Asmra Amde, 2017; Eshetu Girma, 2017; Tewodrose Kelemu et al., 2018).

34
 40 Key
30 frequency
Percentage

20 percent

10

0
leaf root seed fruit bulb
Plant parts used

Figure 10: Parts of Veterinary medicinal plants

4.3.4. Method of Ethnoveternary remedy Preparation

The local community employs various methods of preparation of traditional medicines for
different types of ailments. The preparations vary based on the type of disease treated and the
actual site of the ailment. The principal methods of plant parts remedy preparation forms were
reported to be through crushing which accounts for 18(26.90%) followed by powdering
14(20.90%) and squeezing 13(19.4%) ( Figure 11). This is may be due to crushing action on
plant parts is more important to release chemical ingredients‟ that is used to treat ailments of
livestock. This finding is similar with justification of Asmera Amde (2017), in which the
effective extraction of the plant gives immediate response for health problems when crushed or
pounded to increase its curative potential. In addition, method of remedy preparation through
crushing may be increasing its curative potential. This result agrees with some previous studies
conducted in different parts of the country (Ermias Lulekal et al., 2008; Eshetu Girma, 2017;
Tilahun Tolosa et al., 2018).

35
 20
Key
10 % of total
frequency
0

Figure 11: Preparation of remedy in the study area

4.3.5. Route of administration

The local community of the study area mostly administer traditional medicine orally (50.7%)
whereby the patient drink and eat through mouth followed by dermal (23.9%) where remedies
are creamed the skin, bathed the skin of animals (Figure 12).The result agreed with some
previous studies reported by different researchers in which oral administration was the most
dominant route of administration than dermal administration (Getaneh Gebeyehu et al.,2014;
Misganaw Mergiaw et al.,2016; Moa Megersa et al.,2013; Abebe Geleta, 2017; Bogale Haile,
2018). the local people used different parts of medicinal plants as remedy by mixing one another
to enhance their effectiveness. Local healers used different measurements in order to specify
(standardize) dosage of remedies such measurements 3were coffee cup, different bottles mug and
hand fingers. There were also informants reported medicinal plants that had no side effect on
livestock healthy because it is given by considering their ages and conditions such as pregnancy.
Actually the drawback of traditional medicine is lack of specified dosage which may cause some
side effect on animals and humans. Moa Megersa (2013); Abebe Geleta (2011); Eshetu Girma
(2017) reported similar results. However, in contrast to this, Gebremedhin Romha et al. (2015)
stated as use of freshly harvested plant parts (85.7%) for remedy preparation over dried forms.
This could be attributed to the wide-spread traditional belief of attaining high efficacy from fresh
remedies due to higher presence of active ingredients in the form of secondary metabolites in
cases of fresh plant parts which community members rightly thought could be lost on drying.
Local people also reported that some additives were added during administration of traditional
medicine like honey, dregs, charcoal, butter, salt, water and ash are some of the additives that the
local people reported to be used to improve the flavor of medicinal plants and reduce side effects
36
of less standardized dose of medicine. Such additives were also reported by some previous
researchers (Muluken Wubetu et al., 2017; Birhanu Adibaru, 2018).

3%
Key
6% 3% Oral
Dermal
6% Nasal
Optical
7% Anal
51% Vaginal
24% Auricular

Figure 12: Route of administration by healers

4.3.6. Distribution of medicinal plants in the study area

As reported by informants most medicinal plants are found at sparse 22(32.8%) level of
availability followed by less commonly available species 20(29.9%) and rarely available plants
19(28.4%) the remaining availability is shown in (Figure 13) (Mirutse Giday, 2001). This result
indicates that, the local people harvest medicinal plants for different purpose in addition to
medicinal value. It is clear that if the value or importance of medicinal plants increases, their
availability or abundance in their natural habitat decrease. Generally this result showed that, the
most important medicinal plants were regularly exploited which could lead local healers to go far
distance to collect these plants.

25
22
19
20 Key
20
Percentage

Frequncy
15 Percentage

10
6
5
32.80% 28.40% 29.90% 9%
0
Occasional Rare Less common Common
Distribution

Figure 13: Distribution of medicinal plants in the study area

37
4.3.7. Temporal availability of Wild Edible Plants

Based on the response of informants, most wild edible plants and medicinal plants were collected
during summer and autumn. This is because most herbaceous and shrubs are well growing and
more available in their habitats in the study area. On the other hand, seasonal collection of
medicinal plants is important to traditional healers to keep the secrecy. Thus, most traditional
medicinal practitioner was collected their remedies by considering seasons to get medicine and
wild food items. The result showed that, WEPs and medicinal plants are harvested and consumed
in different seasons. Accordingly, relatively higher numbers of WEPs and medicinal plants were
collected during summer and autumn with the frequency of seasons 45 and 25 respectively the
remaining seasons are shown in (Table 5). These finding is in line with the work of other parts of
our country (Mekuanent Tebkew et al., 2018; Mestawet Gebru et al., 2019).

Table 5: Seasonal collection of medicinal and wild edible plants

Seasons Frequency Proportion (%)
Winter 12 12.6
Summer 45 47.4
Autumn 25 26.3
Spring 8 8.4
Through the year 5 5.25

4.4. Ranking of Most Important Wild Edible Plants

4.4.1. Preference ranking of some wild edible plants

Preference ranking was performed on six sweet wild edible plants used as a source of food that
frequently used by the community in the study area, i.e. ranking was based on the response of
informants to classify the relative sweetness or quality of wild edible plants. The sweetest wild
edible plant was given six and the least sweat was given one. Based on this, Ficus sur was cited
by 27 informants as the sweetest species followed by Ficus sycomorus (25) and Syzygium
guineense (18) respectively. These commonly used wild food plants are ranked according to their
sweet quality (Table 6). However, though they are highly preferred, these wild edible plants are
not much harmed. Since local feeders consume their matured fruits and seeds. This finding is
reported by others (Getu Alemayehu et al., 2015; Eyayu Molla and Tariku Berihun, 2017) in

38
which the rank wild edible plants according to their taste they perceived as Balanites
aegyptiaca, Ficus sur, Ziziphus spina-christi, Cordia africana, Carissa spinarum, and Rosa
abyssinica. However, in contrast to this study, Getnet Chrkole, (2011) have found that Cordia
africana ranked first as the most sweet species followed by Mimusops kummel and Syzygium
guineense. This difference could be availability of the species and cultural acceptability in
different localizes and communities in Ethiopia.

Table 6: Preference ranking of some wild edible plants in the study area
Wild edible plants Respondents (R1-R5) Total Rank Rank
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
Mimspos kummel 2 1 1 3 2 9 6th 6th
Picus glomerata 1 6 3 1 3 14 4th 4th
Ficus vasta 6 4 6 5 6 27 1st 1st
Ziziphus spina- Christi 3 2 2 2 4 13 5th 5th
Syzygium guineense 4 5 4 4 1 18 3rd 3rd
Ficus sycomorus 5 4 5 6 5 25 2nd 2nd

4.4.2. Direct Matrix ranking on multipurpose of wild edible plants

According to the informants report, the local people used edible plants for different purposes like
medicine, house building, furniture, firewood, charcoal, live fence and forage. Accordingly,
Cordia africana was ranked first followed by Syzygium guineense and Mimusops kummel
respectively (Table 7). Cordia africana is an important plant which can grow elsewhere in
Ethiopia within a short time and also grow in straight form. The result of use diversity indicates
that, Cordia africana are ranked first because they are used for different purposes like making
furniture, making different equipments in the household activity, building house, fire wood and
fence in the study area. In addition, local people exploit these multipurpose wild edible plants for
fire wood consumption followed by charcoal making and house building materials respectively.
Different researchers elsewhere in Ethiopia have also noted multiple uses for wild edible plants
(Fassil Kebebew and Kebu Balemie (2006), Getu Alemayehu et al., 2015, Tariku Berihun and
Eyayu Molla, and Emebet Gebru, 2017). However, Cordia africana is the 2nd multiple use of
plants as compared with Syzygium guineense as stated by Tariku Berihun and Eyayu Molla (
2017). This is may be the use of Syzygium guineense is relatively greater than Cordia africana in
that area.

39
Table 7: Result of direct matrix ranking on six multipurpose wild edible plants
Plant species Other purposes of wild edible plants Rank

Total
Medicine

Furniture

Charcoal
building

Forage
House

wood

fence
Live
Fire
Syzygium guineense 3 4 0 5 2 0 0 14 2nd
Mimusops kummel 2 0 0 4 5 0 1 12 3rd
Cordia Africana 2 4 5 3 1 0 0 15 1st
Ximenia americana 2 1 0 4 3 0 0 10 5th
Ziziphus spina-christi 1 4 0 3 0 2 0 11 4th
Rhus vulgaris 0 0 0 5 4 0 0 9 6th
Total 10 13 5 24 15 2 1 71
Rank 4th 3rd 5th 1st 2nd 6th 7th

4.4.3. Informant consensus on some wild edible and medicinal plants

Some wild edible plants and medicinal plants were well known in the study area more than
others. As a result, local informants cited the most commonly used plants repeatedly from
supplementary foods to staple foods and medicinal value. Based on the result of informants,
Rhus vulgaris (kimo) was cited by 53 (58.9%) informants followed by Ficus sur (Warka)
38(42.2%) as a staple food and among medicinal plants Brucea antidysenterica (Abalo) was
cited by 63(70%) followed by Calpurnia aurea (Digita) which is cited by 62(68.9%) as medicine
in the same way. These and other most widely used wild edible plants and medicinal plants are
listed in (Table 8). Similar studies have been conducted in Erob and Gulomahda districts by
Tadesse Beyene, (2015) that stated as Calpurnia aurea, which was chosen to treat the highest
number of livestock ailments in Gulomahda District accounted for four (9.30%) ailments
followed by Laggera tomentosa and Maytenus senegalensis that treated three (6.98%) ailments
each. This is may be due to the availability and curability of diseases in the community.

40
Table 8: Informant consensus on some wild foods and medicinal plants
Scientific name of plants (both Local name No informants Percentage (%)
edible and medicinal types)
Allium sativum Nechishikurt 58 64.4
Ficus vasta Warka 38 42.2
Echinops kebericho Kebercho 53 58.9
Lepidium sativum Feto 46 51.1
Brucea antidysenterica Abalo 63 70
Syzygium guineense Dokma 35 38.9
Calpurnia aurea Digita 62 68.9
Grewia ferruginea Lenkuata 29 32.2
Rhus vulgaris Kimo 53 58.9
Dodonaea angustifolia Kitkita 54 60
Ximenia americana Enkuay 30 33.3

4.4.4. Informant consensus factor by category of livestock diseases

The outcome of this study showed that diseases that are frequently encountered in the study area
have higher informant consensus factor. Medicinal plants that are effective in treating certain
disease and well known by community members also have higher ICF. Respiratory system
problem (cough, cocoidiosis, rabies, leech, Eczema) had the highest ICF value (0.77). This
respiratory problem was cited by 45 informants due to the high incidence of the disease in the
area followed by dermal related problems (wound, tick, skin rash, impetigo/kunchir, fungal
infection, dandruff, lice, snake bite,) which were the second most diverse diseases in the study
area (0.701). But sensory related problems (eye diseases) had the lowest ICF value (0.50). This
may be due to the rare occurrence of the disease and the disease is mainly treated by local
healers. As most informants reported the numbers of plant species used for the treatment of each
category of diseases are shown in (Table 9). During data collection, dermal related diseases,
digestive system related diseases and respiratory system related diseases were cited by 68, 54
and 45 respondents in the study area. This finding is in line with work of (Gebremedhin Rombha,
2015; Jarso Belay, 2016; Yihenew Simegniew et al., 2018).

41
Table 9: ICF value of major livestock diseases in the study area
Diseases category in the study area Nt Nur ICF
Value
Respiratory system problem (cough, coccidiosis, rabies, leech, 11 45 0.77
Eczema)
Dermal related problem (wound, tick, skin rash, 21 68 0.701
impetigo/kunchir , fungal infection, lice, snake bite,)
Muscle & skeletal related problem(dislocated bone) 5 14 0.69
Digestive system related problem(calf diarrhea, constipation, 22 54 0.603
bloating, ascaris, abdominal colic, tape worm, blackleg, anthrax)
Febrile illness, michi 5 11 0.60
Blood type related problem (Rh factor) 5 10 0.55
Sensory related problem(eye diseases) 3 5 0.50

Of those dermal related problems that are mentioned in Table 9 such as wound, tick, skin rash,
tumor, fungal infection, dandruff, lice, snake bite generally had the second highest ICF value
(0.701). For this category, 21 species were reported with 68 use citations. However, wound
problem was cited by most informants in the study area. From those digestive system related
problem (calf diarrhea, constipation, bloating, ascaris, abdominal colic, tape worm, blackleg,
anthrax) bloating diseases was frequently encountered in the study area. Plant species used in the
treatment of this disease are Allium sativum, Datura stramonium, Echinops kebercho, Olea
europaea subsp cuspidata, Hordeum vulgare, Croton macrostachyus, Lepidium sativum,
Dombeya torrida, Acacia nilotica; Brucea antidysentrica; Calpurnia aurea (Appendix 2).

4.4.5. Preference ranking of medicinal plants

Preference ranking was computed to assess the degree of effectiveness of certain medicinal
plants against most prevalent diseases in the area. To perform this, ten informants were selected
to identify the best preferred medicinal plant species for treatment of rabies. Each informant was
provided with five medicinal plants reported to cure this disease. The medicinal plant that was
believed to be the most effective was given the highest value, i.e., 5, and the one with the least
effectiveness received the lowest value, i.e., 1. Accordingly, informants were asked to compare

42
the given medicinal plants based on their efficacy and to give the highest number (5) for the
medicinal plant which they thought most effective in treating Rabies and the lowest number (1)
for the least effective plant in treating rabies. The report indicated that, Brucea antidysenterica
scored 23 and ranked first which means that it is the most effective to treat rabies followed by
Croton macrostachyus and the least effective was Syzygium guineense (Table 10). Similar
studies have been conducted by Abebe Geleta (2017), who stated that Croton macrostachyus and
Brucea antidysenterica were the most effective for the treatment of rabies.

Table 10: Preference ranking of medicinal plants used for treating Rabies
Medicinal plants Respondents (R1-R5) Total Rank
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
Brucea antidysenterica 5 4 5 5 4 23 1st
Syzygium guineense 1 2 4 1 3 11 5th
Echinops kebercho 3 3 1 4 2 13 3rd
Grewia ferruginea 2 1 2 2 5 12 4th
Croton macrostachyus 4 5 3 3 1 16 2nd

4.4.6. Fidelity Level Index (FLI)

Fidelity level values were calculated for some commonly used medicinal plants against some
commonly reported ailments: Based on this, Grewia ferruginea (against external parasites),
Sidda rhombifolia (against eczema), Justicia schimperian(against cocoidiosis,anthrax), Echinops
kebericho (against rabies, kuriba,), Calpurnia aurea (against Rh factor, thick, wound), Olea
europaea subsp cuspidata (against eye diseases), Allium sativum (against cough, rabies, cough),
Nicotiana tobacum (against leech) were recorded in the study area. The analysis of Fidelity level
values in the study area showed from 58.8% to 100% (Table 11). Generally, medicinal plants
that are used for single or few ailments have high fidelity level while that are widely used by
local people to treat several unrelated ailments have less fidelity level value. The result of this
study shows that Nicotiana tobacum had 100% FL value to treat leech. These medicinal plants
have the highest 100% FL values which could be an indication of efficiency of the reported plant
to cure a leech ailment whereas, the least FL value in this finding was Allium sativum accounts
(58.8%) which could be an indication of widely used by local people to treat unrelated ailments

43
(Cough, rabies, cough, evil eye). This finding is similarly reported by (Birhanu Adbaru and
Eshetu Girma, 2017).
Table 11: Fidelity index of some medicinal plants
Scientific Name Major Ailment treated NP N FL FL(%)
Grewia ferruginea External parasites 2 3 0.67 66.67
Sidda rhombifolia Eczema 4 6 0.67 66.67
Justicia schimperian Cocidiosis, anthrax 9 11 0.82 81.81
Echinops kebericho Rabies, kuriba 15 22 0.68 68.18
Calpurnia aurea Rh factor, thick, wound 4 6 0.67 66.67
Olea europaea subsp cuspida Eye diseases 5 6 0.83 83.3
Allium sativum Cough, rabies, cough, 20 34 0.588 58.8
Nicotiana tobacum Leech 1 1 0.01 100

4.4.7. Direct Matrix ranking on multipurpose medicinal plants

In order to compare multiple uses of medicinal plant species, direct matrix ranking was
performed by considering several attributes of medicinal plants like food, medicine, charcoal,
construction, firewood and fence purpose. In addition, the main threats for over harvesting of the
plants were identified. Based on the information gathered from informants, the average use value
of each species was taken and summed up and presented in (Table 12). The seven use values
were medicinal, forage, food, firewood, construction, charcoal and live fencing. Olea europaea
subsp cuspida was ranked first followed by Brucea antidysenterica and Carissa spinarum
respectively. Similarly, the main threats that come as result of over harvesting in the community
were also be summarized as firewood, live fence, charcoal, construction, food and forage as the
main destructive rank. This result showed that firewood was the most exploitive use value in the
study area followed by medicinal use and live fence respectively. On the other hand, this result
also showed that the local people were also used plants as medicine. Many studies were
conducted in different parts of Ethiopia (Moa Megersa, 2010; Tadesse Beyene, 2015; Asmera
Made, 2017; Emebet Gebru, 2017).

44
Table 12: Result of direct matrix ranking on five medicinal plants
Use categories Total Rank
Plant species

construct

Charcoal

Forage
wood

fence
Food

Live
Fire
ion
Cordia Africana 1 4 3 5 0 0 13 4th
Brucea antidysenteri 4 3 2 5 0 0 14 2nd
Carissa spinarum 4 0 3 0 5 0 12 3rd
Ziziphus spina- Christi 0 2 4 0 5 0 11 5th
Combretum collium 0 3 1 0 2 0 6 7th
Dodonaea angustifolia 2 0 4 1 3 0 10 6th
Olea europaea subsp 0 3 4 5 2 3 19 1st
cuspida

Total 11 15 22 16 17 3 75
Rank 5th 4th 1st 3rd 2nd 6th

4.4.8. Direct matrix ranking on threats of WEPs and MPs

The cause of threats to medicinal plants can be generally grouped into natural and human
induced factors. However, as the local people reported that the major factors perceived as threats
to medicinal and wild food plants in the study area are the anthropogenic factors such as
deforestation due to over exploitation of plants for different uses including charcoal making, fire
wood collection, construction purpose, overgrazing, cutting and burning of plants to create new
agricultural lands. Among those threats or factors as informants reported based on their level of
destructive effects by giving values as (1=least destructive, 6=most destructive). Based on these
agricultural expansion was given priority ranking followed by deforestation, and charcoal
making respectively (Table 13). (Eskedar Abebe, 2011; Tadesse Beyene, 2015) in Debark
District reported similar result.
Table 13: Direct matrix ranking on six factors perceived as threats to MPs & WFPs
Threaten factors Respondents(R1-R2) Total Rank
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6
Agricultural expansion 6 5 4 6 3 6 30 1st
Charcoal making 1 4 3 4 5 4 21 3rd
Over grazing 4 3 2 3 2 2 16 5th
Drought 2 1 1 5 4 1 15 6th
Deforestation 5 6 6 3 6 3 29 2nd
Building house 3 2 5 1 1 5 17 4th

45
4.4.9. Preference ranking on threatened MPs and WEPs in the study area

In this analysis method, key informants were involved to give information about locally
threatened plants. Thus, six plant species were short listed and ranked by the key informants
based on their personal preference or perception following the procedure explained by Martin
(1995) and Cotton (1996). The rarest plant/s is/are assigned with the highest number 6, while the
least preferred plant/s is/are given the lowest number which is „1‟. Of the total medicinal plants
reported by the local people the most threatened medicinal plants in the study area were Olea
europaea, subsp cuspida followed by Brucea antidysenterica and Croton macrostachyus
respectively. Whereas, the most threatened wild edible plants in the study area were Mimusops
kummel, followed by Ximenia americana and Cordia africana respectively (Table 14).
As informants reported, threatened medicinal plants in the study area were used for different
purposes like agricultural materials, medicines, house building, foraging purpose, and charcoal
making.
Table 14: Preference ranking on some threatened plant species in the study area
Threatened plant Respondents (R1-R6) Total Rank
species
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6

Croton macrostachyus 3 4 3 4 3 4 21 3rd

Olea europaea subsp 4 5 6 6 6 5 32 1st
cuspida
Brucea antidysenterica 5 6 5 5 4 6 31 2nd
Mimusops kummel 6 5 4 6 5 6 32 1st
Cordia Africana 4 6 6 4 4 5 29 3rd
Ximenia Americana 6 4 5 4 5 6 30 2nd

4.4.10. Jaccard`s Coefficient of Similarity (JCS)

Analysis of Jaccard‟s similarity index was conducted using number of medicinal plants reported
from each Kebeles to show their traditional medicinal plants knowledge and wild food
consumption similarity between kebeles by using presence-absence data. Jaccard‟s similarity
index (JSI) showed that the study area has the highest similarity plant assemblage between
Goondibrareg and Kalay had (JCS) value of 0.83 which indicated that the local people of these
area shared common knowledge of medicinal plants as well as consumption of wild edible plants
whereas study sites of Gondibrareg and Wareb had (JCS) value of 0.72 the remaining

46
 comparison shown in (Table 15). This showed that people living in the sampled kebeles had
similar medicinal knowledge about traditional medicinal plants knowledge and wild food
consumption. This is maybe there is different factors that influence on knowledge sharing
between each kebeles such as language, life style and cultural back ground. This finding is
similarly reported by (Adimasu Mekonen and Birhanu Adbaru, 2018) who stated that, agro
ecology and the result of their geographical proximity among each sites and the same ethnic
group with the same cultural back ground inhabiting in the three kebeles.

Table 15: Distribution and Similarities for the reported TMPs within 10 study sites

Gulana

Macha
Wareb

Ayseg
brareg
Gondi

Dikuo
Menti
Kalay

Fenta

Koza
na
eb ay dibra

1
Koz Ma Diku Ays Fent Gul Men War Kal Gon

reg

0.83 1
0.72 0.56 1
0.69 0.45 0.64 1
ana ti

0.58 0.34 0.54 0.56 1

0.45 0.33 0.45 0.43 0.65 1
cha ona eg a

0.34 0.25 0.40 0.42 0.54 0.54 1

0.32 0.23 0.42 0.34 0.45 0.43 0.53 1

0.21 0.22 0.34 0.24 0.34 0.34 0.44 0.52 1

0.20 0.20 0.23 0.21 0.30 0.22 0.42 0.45 0.56 1
a

47
5. CONCLUSSION AND RECUMMONDATIONS

5.1. CONCLUSION

In this study a total of 67 different ethnoveternary medicinal plant species that were belonging to
55 genera and 41 families were collected, identified and recorded. These plants were reported to
treat 38 different health problems of livestock in the study area. In addition, during this study a
total of 23 wild edible plant species belonging to 22 genera and 18 families were identified. The
majority respondents were greater than 61 years old and most of them were illiterate. Most
medicinal and edible types were mentioned by male informants. Most of edible plant and
medicinal plants were found and distributed in the wild habitat. The most frequently utilized
edible plant parts were fruits and community of the study area mostly consumed wild foods as
fresh form. In the study area, most wild edible plants that were mentioned by informants had
Sweet taste. The result of this study also showed that oral administration was the most dominant
route. People of the study area used various plant parts and methods for the preparation of
traditional medicine. Leaves were the most used plant parts in remedy preparation followed by
root. Disease categories like respiratory disease had higher ICF values showing high incidence of
this disease in the study area and agreement of people on their remedies). This result showed that
firewood was the most exploitive use value in the study area as the main destructive rank. The
most threatened wild edible and medicinal plants in the study area were Mimusops kummel and
Olea europaea, subsp cuspida respectively. The result of this study also showed that firewood
and agricultural expansion was the major threats to edible and medicinal plants in the study area.
5.2. RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the result of the study, the following recommendations are forwarded.

 The local people need to be encouraged and supported on how to conserve and manage
the medicinal and wild edible plant species found in their area;
 Local people need to work on growing medicinal and wild edible plants in home gardens
mixing with crops in the farm lands and live fences;
 Local community must be aware of preserving IK on medicinal and wild edible plants
 Attention should be given to standardization of measurement and hygiene of the
medicines made from plants by training both the healers and other members of the local
community.
48
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 APPENDICES

Appendix 1: The list of wild edible plants

other purpose
Growth habit

Consumption
Part(s) Used
Local name

Abundance
Method of

Collection
Scientific

number
Habitat
Family
Name

Taste
Agam Carissa Apocynaceae W S F Raw Sweet Occasio Firewoo TD/08/2020
spinarum L. h nal d
Dedho Euclea racemosa Eubinaceae W T F Raw Sweet Commo Firewoo TD/03/2020
Murr n d
Enqua Ximenia Olacaceae W T F Raw Sour Rare Firewoo TD/05/2020
y Americana L. d
Gaba Ziziphus spina- Rhamnaceae W T F Raw Sweet Commo Firewoo TD/04/2020
christi (L.) Desf. n d
Kimo Rhus vulgaris Anacardiacea W T F Raw Sour Commo Firewoo TD/010/2020
Meikle e n d
Beles(A Opuntia ficus-indica Cactaceae W C F Raw Sweet Sparse medicin TD/01/2020
shawa (L.) Miller e
kulkual)
Eshe Mimusops kumm Sapontaceae W T F Raw Sweet Rare Charcoa TD/02/2020
el -Bruceexa.DC l
Micha Oxalis latifolia Oxalidaceae H L F Raw Salty Less Fodder TD/07/2020
micho H.B.K. common
Wanza Cordia africana Boraginaceae B T F Raw Sour Sparse Firewoo TD/020/2020
Lam. d
&furnitu
re
Embac Rumex nervosus Polygonacea W S F Raw Bitter Less Medicin TD/023/2020
ho Vahl. e h common e
Keyaw Physalis peruvia Solanaceae W H F Raw Sweet Commo Fodder TD/016/2020
it na L. n

Engich Cyperus bulbosu Cyepraceae W H F Raw Sweet Commo Fodder TD/06/2020

a s Vahl n

Gimer Capparis Capparidacea B C F Raw Sweet Rare Fence TD/022/2020

o tomentosa e
Lam.
Ferrula commun Grind Less Medicin TD/011/2020
Dog is L. W H St ing Bitter common e

54
 Rumex abyssinic Polygonacea B Raw TD/021/2020
Meqi us Jacq. e W W Commo Medicin
meko H H P Bitter n e
Tikur Solanum nigrum Raw Commo TD/014/2020
Awit L. Solanaceae W H Fr flavor n Fodder
Rosa abyssinica S Raw TD/013/2020
Kega Lindley Rosaceae W h Fr Sweet Rare Fence
Grewia ferrugine Raw TD/09/2020
Lenku a Hochst ex
ata A.Rich. Tiliaceae W T Fr flavor Rare Fence
Ficus vasta Raw Charcoa TD/015/2020
Warka Fossk Moraceae W T Fr sweet Sparse l
Ficus sycomorus Raw TD/017/2020
Bamba LFriis I Bombaceae W T Fr Sweet Sparse charcoal
Picus glomerata W T f TD/019/2020
Shola Forssk. Moraceae Raw Sweet Sparse charcoal
Meqi B TD/012/2020
Rumex abyssinic Polygonacea
meko W W Fresh Medicin
us Jacq. e
H H P Bitter common e
Dokm Syzygium guinee Myrtaceae Raw TD/018/2020
nse DC(Wild)
a W T Fr Sweet Sparse charcoal
Key: W=wild, H=home garden, B=both, T=tree, C=climber, sh=shrub, H=herb, F=fruit,
WP=whole part

55
 Appendix 2: List of medicinal plants collected from the study area

Preparation

Application
Local name

Abundance
name
Scientific

Parts used
Collection

Diseases
number

Growth
Habitat

treated
Family

habit
TD/24/2 Dodonaea Sapind Kitik S W A L Leaf of Dodonaea angust Der Rh
020 angustifolia aceae ita h b ifolia smashed and powd mal factor
L.f. ered then added on back
bone of donkey
To treat broken part of Dislocat
body, the shoot parts are ed bone
cutting and applied as
bandage being held by
shembeko or
kerkeha/bamboo and tied
with a rope
Leaf will be pounding & Wound
crushing then dried
forming powder then
mixed with water, used
as creamed on animal

TD/25/2 Combretum Combre Tinj S W A L the whole parts will be Der Chicken
020 collium taceae ut h b burnd and smoked mal flea
Benth.
Insect
bite
TD/26/2 Phytolacca Phytola End C W L L leaf and fruit: will be Oral Leech
020 dodecandra caceae od l a & smashed and squeezed,
L‟Herit b F the decoction then
drenched to cattle

TD/27/2 Calpurnia a Fabaceae Digit S W A L fresh root of Achyranthes Nasa Shotelay

020 urea (Ait.) a h aspera will be dried and l /Rh
Benth smoked via nosetril factor
Fresh leaf will be Der Tick
crushing & smashed then mal
applied on affected parts
Its decoction also used Der Wound
for treatment of dermal mal
infection oral Leech
Its decoction also used
for treatment of leech

56
TD/28/ Datura Solanac Aste H W A L leaf will be smashed and Der Lice
2020 stramonium eae nagir squeezing then applied mal
L. on skin of calf

Used to applied on Der Wound

wound by smashing the mal
affected area
Used to applied on Der Wound
wound by smashing the mal
affected area
Used to treat skin rash by Der Skin
pounding fresh leaves mal rash and
topically nasal Leech
F The nectar of Datura
n stramonium will be
cultivated around their
hive,this special nectar is
very important to care
their family

TD/29/2 Carissa spin Apocyn Aga S W A L leaf of Carissa spinarum Oral Bloating
020 arum L. aceae m h pounding and squeezed
added with Capsicum
Annuumthen mixed with
water given to cattles Rh-
factor

The leaf will be burning Nasa Aynetila

with fire and then l
smoked via nostrils
TD/30/2 Cyphostem Vitacea Aser H W L L roots of Cyphostemma Oral
020 ma e kush a adenocaule will be
adenocaule h b ponding with additional
(Steud.exA. root of Echinops Rh-
Rich.)Des.e keberichoand then small factor
x Wild amount of butter added
&Drum. then given to cow
R Roots will be crushed Der Impetigo
and dried, then make mal /Kunchir
powder form, remix with
water, applied on skin of
donkey

57
TD/31/2 Croton Euphor Miss T W R L The leaf of Croton Oral Anthrax
020 macrostachy biaceae ana & macrostachyus and roots
us- Del R of Echinopskebericho and
will be pound by adding Rh-
water then given to factor
Animals at morning
L the leaf will be given to Vagi Aynetila
cow, when the cow hat nal
their calf
Used to treat bloating of Oral Bloating
animals
L By pounding and Oral Rabies
/t crushing, mixed with
e water,then given to dog
k
e
ts
il
a
TD/32/2 Grewia Malvac Lenk T W R B the bark of Grewia Der External
020 ferruginea eae uata ferruginea will be pound mal parasites
Hochst.ex.A by adding water form as
Rich detergent then washed
the animal body

The detergent is used to Oral Cough

treat animal cough
The detergent of Grewia Oral Rabies
ferruginea is mixed with
milk, then given to dog
TD/33/2 Cucumis Cucurb Yem C W A R roots of Cucumis Oral Blakleg
020 ficifolius itaceae ider l b t ficifolius and roots of
A. Rich. Emb Echinops kebericho will
uay be ponding with small
amount of butter added
then given to cow

TD/34/2 Aspara Yese C W L L Leaf of Asparagus Oral Aynetila

020 Asparagus gaceae tkest l a africanus and root of
africanus b Aloe macrocarpa are
Lam. pounded and smashed
together,mixed with
water and given for
pregnant cow and
donkey to drunk

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 Chewing the leaf and Der Wound
spiting on wound mal

R Roots will be chopping Oral Ascaries

t with water and areki,
then decoction is given
to drunk
TD/35/2 Cordia Boragi Wan T W O L the leaf of cordia Vagi Aynetila
020 africana naceae za africanawill be given to nal
Lam. cow, when the cow hat
their calf
Fresh leaf also used for Der Ectopara
smashed horn of cattle mal sites
for 1 week
TD/36/2 Aloe Aloace Eriet N W L R fresh root will be Der Wound
020 macrocarpa ae W a t pounding and dried mal
Tod. b mixed with butter and
water then creamed on
skin of donkey wound
Taken roots from 3 Oral Wugit
different places ,root of
Asparagus africanus
and Cyphostemma
adenocaule mixed all
together then crushed
with water,given to
pregnant cow

TD/37/2 Achyranthes Amaran Tele H W A R fresh root of Achyranthes Nasa Aynetila

020 aspera L. thaceae nj b t aspera will be dried and l
smoked via nosetril

TD/38/2 Syzygium Myrtac Dok T W O B the bark will be pounded Oral Rabies
020 guineense eae ma and crushed then added
DC(wild) some salt, mixed with
water and given to dogs

Bish S W A R The root of bibsha and Oral Michi

TD/39/2 bish h b t bark of Croton
020 a/Gu macrospachyus are
ffia mixed together, crushed Abdomi
by droping water and nal colic
then drenched

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 Fresh roots will be Oral Bloating
crushed mixed with
water, then given to
animals
TD/40/2 Sida Malvac Gurj S W A L leaf will be chewed and Der Itch
020 rhombifolia eae ijit h b spitted and applied on mal
L. affected area Eczema
and eye
diseases

TD/41/2 Euclea Eubina Didi S W A R roots will be pounded Oral Azurit/at

020 racemosa L ceae ho h b t and dried, mixed with in
Hiern. fruit of Lipidium sativum
,then given to goats for
three days

TD/42/2 Citrus Rutace Lom S C R F the juice of lemon mixed Oral Anthrax
020 aurantifolia. ae i h U with leaf of Echinops
Burn. f. mixed together then
added 1 cup honey, given
to an infected animals
The juice also used for Der external
external parasites mal parasite
TD/43/2 Olea Oleace Woy T W O L the leaf of Olea will be Opti Eye
020 europaea L. ae ra chewed and then mixed cal diseases
subsp. with water and given to Der
Cuspidate animal via eyes shoot mal
parts of Olea will be Dislocat
used to join broken bone ed bone
of animals
TD/44/2 Clerodendru Morace War T W R L leaf will be boiled and Oral Kufign/
020 m ae ka added on chopping of measles
myricoides Allium sativumthen its
Fossk decoction is applied on
skin of goats for 3 days

TD/45/2 Brucea Abal T W O B the bark will be grinding Nasa Blackleg

020 antidysenter Simaro o a and smoked in all animal l
ica J.F.Mill ubiacea houses
e

TD/46/2 Allium Alliace Nec H C A B

020 sativum L. ae hishi u u The bulb of Allium
nkur sativumis mixed with
t honey, then stay for 3
days
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TD/47/2 Acacia Febace Chib T B A L leaves will be given to Oral Constipa
020 nilotica a ha W b cattle every night to tion
(L)wild C prevent constipation
ex.Del

TD/48/2 Buddleja Logani Mete H W L F The fruit of Buddleja Oral Tape

020 polystachya aceae r/A a polystachya will be dried worm
Fresen. mkin b and crushed mixed with
water and then given to
dog before breakfast

TD/49/2 Entada Febaca Inke C W The leaf of kentefa dried Oral General
020 abyssinicus- ceae ketif l and crushhed then mixed illness
Forssk a/Ke with the leaf of Misirch
ntefa with water and given to
cows

TD/50/2 Dombeya Sterculi Wul T W R L leaf will be pounded and Oral Bloating
020 torrida (J. F. aceae kfa smashed mixed with
Gmel.) P. water, then given to
Bamps B animals derm Bone
a bark will be used to join al broken
broken parts of animals

TD/51/2 Melia Meliace Nim T C R L For treatment of general Oral General

020 azedarach ae U illness specially for hens illness
Forssk.

TD/52/2 Echinops Asterac Keb H W A R Root will be pounded Oral kuriba/b

020 kebericho- eae erich b smashed and mixed with ody
Mesfin o water, then given to swallowi
donkey ng
roots will be pounded
and dried, mixed with
fruit of Lipidium sativum
,then given to animals for
three days
Root concoction together
with root of Ricinus
communis is boiled and
decoction is drunk

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TD/53/2 Guizotia Asterac Nug H C A S the seed powdered of nug Oral Tape
020 abyssinica eae U b mixed with meter is worm
L. given to cattles for two
days continuously

TD/54/2 Sauromatum Aracea Amo C W L R Root paste mixed with Oral Ascaries
020 venosum (Ai e ch l a water is taken by dogs in
t.) Kunth. b the morning before
breakfast

TD/55/2 Gossypium Malvac Tit S C A F Topical application of Oral Afemaz/

020 herbaceum eae h U b fruit powder on the kusil
L. mouth parts of dogs and
sheep

TD/562 Buddleja Logani Anfa S W L R For treating the cattle eye Opti Eye
020 polystachya aceae r h a diseases by chewing and cal diseases
Fresen. b spitting on the affected derm
area al Bone
Young shoots broken
TD/57/2 Barleria Fabace Yese C W L L leaf will be chewed and Opti Eye
020 eranthemoid ae t af l a spitted and applied on cal diseases
es R. Br.ex b animal eyes
C. B. Cl

TD/58/2 Commolina Comme woh H W A W leaf will be pounded and Oral Constipa
020 latifolia linacea akur/ b h smashed,added some tion
Hochst. Ex. e wofe salts,given to animals
Rich. anku
re

TD/59/2 Lageniaria Cucurbi Kil C C A F used for treating Kurba, Oral kuriba/b
020 siceraria, taceae l U b fruits will be pounded ody
and mixed with water, swallowi
the bitter liquid is given ng
to donkey to drunk for 1
week.

TD/60/2 Musax Musace Muz N C O F used for general healthy Oral general
020 paradisiaca ae w U & of animals specially illness
L. W during drought season
h To treat cough. The Oral Cough
cow/ox is given banana
every morning

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TD/61/2 Trichodesm Boragi Yew H W A R The roots are chopped abdomin
020 a naceae sha b mixed with water, then al
zeylanicum mila filtered given to cattle to colic/nif
L. s drunk at

TD/62/2 Aloe vera Aloace Eret N W A L To treat kemkim (wound Der Kemkim
020 Reyoids ae w b on the tail of cattle).the mal
leaves are squeezed and
mixed with powder of
berberie, then applied on
affected area

TD/63/2 Lepidium Apiace Feto H C A S fruits will be smashed Oral Anthrax

020 sativum L. ae U b and powdered then
mixed with water and Der Febrile
added chopped Allium mal illness
sativunwith 3 Bloating
spatula/spune honey,
then given to ----animals
TD/64/2 Eragrostis t Apiace Tef H C A S fruits will be boiled and Oral kisat
020 ef (Zucc.) ae U b added small amount of
Trotter salt, then directly given
to Oxen during drought

TD/65/2 Menisp Yea C W A R Pounded Leaf will be Oral Kuriba

020 Stephania ermace yit l b drenched to the animals
abyssinica ae hare
g

Key: In bold are medicinal plants, habit, T=Tree, Sh=Shrub, Cl=Climber, H=Herb, Nw=non-
woody, Habitat, W=wild, Cu=cultivated, BWC=Both wild an cultivated, Abundance,
Ab=abundant, Lab= less abundant r=rare, O=occasional, Parts used, L=leaf, F=fruit, Fn=flower
nectar, Rt=Root, B=bulb, S=Seed, La =latex, Wh=whole par

Appendices 3: Research interview questions for respondents

Ethnobotaical Study of Medicinal Plants in West Belessa Woreda, North Gondar Zone, Amhara
Regional State, Ethiopia
Research interview
Format for collecting ethnobotanical data using a checklist of questions to conduct semi-
structured interviews for Ethnobotanical study of Medicinal plants and wild edible plants
Personal information

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Instruction
 Do not write your name
 Please respond the following questions by writing appropriate information on
Space provided by writing “ ∕“ mark.
1. Sex: - a) male b) female
2. Age: - a) 20-40 b) 41-60 c) above 61
3. Residence area (village) ______________________________ Keble code____________
3.1. Marital status: - a) single b) married c) divorced
3.2. Occupation (main job):- a) farmer b) government worker c) merchant d) other
3.3. Religion: a) Orthodox b) Muslim c) Protestant d) Others
3.4. Educational background (grades):-
a) 1-4 b) 5-8 c) above 8 d) 1-4 & religious education c) 5-8 & religious education
d) >8 & religious education e) Uneducated
3.5. For how long have you lived in the area? A. Since birth B. For 10 years C. For 20
years D. For above 20 years

Ethnobotanical data for medicinal plants

4. What are the most common diseases of, livestock‟s in the study area?
Livestock diseases______________________________________________________________
5. How do people prevent and control disease in the area? _______________________________
6. Mention medicinal plants used to treat, livestock diseases in your area?
_____________________________________________________
7. Where do these plants grow / cultivate (the most common habitats of medicinal plants)?
A) Wild /forest B) Home garden C) both wild and homegarden
8. What is the habit (life forms) of the plant? Tree (T) shrub (sh) herbs (h)
Climber (CL) Others (O)
9. What part/s of the medicinal plant(s) is/are used?
Leaf (L) Roots (R) Bark (B) Stem (St) Fruit (F) Seed (s) Whole plant (Wp) Bulb (B)
10. What is the method of preparation of the medicinal plants? (Would you explain the details
for preparation of the remedies?
Concoction, smashed, Crushed, Boiling, Grinding, Burning, Powdered, Fumigation,
11. How are the prepared remedies taken by the patient(s) (route of administration)?
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Dermal, Oral, Nasal, Ear canal, Optical, Anal, Vaginal
12. Does the medicine has any specific measurement (Dosage) and vary among age groups and
sex?_________________________________________________________________________
13. Is there any side effect of the medicine? If yes, is there any antidote and mention?
______________________________________________________________________________
14. How is the knowledge of medicinal plants use transferred from elders to the young
generation?____________________________________________________________________
15. Mention the threats that affect the indigenous knowledge of the local healers.
16. Which plant species are the most preferred in their uses as medicinal? Why?
17. Are there treats to medicinal plants? If so, how they conserved/ preserved in the area?
Threats____________________________Conservation_______________________________
18. What are threatening factors of medicinal plants in your area? For medicinal
___________, Food________, Firewood_______, Charcoal________, Fence_______,
Construction__________, Furniture_____________,
19. Which season preferred for collection of medicinal plants in your area?
summer____________, winter_________spring,-------------autuman-------- All the year round
20. Form of the medicinal plant used
A. In fresh form B. Creaming C. In dry form D. Fumigation
21. which spps of shrubs and trees frequently disappeared in our environment? Why?
Ethnobotanical data for wild edible plants
1. List the type of plants that are edible for human?
Types of Which Mode of Taste habitat Growth Other
edible plants parts are administration habit purposes
edible?

1.1. Which type of plants is more or commonly edible for human? Why?

1.2. In what season the wild edible plants are more available?

A. Summer B. Winter C. spring D. Autumn E. The whole season

I Thank You in Advance for Your Time and Cooperation.

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