Name _________________________ Date ________________

L6 Atomic Structure
Learning objectives
 Describe how the structure of an atom developed from Dalton to Schrodinger
 State the relative masses of protons, neutrons and electrons
 State the relative charges of protons, neutrons and electrons
 Explain how these particles are arranged in an atom
 Define the terms atomic number, mass number and isotope
 Explain why isotopes of the same element have identical chemical properties

Atomic structure
HSW How do we know about atoms?

No one has yet been able to look inside atoms to see what they are really like. The
typical picture we have of an atom in our minds is neither ‘the truth’ nor ‘the right
answer’. It is a good working model, which helps to explain many phenomena. Much
evidence has been gathered to support the current model of the atom. The model may
change as more evidence comes to light, and it is likely to become more detailed

How has the current model developed ? Many scientists contributed to the sequence
of gathering knowledge about the atom, but some made particularly important
discoveries

Activity
Each group is going to take the part of one of these scientists or groups of
scientists
 J.J.Thompson
 Hans Geiger, Ernest Marsden and Ernest Rutherford
 Henry Moseley
 James Chadwick

You are going to prepare and deliver a presentation covering the following points.
 Who you are
 When you did the work you will describe
 What you did
 What you found out
 What conclusions you drew from your results
Use suitable textbooks, magazine articles or the internet to find the information
you need. You will need to discuss what information and images to include and
what to leave out as a group. Make sure your report is in chronological order 1
Prepare a hand out with the key points for the rest of the class and deliver your
presentation to the rest of the group
Name _________________________ Date ________________

1. Use the presentations you have just listened to complete the table by making a
brief summary of the contributions each of these scientists have made towards
our understanding of the atom.

1661 Robert He proposed that there were some substances that could not be
Boyle made simpler. These were the chemical elements as we now
know them
1803 John He suggested that elements were composed of indivisible atoms.
Dalton All atoms of a particular element had the same mass and atoms
of different elements had different masses. Atoms could not be
broken down
1896 Henri He discovered radioactivity. This showed that particles could
Becquerel come from inside the atom so the atoms was not indivisible.

1896 JJ
Thompson

1911 Ernest
Rutherfor
d

1913 Henri
Moseley

1913 Niels Bohr Niels Bohr put forward the idea that atom consisted of a tiny
positive nucleus orbited by negatively charged electrons to form
and atom like a solar system. The electrons orbited in shells of
fixed size and the movement of electrons from one shell to
another explained how atoms absorbed and gave out light. This

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was the beginning of quantum theory.

1926 Erwin Erwin Schrodinger, a mathematical physicist worked out an
Schrodinge equation that used the ideas that electrons had some properties
r of waves as well as those of particles. This led to a theory
called quantum mechanics which can be used to predict the
behaviour of subatomic particles

1932 James
Chadwick

Fundamental particles

Atoms are extremely small (1 x 10-10m ) and the nucleus even smaller (1 x 10-15m).
Most of an atom is empty space. The actual values of the masses and charges of sub-
atomic particles are so small that it is difficult to have a realistic understanding of
them. Instead we use relative masses and charges.

Particle Proton (p) Neutron (n) Electron (e)

Relative mass 1 1 1/1836
(negligible)
Relative charge +1 0 -1

Nearly all the mass of an atom is in the nucleus. The mass of an electron is negligible
compared to the mass of protons and neutrons

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Protons, neutrons and electrons

An atom consists of electrons, which orbit a small heavy nucleus containing the
protons and neutrons. There are different ways to illustrate an atom

Atomic number and Mass number

The atomic number Z is the number of protons in the
Mass number A 12
nucleus of an atom. It also known as the proton number.
The atomic number determines the element e.g all atoms C
with Z=6 are carbon atoms. Atomic number Z 6

The mass number A is the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
An atom is neutral . The charge on an electron is equal but opposite to that on a
proton, therefore, the atomic number is equal to the number of electrons in an atom
In an element all atoms have the same
 Number of protons
 Number of electrons
 Atomic number Z
Protons and neutrons are called nucleons

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Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but a
different number of neutrons

12 13 14

C C C Isotopes of carbon
6 6 6

1 2 3

H H H Isotopes of hydrogen
1 1 1

35 37

Cl Cl Isotopes of chlorine

17 17

Isotopes of the same element are identical chemically as these properties depend on
the number of electrons, however, they differ in their physical properties (density, bpt,
mpt) as these depend on the mass of the atom. Isotopes also differ in their nuclear
properties e.g. radioactivity. Some isotopes called radioisotopes are unstable and
decay giving off radiation

Radio Carbon dating

Carbon-14 is a radioisotope of carbon produced by cosmic ray activity in the
atmosphere. All living matter takes in carbon in the form of food and carbon dioxide.
The ratio of 12C : 14C does not change in a living organism but when it dies the 14C is
not replenished and the ratio 12C : 14C gradually increases. As the half life of 14C is
5750 years this technique is useful up to 50,000 years. After that there is too little 14C
to detect.

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Radioisotopes such as uranium-235 can be used for geological dating. Why

can’t uranium-235 be used for archaeological dating?

Questions
1 Define the terms

Atomic number …………………………………………………………….…(1).

Mass number ……………………………………………………………..……(1)

2. Explain the term isotope using carbon as an example

…………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………(3).

3. The radioactivity in a wooden bowl was found to be ¼ of that found in an

identical modern wooden bowl. How old is the bowl?

…………………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………(2)

4. The letters in the table below do not represent the symbols of the elements

W X Y Z

Mass Number 36 39 40 40

Neutrons in the 18 19 21 22
nucleus

a) Write down the atomic number for each of the elements

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W ……………….

X ……………….

Y ……………….

Z ……………….. (4)
b) Which of the four atoms are isotopes of the same element

………………………………………………………………..……………(1)

5. a) Complete the table below (8)

Isotopic Z A Number of Number Number of

symbol protons of electrons
neutrons
Copper – 63
(69.1%)
Copper – 65
(30.9%)
Argon – 36
(0.34%)
Argon – 38
(0.063%)
Argon – 40
(99.6%)
Silicon – 29
(4.71%)
Silicon – 28
(92.18%)
Silicon – 30
(3.12%)

Relative Atomic Mass (Ar)

The relative atomic mass of an element is the average mass of an atom relative to
1/12 mass of a carbon-12 atom.

e.g. The element chlorine has isotopes of mass number 35 (75%) and 37 (25%)

Ar (Cl) = (35 x 75/100) + 37 x 25/100) = 35.5 (no units)

Calculating the relative atomic mass of an element

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In order to calculate the relative atomic mass of the element you need to know the
relative atomic mass Ar of each of the constituent isotopes and the percentage
abundance of each isotope
Ar (element) = (Ar (isotope 1) x percentage abundance (isotope 1)/100) +
(Ar(isotope 2) x percentage abundance (isotope 2)/100) +
(A r(isotope 3) x percentage abundance (isotope 3)/100) + .....
Fractional abundances can be used instead of percentage abundances but then you
do not divide by 100
b) The figures in brackets in question 5 are the percentage abundances of each of
the isotopes. Calculate the relative atomic masses of the elements copper,
argon and silicon (to 1dp)

Copper…………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………….……………………..

…………………………………………………………………….…………………….

Argon…………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………….……………………..

…………………………………………………………………….…………………….

Silicon…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………….…………………….

…………………………………………………………………….…………………….

To find the percentage abundance of isotopes if you know Ar

Example The relative atomic mass Ar of the element iridium is 192.2. Iridium occurs
naturally as a mixture of iridium-191 and iridium -193. Work out the percentage
abundance of each type of iridium in naturally occurring iridium
Let % abundance of iridium -191 =X
Therefore % abundance of iridium- 193 = 100 –X

Ar (iridium) = (Ar (iridium- 191) x percentage abundance (iridium -191)/100) +

(A r(iridium-193) x percentage abundance (iridium-193/100)

192.2 = (191 x X/100) + ( 193 x (100 – X)/100)

19220 = 191X + 19300 – 193X

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2X = 80
X =40
Hence 40% iridium- 191 and 60% iridium -193

Problems
1. The relative atomic mass Ar of the element antimony is 121.8. Antimony
occurs naturally as a mixture of antimony-121 and antimony-123. Work out
the percentage abundance of each type of antimony in naturally occurring
antimony
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................

2. The relative atomic mass Ar of the element rubidium is 85.5 . Rubidium

occurs naturally as a mixture of rubidium-85 and rubidium -87. Work out the
percentage abundance of each type of rubidium in naturally occurring
rubidium.
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................

24
3. Magnesium exists as three isotopes Mg, 25Mg and 26Mg. Magnesium-25
atoms make up 10.0% by mass in a sample of magnesium. The relative atomic
mass Ar of the element magnesium is 24.3. Use this information to deduce the

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percentage abundances of magnesium -24 and magnesium -26 present in the

sample
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................

Glossary
Relative mass, relative charge, mass number, atomic number, isotope, nucleons,
radioisotope, half-life, Relative atomic mass

Electron Arrangement
 Describe how electrons are arranged in an atom
 Recognise that an electron can behave as a particle, a wave or a cloud of
charge
 Illustrate how electron configurations are written in terms of s,p,d and f
electrons

1. The energy levels(shells) are called principal energy levels and are given the
numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7…. (Principal quantum numbers).

2. The principal energy levels contain sub-levels. Each principle energy level
contains different number of sub-levels. These sub-levels are assigned the
letters s, p, d and f

Principle 1 2 3 4
quantum
number
Number of 1 (1s) 2 (2s + 2p) 3 (3s + 3p +3d) 4 (4s + 4p + 4d
sublevels
+4f)

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3. The different types of sub-levels have different energies with s being the
lowest and f the highest i.e 4s< 4p < 4d< 4f The lower the energy of the
sublevel the closer it is to the nucleus so 3s is lower in energy than 3p and
closer to the nucleus than 3p.

4. Each sub-level contains orbitals e.g. the 2p sublevel contains 3 x 2p orbitals.

Different sub-levels contain different numbers of orbitals
Type of sub- s p d f
level
No of orbitals 1 x s orbital 3 x p orbital 5 x d orbital 7 x f orbital

5. Each orbital can contain a maximum of two electrons with opposite spin
shown↑↓
as

1st principal energy level

s orbital

6.
electron
↑↓
7.
8.
1 s sub-level

2nd principal energy level

p orbital
s orbital
9.

electron
↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓

2s sub-level 2p sublevel

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3rd principal energy level

p orbital
s orbital d orbital

Maximum number of electrons in each energy level electron

↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓

3 s sub-level 3p sublevel 3d sub-level

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The periodic table

Principle energy Sub-levels Max No of electrons

level
1 1s 2
2 2s 2p 2+6=8
3 3s 3p 3d 2 + 6 + 10 = 18
4 4s 4p 4d 4f 2 + 6 + 10 + 14 = 32

The periodic table consists of all the elements in order of increasing atomic number
Z but the arrangement also reflects the electronic structure of the elements. The
Periodic table is split into blocks called the s block; p block; d block and f block.
The columns are called groups and the rows are called periods. The blocks
correspond to the filling of the sub-levels i.e in s block the last electron entered the s
sub-level, in p block the last electron entered the p sub-level

Orbitals
The energy sub-levels are made up of orbitals each of
which can hold a maximum of two electrons. The
different types of orbitals have different shapes. An
orbital is a region of space where there is a 95%
chance of finding an electron. All orbitals within the
same sub-level are the same energy but the sub-levels
differ in energy

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Electron configuration
The electron configuration of an element describes how the electrons in its atoms are
arranged in their principle levels, sub-levels and orbitals. It always refers to the
ground state of the atom.

Filling the energy levels

Electrons always fill the lowest energy sub-levels first and then in ascending order i.e
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p 6s 4f 5d 6p 7s 5f 6d
Note that 4s is lower energy than 3d so is filled before 3d.

Rules for filling the energy levels

1. Aufbau Principle
The electrons occupy the lowest energy orbital available first

2. Pauli exclusion principle

Orbitals may not contain more than two electrons and only if they have opposite spin
Forbidden Allowed
↑↑ ↑↓

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3. Hunds’ rule
Orbitals of a sublevel must be singly occupied by electrons with parallel spins before
they can be occupied in pairs
1s 2s 2p 1s 2s 2p

↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↓ ↑

These diagrams are called electron in box diagrams.

Spdf Notation
Electronic configuration can be written using electrons in boxes or using spdf
notation
e.g. Chlorine Z = 17 1s22s22p63s23p5
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p

↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑

In spdf notation all the same sublevels must be written next to each other even if this
is not in order of energy
e.g. Iron Z= 26 1s22s22p63s23p63d64s2 (4s is lower energy than 3d)

Abbreviated Spdf Notation

Electron configurations are sometimes abbreviated by giving only the electrons
beyond the previous noble gas
e.g. Iron Z=26 [Ar]3d64s2 where [Ar] =1s22s22p63s23p6

Electron configuration of ions

This can be deduced by adding or removing electrons
Na (Z =11) 1s22s22p63s1 or [Ne] 3s1
Na+ (Z =11) 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]

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Name _________________________ Date ________________

Cl (Z =17) 1s22s22p63s23p5 or [Ne] 3s23p5

Cl -(Z =17) 1s22s22p63s23p6 or [Ar] or [Ne] 3s23p6

Transition elements
When filling the orbitals the 4s is lower energy than the 3d so fills first. Elements
with a partially filled d sub-level are called transition elements

K (Z=19) [Ar] 4s1

Ca (Z=20) [Ar] 4s2
Sc (Z=21) [Ar] 3d14s2
Ti (Z=22) [Ar] 3d24s2
V (Z=23) [Ar] 3d34s2
Cr (Z=24) [Ar] 3d54s1
Mn (Z=25) [Ar] 3d54s2 Transition metals
6 2
Fe (Z=26) [Ar] 3d 4s
Co (Z=27) [Ar] 3d74s2
Ni (Z=28) [Ar] 3d84s2
Cu (Z=29) [Ar] 3d104s1
Zn (Z=30) [Ar] 3d104s2

In both chromium and copper there is only one electron in the 4s sublevel as a half
filled d5 or fully filled d10 3d sub-level is extra stable

Note that for all the transition metal ions the 4s electrons are lost first
e.g Fe (Z=26) 1s22s22p63s23p63d64s2
e.g. Fe2+ (Z=26) 1s22s22p63s23p63d6
e.g. Fe3+ (Z=26) 1s22s22p63s23p63d5

Isoelectronic species
These are species with the same electronic configuration

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Name _________________________ Date ________________

e.g O2-; F- ;Ne; Na+ ;Mg2+ ;Al 3+ all have 1s22s22p6

Questions
1. Write down the electronic configuration of the atoms with atomic numbers
given below using spdf notation (8)

Atomic number Electronic configuration (Spdf notation)

21

23

28

31

33

35

2. Name the elements whose atoms have the following electronic

configuration(7)

Electronic configuration Element

1s22s22p63s1

1s22s22p63s23p64s1

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Name _________________________ Date ________________

1s22s22p6

[Ne]3s23p1

1s22s2

1s22s22p3

1s22s22p2

3. Which of the following are not possible electronic configurations for an

atom. Explain your answer (10)

1s22s1 ………………………………………………………………………

1s3 ………………………………………………………………………….

2s1…………………………………………………………………………..

1s22s23p83s1……………………………………………………………….

1s22s22p62d2……………………………………………………………..

4. Elements in the periodic table are put in blocks according to the sub-level
being filled e.g. zinc (Z= 30) has an electronic configuration of [Ar] 3d 10
so it is placed in d-block as this is the sub-level the last electron entered.
Write the electronic configurations for the elements below and where
appropriate state which block and which group it is in (20)

Electronic Block Group

Element configuration

Na (Z=11)

Mg (Z=12)

Al (Z=13)

Si(Z=14)

P(Z=15)

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S (Z=16)

Cl (Z=17)

Ar(Z=18)

Cu (Z=29)

Fe (Z=26)

5. Write down the electronic configuration of the ions in the table below (10)

Ion Electronic configuration

S 2-

Cl –

K+

Ca 2+

Cr 2+

Cr 3+

Cu+

Cu 2+

Zn 2+

Fe 3+

Glossary
Principal energy level, principal quantum numbers, sub-levels, orbitals, s, p, d, f
blocks, groups & periods in periodic table, electron configuration, transition elements,
iso-electronic species

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L6 Mass spectrometer
Students should be able to:
 Explain how a TOF mass spectrometer works and what it measures
 Interpret simple mass spectra of elements
 Calculate relative atomic mass from isotopic abundance, limited to
mononuclear ions.
Mass Spectrometer
The mass spectrometer is an instrument used
 to measure the accurate relative masses of the isotopes present
 to measure the accurate relative abundance of the isotopes present
A mass spectrometer can be used to find the relative atomic mass of an element or
the molecular mass of molecules in a sample. Alternatively it is used to fragment a
molecule and then measure the masses of the fragments. From this information it is
possible to find out more about the structure of the molecule.

Detector – light ions arrive

The time of flight TOF mass spectrometer first and cause a current
proportional to number of ions

Beam of positive ions drifting

Droplets through flight tube Computer which produces a
Sample containing sample mass spectrum
ions

+ -
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Name _________________________ Date ________________

1. The mass spectrometer is evacuated of air, otherwise the ions produced would
undergo random collisions with air particles
2. The sample to be analysed has to be turned into a singly charged positive ion
(ionised). This can be done by electrospray. The sample is dissolved in a
volatile solvent and forced through a fine hollow needle that is connected to
the positive terminal of a high voltage supply. This produces positively
charged droplets. The solvent evaporates into the vacuum and the droplets get
smaller and smaller until they consist of a single positively charged ion [MH+].
3. The positive ions are attracted towards a negatively charged plate and are
accelerated to the same kinetic energy.
4. The positive ions form a beam and travel along a tube called the flight tube to
the detector. The ions are then allowed to drift to the detector. Kinetic energy
= ½ mv2 where m = mass of ion; v = velocity of ion. As all the ions have the
same kinetic energy, heavier ions will be travelling slower and take longer to
reach the detector and lighter ions will be traveling faster so reach the detector
faster. We measure the time of flight
4. The detector produces an electric current when it is hit by ions. The more ions
it is hit by the larger the current. A computer converts this into a mass
spectrum

Problem 1
In a TOF mass spectrometer, ions are accelerated to the same kinetic energy (KE)

KE = ½ mv2 where m = mass(kg) and v = velocity (ms-1)

V =d/t where d = distance (m) and t = time (s)

In a TOF mass spectrometer, each 25Mg+ ion is accelerated to a KE of 4.52 x 10-16 J

and the time of flight is 1.44 x 10-5s.

Calculate the distance travelled by a 25Mg+ ion in metres in the TOF drift region. (The
Avogadro constant L = 6.022x 10 23 mol-1)
Clue: You will first need to work out the mass of a 25Mg+ ion in kg

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Name _________________________ Date ________________

…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………(4)

Mass spectra
A mass spectrum gives information on the ions with different m\z values present in
the sample and on the relative abundance of each of the ions. In a sample each ion
has a different mass so each isotope produces a peak with a different m\z value.
Assuming all ions have 1+ charge then the m/z value is the same as the mass.
However, a small number of ions will have a 2+ charge and will be accelerated more
than singly charged ions(An ion with a mass of 16 but a charge of 2+ would have the
same m/z value as an ion with a mass of 8 but a charge of +1). The height of each
peak will be proportional to the relative abundance of that isotope.

Using the Mass Spectrum to calculate the relative atomic mass Ar of an

element

The mass spectrum tells you how many isotopes there are, the mass numbers of each
isotope and the fractional abundance of each isotope allowing you to calculate the
relative atomic mass

The number of isotopes: The two peaks in the mass spectrum shows that there are 2
isotopes of boron - with relative isotopic masses of 10 and 11 on the 12C scale.

Mass spectrum of Boron

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Name _________________________ Date ________________

The abundance of the isotopes: The relative heights of the peaks gives you a direct
measure of the relative abundances of the isotopes. You can find the relative
abundances by measuring the lines on the stick diagram. In this case, the two isotopes
of boron (with their relative abundances) are:

Fractional abundance = height of peak/total height of all isotopes

Ar (element) = Ar(isotope 1) x fractional abundance (isotope 1) + Ar(isotope

2) x fractional abundance (isotope 2) + Ar(isotope 3) x
fractional abundance (isotope 3) + ……..

m/z 10 11

Height of peak 23 100

Suppose you had 123 typical atoms of boron. 23 of these would be 10B and 100 would
be 11B.

The average mass of these 123 atoms would be (23/123 x 10) + (100/123 x 11) = 10.8
(to 1dp).

The relative atomic mass of boron is 10.8

Using the Mass Spectrum to calculate the relative molecular mass Mr of

a compound

m\z = 46 is the
molecular ion peak
The mass spectrometer is also used for the (furthest to the
right)
analysis of compounds. The ionisation of a
molecule produces a large number of peaks as the

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molecule is fragmented. The peak with the largest m\z value (furthest to the right) is
the molecular ion i.e the ion produced when the whole molecule is ionised. The m\z
value represents the relative molecular mass Mr

The relative molecular mass Mr of a compound is the average of the mass of the
molecule relative to 1/12 of the mass of one carbon-12 atom.

Mass Spectrometers in Space

Space probes such as the Viking Martian Lander or the Giotto space probe carry mass
spectrometers, which are used to identify the elements in rock samples. There is no
need for a high vacuum pump as it is used in the high vacuum of space.

Questions

1. The isotopic composition of magnesium was investigated using a mass

spectrometer. The mass spectrum contains three peaks with m/z ratios and
relative intensities shown below.

M/z 24 25 26

Relative 1.000 0.127 0.139

intensity

a) Write the formulae of the three singly charged ions that would be formed

…………………………………………………………………………………(3)

b) Explain the meaning of relative atomic mass with reference to

magnesium

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………(3).

c) Use the data in the table to calculate the relative atomic mass of
magnesium

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………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………(3)

d) What would you expect the m/z ratio for the 24Mg 2+ to be ……………(1)

e) Give one reason why it is important to use the minimum amount of energy
to ionise a sample in a mass spectrometer
………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………(1)
f) Why is it a good approximation to assume that the relative atomic mass of
24
Mg+ is the same as the relative atomic mass of 24Mg.

…………………………………………………………………………(1)

g) One of the isotopes of Mg, given in the table, has an ion that forms a
small peak in the mass spectrum which is indistinguishable from a
12
peak produced by C+ ions. Identify this Mg ion and explain your
answer.

Ion ..............................................................................................
.........

Explanation ................................................................................
.........

....................................................................................................
.........

2. A sample of nickel was analysed in a mass spectrometer. Three peaks were

observed with the properties shown in the table below

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Name _________________________ Date ________________

Relative abundance / % 69 27 4

M/z 58 60 62

a) Give the symbol including atomic number and mass number for the ion
which is responsible for the peak m/z = 58

……………………………………………………………………(1)

b) Calculate the relative atomic mass of nickel

…………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………(3)

3. One concern linked to global climate change is that the sea level may rise,
leading to flooding. Oxygen isotope ratios, determined from geological material,
have varied over time and can be used to interpret past sea level changes.
(a) The two oxygen isotopes used are 18O and 16O. Complete the table below to show the
atomic structure of these isotopes. [1]

isotope number of protons number of electrons number of neutrons

18
O

16
O

(b) A time-of-flight mass spectrometer can be used to calculate the relative abundance of
these
isotopes in suitable geological material.
(i) Explain how a time-of-flight mass spectrometer works. You should include the following
terms in your answer.

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Name _________________________ Date ________________

Detector drift region ions kinetic energy

.......................................................................................................................................

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.......................................................................................................................................

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.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................[5]

(ii) The mass spectrum of a sample of material showed the abundance of the two isotopes
as 16O, 99.64% and 18O, 0.3600%. Calculate a value for the relative atomic mass of oxygen
based on these figures.
Give your answer to four significant figures.

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

relative atomic mass = ............................ [3]

4. The mass spectrum below belongs to a compound containing carbon ,

oxygen and hydrogen only.

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Name _________________________ Date ________________

a) Why does it have more than one peak

………………………………………………………………………………(1)

.Glossary
Relative mass, relative abundance, mass/charge ratio (m/z), vaporisation, ionisation,
unipositive ion, acceleration, deflection, mass spectrum, relative atomic mass, relative
molecular mass

ICT Search the internet to find the values of the first ionisation energies. Use excel to
plot first ionisation energies against atomic number for the first 30 elements. Please
use different colours for the points and lines for each of the periods to allow you to
spot the trend across the period and down the group

Ionisation Energy

Learning Objectives
 State the definition for first ionisation energy
 Write equations for first and successive ionisation energies
 Describe the trend in ionization energies a) down the group and b)
across the period in terms of electron configurations
 Explain why is the increase in ionisation energies across a period not regular?
 Explain how first and successive ionisation energies in Period 3 (Na-Ar)
and in Group 2 (Be-Ba) give evidence for electron configuration in sub-
shells and in shells.

First Ionisation energy

The ionisation of an atom involves the loss of an electron to form a positive ion.

28
Name _________________________ Date ________________

The first ionisation energy is defined as the energy required to remove one mole of
electrons from a mole of isolated gaseous atoms e.g. Na (g)  Na+(g) + e-
The value of the ionisation energy depends on
 The size of the nuclear charge
 The energy of the electron removed (distance from nucleus)
As the size of the nuclear charge increases, so does the attractive force between the
positive nucleus and the negative outermost electron. More energy is needed to
overcome this force so the value of the ionisation energy increases.
As the energy of the electron increases it gets further from the nucleus so the
attractive force between the positive nucleus and the negative outermost electron
decreases. Less energy is needed to remove this electron and the ionisation energy
decreases.

1. Circle which element should have the highest first ionisation energy
a) K Li Na Rb
b) Mg Al Na

2. Which of the following equations represents the first ionisation energy of

magnesium
Mg (g)  Mg2+(g) + 2 e-
Mg (g)  Mg+(g) + e-
Mg (s)  Mg+(g) + e-
Trends across a period

3. Use your ICT graph to state the general trend in First Ionisation Energy
across a period?

………………………………………………………………………………(1)

Explanation -In general the first ionisation energy increases across a period. The
outermost electron is in the same principal energy level but the nuclear charge is
increasing so the nucleus attracts the outermost electron more strongly and it is
increasingly difficult to remove. There are two breaks in the pattern. The first break
occurs Mg to Al. The first ionisation energy of aluminium is lower than for

29
Name _________________________ Date ________________

magnesium as the electron is removed from the 3psub-level rather than the 3s
sublevel in Magnesium . 3p is higher energy than 3s as it is further away from the
nucleus so less energy is needed to remove the outermost electron.
.Magnesium1s22s22p63s2 Aluminium1s22s22p63s23p1

↑
↑↓ ↑↓

The second break occurs between P and S. Both of these electrons are removed from
a 3p sublevel but in Phosphorus the 3p electron is in a singly occupied orbital and is
unpaired, whereas in Sulfur it is in a doubly occupied orbital and is paired so the
electrons repel each other. It is easier to remove an electron from a doubly occupied
orbital so the ionisation energy is lower

Phosphorus 1s22s22p63s23p3 Sulfur 1s22s22p63s23p4

↑↓ ↑ ↑
↑ ↑ ↑
↑↓
↑↓

The first ionisation energy increases only slightly across the transition series as
electrons are being added to an inner shell i.e. 3d shell as the protons are added to the
nucleus so they help to shield the outermost 4s electrons from the extra protons in the
nucleus

Trends down the group

4. Use your ICT graph to state the general trend in First Ionisation Energy
down the group?

...................................................................................................................................(1)

Explanation The first ionisation energy decreases down the group because the
outermost electron is further from the nucleus as there are more shells and it is more
shielded from the attraction of the nucleus by the inner electrons and is therefore more
easily lost.

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Name _________________________ Date ________________

Questions

5. Define the term first ionisation energy of magnesium (include a labelled

equation with states)

………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………(2).

6. Explain why magnesium has a higher first ionisation energy than

sodium ?

………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………(2).

7. Explain why magnesium has a higher first ionisation energy than

aluminium ?

………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………(2)

8. Explain why sodium has a lower first ionisation energy than neon ?

………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………(2)

9. Explain why sulfur has a lower first ionisation energy than phosphorus

………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………(2)

10. Tick which of the below the your plot of first ionisation energies gives
evidence for
a) Main energy levels
b) Sub-levels

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Name _________________________ Date ________________

c) Orbitals

Successive Ionisation Energies

It becomes harder to remove each successive electron as once an electron is removed
from an atom or ion the remaining electrons are more strongly attracted to the nucleus

The second ionisation energy is defined as the energy required to remove one mole
of electrons from a mole of isolated gaseous singly charged ions e.g. Na+ (g) 
Na2+(g) + e-

First Ionisation Energy Na (g)  Na+(g) + e-

Second Ionisation Energy Na+( (g)  Na2+(g) + e-

Electrons are removed
Third Ionisation Energy Na2+(g) Na3+(g) + e- from a positive ion

Fourth Ionisation Energy Na3+(g) Na4+(g) + e-

It becomes increasingly difficult to remove electrons as you have to remove electrons

from an increasingly positive ion

11. Write down equations to show the first , second and third ionisation
energies for calcium

1st ……………………………………………………………………….

2nd ………………………………………………………………………

3rd ………………………………………………………………………(3)

12. ICT For the element calcium use excel to plot log10 (I.E.) against the
number of electrons lost, using the data in the table below (10)

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Name _________________________ Date ________________

No of electrons lost Ionisation energy (I.E.)/ kJmol Log10 (I.E.)

-1

1 590 2.77
2 1145 3.06
3 4912 3.69
4 6474 3.81
5 8145 3.91
6 10496 4.02
7 12320 4.09
8 14207 4.15
9 18192 4.26
10 20385 4.31
11 57048 4.76
12 63333 4.80
13 70052 4.85
14 78792 4.90
15 86367 4.94
16 94000 4.97
17 104900 5.02
18 111600 5.05
19 494790 5.69
20 527759 5.72

a) Why are you plotting Log10 (I.E) and not just ionisation energy ?

…………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………(1)

b) Explain why there are large increases in ionisation energy between 2/3,
10/11 and 18/19 electrons removed

…………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………(2)

c) Tick which of the below the your plot of successive ionisation energies
gives evidence for

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Name _________________________ Date ________________

a. Main energy levels

b. Sub-levels
c. Orbitals

There will be a sharp increase in the successive ionisation energy as an electron is

removed from an inner shell. The use of a logarithmic plot condenses the graph. First
ionisation energies gives evidence of main energy levels, sub-levels and orbitals but
the successive ionisation energies only gives evidence for the main energy levels

Glossary
First ionisation energy, unipositive cation, principal energy level, effective nuclear
charge, successive ionization energies

Exam Style Questions

Q1.          In one model of atomic structure, the atom has a nucleus surrounded
by electrons in levels and sub-levels.

(a)     Define the term atomic number.

......................................................................................................................
(1)
(b)     Explain why atoms of an element may have different mass numbers.

......................................................................................................................
(1)

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Name _________________________ Date ________________

(c)     The table below refers to a sample of krypton.

 
Relative m/z 82 83 84 86

Relative abundance / % 12 12 50 26

(i) Name an instrument which is used to measure the relative abundance of

isotopes.

.............................................................................................................

(ii) Define the term relative atomic mass.

.............................................................................................................

(iii)     Calculate the relative atomic mass of this sample of krypton.

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................
(5)

(d)     Give the complete electronic configuration of krypton in terms of s, p and

d sub-levels.

......................................................................................................................
(1)

(e)     In 1963, krypton was found to react with fluorine. State why this
discovery was unexpected.

......................................................................................................................
(1)

(f) Use a suitable model of atomic structure to explain the following experimental
observations.

(i)      The first ionisation energy of krypton is greater than that of bromine.

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

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Name _________________________ Date ________________

(ii)     The first ionisation energy of aluminium is less than the first ionisation
energy of magnesium.

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................
(4)
(Total 13 marks)

 Q2.      

(a)     State, in terms of the fundamental particles present, the meaning of the
term isotopes.

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................
(1)

(b)     An atom contains one more proton than, but the same number of neutrons as, an
atom of S. Deduce the symbol, including the mass number and the atomic number, of
36

this atom.

......................................................................................................................
(2)

(c)     The table below gives the relative abundance of each isotope in a mass
spectrum of a sample of germanium, Ge.
 
m/z 70 72 74

Relative abundance (%) 24.4 32.4 43.2

(i)      Complete the electron arrangement of a Ge atom.

1s .......................................................................................................
2 

(ii)     Use the data above to calculate the relative atomic mass of this sample of
germanium. Give your answer to one decimal place.

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

(iv)    One of the isotopes of Ge, given in the table in part (c), has an ion that

36
Name _________________________ Date ________________

forms a small peak in the mass spectrum which is indistinguishable from a peak
produced by
S ions. Identify this Ge ion and explain your answer.
36 +

Ion .......................................................................................................

Explanation .........................................................................................

.............................................................................................................
(8)
(Total 11 marks)

 Q3.(a)    State the meaning of the term mass number of an isotope.

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................(1)

(b)     Give the symbol of the element that has an isotope with a mass
number of 68 and has 38 neutrons in its nucleus.

...............................................................................................................(1)

(c)      In a mass spectrometer, the isotopes of an element are separated.

Two measurements for each isotope are recorded on the mass spectrum.

State the two measurements that are recorded for each isotope.

Measurement
1 ....................................................................................

Measurement
2 ....................................................................................
(2)

(d)     A sample of element R contains isotopes with mass numbers of 206, 207 and
208 in a 1:1:2 ratio of abundance.

(i)      Calculate the relative atomic mass of R. Give your answer to one decimal
place.

...............................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................

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Name _________________________ Date ________________

...............................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................
(3)

(ii)     Identify R.

...............................................................................................................
(1)

(iii)    All the isotopes of R react in the same way with concentrated nitric acid.

State why isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties.

...............................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................

Extra space) ........................................................................................

...............................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 11 marks)

Q4.The element rubidium exists as the isotopes Rb and Rb 85 87

(a)     State the number of protons and the number of neutrons in an atom
of the isotope Rb 85

Number of
protons .........................................................................................

Number of
neutrons .......................................................................................
(

(b)     (i)      Explain how the gaseous atoms of rubidium are ionised in a

mass spectrometer

...............................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................

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Name _________________________ Date ________________

...............................................................................................................
(2)

(ii)     Write an equation, including state symbols, to show the process that occurs
when the first ionisation energy of rubidium is measured.

...............................................................................................................
(1)

(c)     The table shows the first ionisation energies of rubidium and someother
elements in the same group.
 
Element sodium potassium rubidium

First ionisation 494 418 402

energy / kJ mol –1

State one reason why the first ionisation energy of rubidium is lower than the
first ionisation energy of sodium.

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................
(1)

(d)     (i)      State the block of elements in the Periodic Table that contains
rubidium.

...............................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)     Deduce the full electron configuration of a rubidium atom.

...............................................................................................................
(1)

(e)     A sample of rubidium contains the isotopes Rb and Rb only. 85 87

The isotope Rb has an abundance 2.5 times greater than that of Rb

85 87

Calculate the relative atomic mass of rubidium in this sample.

Give your answer to one decimal place.

........................................................................................................................

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 Name _________________________ Date ________________

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................
(3)

(f)      By reference to the relevant part of the mass spectrometer, explain how
the abundance of an isotope in a sample of rubidium is determined.

Name of relevant part ....................................................................................

Explanation ....................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................
(2)

(g)     Predict whether an atom of Sr will have an atomic radius that is larger than,
88

smaller than or the same as the atomic radius of Rb. Explain your answer. 87

Atomic radius of Sr compared to Rb .........................................................

88 87

Explanation ....................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 16 marks)

Q5.(a)     Use your knowledge of electron configuration and ionisation energies to

answer this question. The following diagram shows the second ionisation
energies of some Period 3 elements.

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Name _________________________ Date ________________

(i)      Draw an ‘X’ on the diagram to show the second ionisation energy of

sulfur.
(1)

(ii)     Write the full electron configuration of the Al ion. 2+

...............................................................................................................
(1)

(iii)    Write an equation to show the process that occurs when the second ionisation
energy of aluminium is measured.

...............................................................................................................
(1)

(iv)    Give one reason why the second ionisation energy of silicon is lower than the
second ionisation energy of aluminium.

...............................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................
(1)

(b)     Predict the element in Period 3 that has the highest second ionisation energy.
Give a reason for your answer.

Element ........................................................................................................

Reason .................................................................................................
........

..............................................................................................................
..........

..............................................................................................................
..........

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Name _________________________ Date ________________

(2)

(c)     The following table gives the successive ionisation energies of an element in
Period 3.
 
    First Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth

Ionisation energy /
  786 1580 3230 4360 16100 19800
kJ mol −1

Identify this element.

........................................................................................................................
(1)

(d)     Explain why the ionisation energy of every element is endothermic.

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................

(Extra space) .................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 8 marks)

42